UGC NET Psychology Notes PDF

UGC NET Psychology Checklist Topic Key Points to Cover Status (✔/❌) 1. Emergence of Psychology Eastern Systems: B...

UGC NET Psychology Checklist Topic Key Points to Cover Status (✔/❌) 1. Emergence of Psychology Eastern Systems: Bhagavad Gita, Buddhism, Sufism, Integral Yoga Indian Psychology: Pre/post-independence, 1970s (social issues), 1980s (indigenization), 1990s (identity crisis), 2000s Western Psychology: Structuralism, Functionalism, Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Humanistic, Cognitive, Multiculturalism Founders: Wundt, Freud, James, Dilthey Paradigms: Positivism, Post-positivism, Social Constructionism, Existential Phenomenology, Indian paradigms 2. Research Methodology Research problems, Variables, Hypotheses, Sampling, Ethics Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed methods Observation, Survey, Experimental, Case Studies, Ethnography Measures of central tendency and dispersion, Normal Probability Curve Statistics Parametric (t-test), Non-parametric (Sign Test, Wilcoxon, Mann-Whitney, Kruskal-Wallis) Correlation (Product Moment, Rank Order, Partial, Multiple), Regression (Simple, Multiple) ANOVA, MANOVA, ANCOVA, Factor Analysis 3. Psychological Testing Types of tests, Test construction (item writing, analysis), Reliability, Validity, Norms Intelligence, Creativity, Aptitude, Personality, Neuropsychological tests Attitude Scales: Likert, Semantic Differential, Stapel Applications: Clinical, Organizational, Education, Counseling, Military 4. Biological Basis of Behavior Neurons, Synaptic transmission, CNS/PNS, Neuroplasticity Motivation: Hunger, Thirst, Sleep, Sex; Emotion: Limbic System, Hormonal regulation Genetics: Chromosomal anomalies, Nature-Nurture studies Methods: Invasive (Lesions, Degeneration), Non-invasive (EEG, Scans) 5. Attention, Perception, Attention: Models (Broadbent, Treisman) Learning, Memory, Forgetting Perception: Gestalt, Illusions, Perceptual constancy, Depth, Subliminal perception Learning: Thorndike, Classical/Operant Conditioning, Observational Learning Memory: Sensory, STM, LTM (episodic, semantic), Forgetting theories (Interference, Decay, Motivated forgetting) 6. Thinking, Intelligence, Thinking: Problem-solving, Decision-making models Creativity Intelligence Theories: Spearman, Gardner, Goleman, Thurstone  Creativity: Torrance, Guilford, Getzels 7. Personality, Motivation, Personality: Psychoanalytic, Trait, Humanistic, Cognitive Emotion, Stress approaches Motivation: Drives, Needs, Arousal theories, Achievement, Affiliation, Sensation Seeking Emotion: Theories (James-Lange, Schachter-Singer), Stress Models and Coping strategies 8. Social Psychology Group dynamics, Social influence (Conformity, Obedience), Aggression Applied Social Psychology: Health, Environment, Law 9. Human Development Developmental theories: Psychoanalytic, Behaviorist, Cognitive Psychotherapies: CBT, REBT, Positive Therapy, Family Therapy Educational Applications: Achievement, Teacher Effectiveness, Guidance and Counseling 10. Emerging Areas Gender, Poverty, Disability, Migration Well-being: Hedonic/Eudaimonic, Resilience, Post-Traumatic Growth Psychology and Technology: Digital etiquette, Cyberbullying Preparation Schedule Day Focus Areas Status (✔/❌) Day 1 Emergence of Psychology (Indian & Western perspectives, paradigms) Day 2 Research Basics (Sampling, Variables, Ethics) + Observation & Survey methods Day 3 Statistics (Central Tendency, Normal Curve, Parametric/Non-parametric tests) Day 4 Correlation, Regression, Experimental Designs Day 5 Psychological Testing + Applications Day 6 Biological Basis (CNS, PNS, Neurotransmitters, Motivation, Emotion) Day 7 Attention, Perception, Memory Day 8 Learning theories + Forgetting theories Day 9 Thinking, Intelligence, Creativity Day 10 Personality, Motivation, Stress Day 11 Social Psychology Day 12 Human Development & Psychotherapies Day 13 Emerging Areas + Mock Tests Day 14 Full Syllabus Revision + Mock Tests Emergence of Psychology Psychological thought in some major eastern systems o The roots of Eastern influence on Western thought trace back to the monumental encounter when Alexander the Great ventured into India in the 4th century BC, igniting a cross-cultural exchange that would shape philosophical discourse for centuries to come. o Renowned psychologists such as Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, William James, and Erich Fromm have delved deeply into the rich tapestry of Eastern psychological concepts, drawing inspiration from ancient wisdom to enrich their understanding of the human psyche.  o The Theosophical Movement of the 19th century played a pivotal role in illuminating Eastern philosophies, bridging the gap between East and West and fostering a greater appreciation for the profound insights found within Eastern traditions. o This fascinating interplay of ideas primarily stems from a diverse array of Indian philosophical traditions, including Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, Buddhism, and Jainism, as well as other ancient religious texts that continue to resonate with seekers of truth and wisdom today. Bhagavad Gita Structure: The Bhagavad Gita is part of the Mahabharata, specifically in the Bhishma Parva. Composed of 18 chapters (Yogas) and 701 slokas (verses). It is a dialogue between Lord Krishna (symbolizing divine intellect) and Arjuna (symbolizing the individual self), set on the battlefield of Kurukshetra. Two key chapters: o Arjuna Vishada Yoga (Sorrow of Arjuna): Focuses on Arjuna's existential crisis and emotional turmoil, representing human conflicts.  o Moksha Sanyasa Yoga (Renunciation): Concludes with the resolution of inner conflict and the attainment of liberation. Core Themes: 1. Dharma (Duty): o Central to maintaining psychological balance. o Encourages individuals to act based on ethics, responsibility, and moral decision-making. o Reflects on fulfilling one’s role in life without selfish motives. 2. Karmayoga (Path of Action): o Emphasizes selfless action without attachment to outcomes. o Serves as a therapeutic tool to resolve internal conflicts and restore functionality. 3. Jnanayoga (Path of Knowledge): o Focuses on self-realization and understanding the true nature of self and reality. o Encourages rational thinking and the pursuit of knowledge. 4. Bhaktiyoga (Path of Devotion): o Highlights devotion and surrender to a higher power or divine entity. o Encourages emotional bonding with the divine, promoting transcendence and spiritual growth. Psychological Model: The Bhagavad Gita uses the Chariot Metaphor to represent human life and the psyche: o Chariot (Body): Represents the physical self. o Krishna (Intellect): The charioteer, symbolizing higher cognitive abilities. o Arjuna (Self): Represents the ego and consciousness. o Horses (Senses): Uncontrolled desires and senses that need guidance. o Reins (Mind): Represents the mind controlling the senses. o Battleground (Life): Symbolizes daily struggles and life challenges. The model highlights the importance of integrating intellect, mind, and self for optimal functioning. Buddhism Four Noble Truths: 1. Dukkha (Suffering): o Suffering is inherent to life. o Encompasses pain, dissatisfaction, and impermanence. 2. Samudaya (Origin of Suffering): o The root cause is Tanha (craving or desire). o Desires are categorized into: ▪ Greed: Overattachment to material and emotional gains. ▪ Ignorance: Misunderstanding of reality. ▪ Hatred: Destructive emotions and actions. 3. Nirodha (Cessation of Suffering): o Liberation is possible by overcoming attachments and cravings. o Leads to Nirvana, a state of ultimate peace and joy. 4. Magga (Path to Cessation): o The way to end suffering is through the Eightfold Path. Eightfold Path: Divided into three categories: 1. Ethical Conduct: o Right Speech: Speaking truthfully and avoiding harmful words. o Right Action: Acting ethically and avoiding harm to others. o Right Livelihood: Choosing a profession that does not harm others.  2. Mental Discipline: o Right Effort: Cultivating positive mental states. o Right Mindfulness: Awareness of body, feelings, and mind. o Right Concentration: Developing deep mental focus. 3. Wisdom: o Right Understanding: Comprehending the nature of reality. o Right Intention: Maintaining the right mindset and goals. Sufism Four Stages of Spiritual Growth: 1. Shariah (Religious Law): o Foundation of morality and ethics. o Provides a structured path for spiritual and worldly actions. 2. Tariqah (The Path): o Focuses on inner devotion and practices like meditation and prayers. o Requires guidance from a Sheikh (Spiritual Teacher). 3. Haqiqah (Truth): o Direct realization of divine presence and truth. o Encourages personal spiritual experiences beyond imitation. 4. Marifah (Gnosis):  o Highest stage of wisdom and deep spiritual knowledge. o Realization of unity with the divine. Goals: Fana (Self-Dissolution): o Complete loss of ego and self-consciousness. o Leads to union with the divine. Baqa (Eternal Existence): o Continuation of existence in divine reality, beyond material attachments. Integral Yoga Definition: Ancient Indian philosophy that unites body, mind, and soul. Combines physical postures, breathing techniques, and meditation for holistic development. Types of Yoga: 1. Hatha Yoga: o Focuses on balancing pranic energy through physical postures and breathing techniques. 2. Jnana Yoga: o Pursuit of self-realization through wisdom and meditative awareness. 3. Bhakti Yoga: o Channeling emotions into devotion towards a higher power. 4. Karma Yoga:  o Performing actions with selflessness, without expecting rewards. 5. Raja Yoga: o Practices aimed at mastering the mind through meditation and concentration. 6. Swara Yoga: o Advanced technique focusing on breath control for cosmic connection and self-awareness. Psychology of Yoga Yoga provides a psychological framework for mental well-being, focusing on stages of mind and self- discipline. Five Stages of Citta (Mind): 1. Ksipta (Restless): o A distracted and hyperactive mind, like a child unable to focus during a lesson. 2. Mudha (Torpid): o A dull, lethargic state, such as feeling unmotivated to study despite having time. 3. Viksipta (Distracted): o A mind swaying between focus and distraction, like studying but getting pulled into phone notifications. 4. Ekagra (Concentrated): o A focused and calm mind, such as being completely absorbed in reading a favorite book. 5. Niruddha (Controlled): o The highest state where the mind is entirely under control, similar to maintaining inner peace in stressful situations. Eightfold Path (Ashtanga Yoga): 1. Yama (Ethics): o Practicing honesty and non-violence, like resolving conflicts peacefully. 2. Niyama (Discipline): o Personal habits, such as maintaining cleanliness and gratitude. 3. Asana (Postures): o Physical exercises to improve flexibility and calmness, like yoga poses after a long day. 4. Pranayama (Breath Control): o Regulating breathing to manage emotions, such as deep breathing during anxiety. 5. Pratyahara (Sense Withdrawal):  o Detachment from distractions, like ignoring unnecessary social media scrolling during exams. 6. Dharana (Concentration): o Focusing on one object or task, like meditating on a candle flame to enhance attention. 7. Dhyana (Meditation): o Deep meditation to observe thoughts without judgment. 8. Samadhi (Self-Realization): o Achieving ultimate peace and understanding of self. Academic Psychology in India ▪ Increased enrollment: A growing number of students are actively pursuing psychology degrees in India. ▪ Dynamic research landscape: Indian researchers are making significant contributions across clinical, social, developmental, cognitive, and educational psychology. ▪ Strong funding support: Key institutions like ICSSR and ICMR are backing psychology research projects. ▪ Establishment of institutes: Numerous psychological research institutes are being established, driving the field forward. ▪ Robust international collaboration: Indian psychologists are forging partnerships with global researchers, enhancing cross-cultural studies. ▪ Emphasis on indigenous psychology: There is a strong focus on developing psychological theories that resonate with the Indian context. ▪ Heightened mental health awareness: Public awareness of mental health issues is surging, fueling interest in psychological research. ▪ Real-world applications: Research findings are being effectively integrated into education, healthcare, and industry sectors. ▪ Thriving professional networks: The establishment of professional organizations for psychologists fosters collaboration and resource sharing. ▪ Interdisciplinary initiatives: Psychology is increasingly intersecting with sociology, medicine, and education, promoting collaborative research efforts. Pre- Independence Era ▪ Academic psychology emerged as a new field in pre-independence India. ▪ Early references to psychology date back to the 8th century with philosophers like Patanjali and Charaka. ▪ In the late 19th century, psychology became a distinct discipline with the establishment of universities like Calcutta and Madras. ▪ Influential psychologists included Brajendra Nasir and Girindra Sekar Bose. ▪ The Indian Psychological Association (IPA) was founded in 1916 to promote research and facilitate idea exchange. ▪ The IPA organized conferences on various psychological topics. ▪ Indian psychologists blended Western theories with Indian philosophy, including yoga and meditation.  ▪ This period laid the foundation for future growth in the field of psychology. Post-Independence Era (1950s-1960s) ▪ Significant growth in academic psychology following India's independence. ▪ Government investment in higher education; establishment of new universities and psychology departments. ▪ Indian psychologists began questioning Western theories, developing their own based on Indian culture and philosophy (Indian psychology). ▪ Exploration of traditional practices (yoga, meditation, Ayurveda) for mental health applications. ▪ Contributions to cross-cultural psychology by figures like H.C. Ganguly and Durganand Sinha. ▪ Establishment of the Indian Council for Social Science Research (ICSSR) in 1964 to fund psychological research. Addressing Social Issues (1980s) ▪ Increased focus on social issues: poverty, gender inequality, caste discrimination, community violence. ▪ Emergence of critical psychology, emphasizing social, economic, and political factors in psychological processes. ▪ Collaboration with community organizations and social activists to address social problems. ▪ Development of research and interventions relevant to marginalized communities. Indigenization Movement (1990s) ▪ Growing movement towards localization of psychology, recognizing the limitations of Western theories. ▪ Emergence of indigenous psychology, using local concepts and methods. ▪ Development of new theories based on traditional Indian practices (yoga, meditation, storytelling). ▪ Renewed interest in Indian philosophy and religion for psychological applications. Paradigmatic Concerns and Identity Crisis (2000s) ▪ Challenges in reconciling traditional Western approaches with culturally sensitive methods. ▪ Dominance of positivist and empirical approaches criticized for being narrow. ▪ Tension between establishing a distinct professional identity and maintaining international connections. ▪ Increased awareness of the need for interdisciplinary collaboration with fields like anthropology and sociology. ▪ Reflection and introspection leading to more holistic and contextually relevant approaches in psychology. Emergence of Indian Psychology in Academia Definition Challenges: Indian psychology lacks a universally accepted definition due to its diverse philosophical, religious, and cultural roots. Indian vs. Western Psychology: There are concerns that Indian psychology might challenge the longstanding dominance of Western psychology in academia.  Research Methodologies: The need for rigorous, culturally appropriate research methodologies that reflect Indian psychological complexities is crucial. Cultural Relevance: Many scholars argue that Western psychological theories may not fit well within India's cultural context, highlighting the need for culturally sensitive approaches. Potential for Growth: Despite challenges, the emergence of Indian psychology can enhance understanding of human behavior and mental processes, aiming for recognition in the broader psychological community. Colonial Encounter Cultural Imposition: Western colonizers imposed their cultural and social norms on colonized populations, viewing them as "primitive" and seeking to "civilize" them. Loss of Cultural Identity: This cultural dominance led to a loss of identity and an inferiority complex among colonized people, with traditional practices often suppressed. Economic Exploitation: Colonizers exploited natural resources for their gain, causing environmental degradation and economic underdevelopment in the colonies. Complex Impact: The colonial encounter significantly influenced both colonizers and colonized, reshaping identities and cultures through imposed norms and economic practices. Postcolonialism and Psychology Theoretical Perspective: Postcolonialism examines the social, cultural, and political legacies of colonialism and imperialism, focusing on their impact on contemporary society. Western Imposition: Postcolonial psychology critiques how Western psychological theories and practices have been imposed on non-Western cultures, affecting their mental health. Cultural Biases: Western psychology, developed in specific cultural contexts, is criticized for its limited applicability and inherent biases in non-Western settings, potentially leading to stigmatization. Culturally Sensitive Approaches: Postcolonial psychology advocates for integrating indigenous knowledge and practices into psychological research and developing collaborative relationships between Western and non-Western psychologists. Impact of Colonialism: The traumas associated with colonization, such as forced migration and cultural oppression, have long-term effects on the mental health of colonized individuals and communities. Challenging Dominance: Postcolonialism promotes a critical approach to psychology, questioning the dominance of Western theories and fostering a more inclusive field that values cultural context in understanding mental health. Lack of Distinct Disciplinary Identity Interdisciplinary Nature: Psychology often draws from multiple disciplines, leading to challenges in establishing a clear disciplinary identity due to varying theoretical frameworks and research methods.  Subfield Overlap: Many subfields in psychology, such as neuropsychology, blur boundaries, complicating communication and collaboration among researchers. Challenges in Professional Identity: The lack of a distinct identity can hinder funding opportunities and institutional support, as well as complicate defining the scope of various specialties. Common Values and Goals: Developing shared values and goals can help unite researchers across disciplines, promoting interdisciplinary collaboration and addressing real-world problems. Interdisciplinary Training: Establishing formal training programs and qualification systems can create a common knowledge base and professional identity for interdisciplinary researchers. Ongoing Dialogue: The issue of disciplinary identity requires continuous attention and dialogue within psychology, balancing the challenges of interdisciplinary research with opportunities for innovation in understanding human behavior. Historical Foundations of Western Psychology The roots of Western psychology trace back to Ancient Greece, where philosophers and scientists explored the mind, behavior, and human nature. Their insights laid the groundwork for modern psychology. Ancient Greek Philosophers Socrates (469–399 BCE): o He believed that virtue and self-awareness emerge from understanding one’s own thoughts and actions. o He viewed the psyche (soul) as the guiding force of human life, capable of distinguishing between good and bad. o Happiness, according to Socrates, comes not from material possessions but from living a life aligned with virtue and wisdom. Socratic Method: Core Ideas: o A teaching approach based on dialogue and o Socrates emphasized that knowledge questioning to stimulate critical thinking and resides within the individual and can be uncover underlying beliefs. accessed through introspection and self- o Encouraged students to reach conclusions reflection. by logical reasoning. Plato (427–347 BCE): o Proposed the tripartite soul: 1. Reason (located in the head): The rational part that seeks truth and knowledge. 2. Will (located in the chest): The spirited part responsible for courage and ambition. 3. Appetite (located in the Core Ideas: stomach): The part o A student of Socrates, Plato expanded on associated with desires his mentor’s ideas and introduced the and bodily needs. theory of forms, positing that ideas are o Believed the soul should strive to eternal, unchangeable truths that harmonize these parts, with reason represent the real essence of objects. guiding will and appetite. o He argued for the importance of ideas Introspection: over sensory observations, suggesting that sensory experiences are deceptive o Plato promoted introspective methods, and hinder true knowledge. encouraging individuals to look within themselves to understand eternal truths. Aristotle (384–322 BCE): Core Ideas: o A student of Plato, Aristotle diverged from his teacher’s ideas by emphasizing empirical methods—knowledge gained through observation and experience. o He rejected Plato’s view of innate knowledge and argued that learning is grounded in the senses. Associationism: o Aristotle introduced three principles of how ideas are linked in the mind: 1. Similarity: Ideas are connected by resemblance (e.g., apple and orange as fruits).  2. Contiguity: Ideas are associated ▪ Perception: Gaining information through closeness in time or space through sensory organs. (e.g., thunder and lightning). ▪ Thinking: Analyzing and reasoning. 3. Contrast: Ideas are linked by their ▪ Procreation: Ensuring the survival opposites (e.g., day and night). of the species. Functions of Humans: o Viewed humans as biological organisms o Highlighted key human functions, whose behaviors are shaped by their including: environment and goals. Hippocrates (460–370 BCE): 1. Sanguine (blood): Cheerful, optimistic, and active. 2. Choleric (yellow bile): Angry, aggressive, and assertive. 3. Melancholic (black bile): Sad, reflective, and introverted. 4. Phlegmatic (phlegm): Calm, passive, and stable. Core Ideas: o Balanced humors were considered o Known as the "Father of Medicine," essential for good health and emotional Hippocrates shifted the explanation of well-being. human behavior from divine intervention to natural causes. Significance: o Proposed the theory of four humors, o His theory influenced early approaches to suggesting that bodily fluids determine mental health and inspired later personality and temperament: classifications of personality types. Rene Descartes (1596–1650): Mind-Body Dualism: o Descartes proposed that the mind and body are distinct entities but interact through the pineal gland. o The mind is non-material, responsible for thought and consciousness. o The body is mechanical and follows the laws of o Described reflexes as automatic bodily physics. responses to external stimuli. Mechanistic View: Significance: o Viewed the body as a machine, operating o Descartes’ dualism laid the foundation for through "animal spirits" that flow through studying the interaction between mental nerves, causing movement and sensations. processes and physical actions, influencing fields like neuroscience. John Locke (1632–1704): Tabula Rasa (Blank Slate): o Locke argued that the mind is a blank slate at birth, with no pre-existing ideas or knowledge. o All knowledge is acquired through experience and sensory input. o This empiricist view challenged earlier notions of innate ideas, emphasizing the role of learning and environment in shaping behavior. Learning and Development: o Advocated for education and upbringing as critical factors in human development. o Locke's ideas influenced the development of behaviorism and other learning theories. Structuralism Founder: Wundt and his Criticism: student, Edward Wilhelm Wundt, regarded Reductionist: Focused Titchener, used as the "Father of only on breaking down introspection as their Psychology," established consciousness into primary method. the first experimental elements, ignoring the psychology lab in 1879 in o Introspection: A complexity of holistic Leipzig, Germany. systematic process experiences. where trained Focus: Limited Applicability: participants analyzed Neglected practical Structuralism aimed to and reported their behavior, emotions, identify the basic own conscious and actions. elements of experiences in consciousness, such as response to stimuli Excluded non-verbal sensations, feelings, (e.g., describing individuals like and thoughts. sensations after children or those with hearing a bell). speech impairments. Functionalism Founder: Focus: occur and how they help organisms survive. William James, often Functionalism studied the called the "Father of functions of mental Applications: American Psychology," processes in enabling Education: introduced individuals to adapt to Understanding functionalism, their environment. learning processes and emphasizing the stream Instead of breaking down improving teaching of consciousness (the consciousness, methods. continuous flow of functionalists explored thoughts and feelings). o For example, analyzing why mental processes how memory aids in  problem-solving for Applied Psychology: efficiency, and students. Practical solutions in adaptation to societal industry, work changes. Gestalt Psychology Key Figures: Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler developed Gestalt psychology in the early 20th century. Principles: The central idea is “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” o Example: A melody is more than individual musical notes; it is the arrangement that creates the experience. Laws of Perception: 1. Proximity: Elements close 4. Good Continuation: We rather than a collection of together are perceived as a prefer smooth and individual parts. group. continuous lines. o For example, when viewing an image of a o Example: Dots grouped o Example: Two intersecting book, we see it as one closely are seen as a single lines are perceived as two item rather than as shape. separate lines, not four multiple components broken ones. 2. Similarity: Similar items are (cover, back cover, and grouped together. 5. Pragnanz pages). o Prägnanz is a German 6. Figure and ground o Example: Circles and squares relationship word meaning "pithiness" in a pattern are perceived as or "orderliness." separate groups. o Figure-Ground principle o This law indicates that the indicates how we discern 3. Closure: The mind fills gaps mind seeks simplicity and the foreground from to perceive a complete order when perceiving background based on object. images. contrast. o People tend to perceive o Example: A circle with a gap images as whole units is still seen as a circle. Psychoanalysis Founder: Sigmund Freud, in the late 19th century, developed psychoanalysis to explain unconscious motivations behind behavior. Personality Structure: Freud proposed a tripartite model of personality: 1. Id: Instinctual drives 2. Ego: Rational self, 3. Superego: Moral (e.g., hunger, balancing the id and conscience, aggression) operating external reality influenced by societal on the pleasure (operates on the norms. principle. reality principle). Psychosexual Stages: Freud’s stages of personality development are: 1. Oral Stage (0–1 (e.g., toilet 4. Latency Stage (6– year): Focus on training). 12 years): Social mouth (e.g., and intellectual 3. Phallic Stage (3–6 sucking, biting). development. years): Awareness 2. Anal Stage (1–3 of gender 5. Genital Stage (12+ years): Focus on differences. years): Sexual bowel control  maturity and adult relationships. Methods: Dream Analysis: Interpreting dreams to uncover unconscious desires. Free Association: Encouraging patients to speak freely to reveal hidden conflicts. 5. Behaviorism Founder: John Watson established behaviorism in the early 20th century, rejecting introspection and focusing on observable behavior. Focus: Behaviorism studies the relationship between stimulus (external event) and response (behavior).  Believed behavior is learned through conditioning. Contributions: 1. Thorndike’s Law of Effect: o Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to recur. 2. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning: o Learning occurs through reinforcement (rewards) and punishment. o Example: A child receives a candy for completing homework, reinforcing the behavior. 6. Humanism Key Figures: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow developed humanism as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Core Ideas: 1. Free Will: o Humans have the freedom to make choices and shape their lives. 2. Personal Growth: o Individuals are inherently motivated to achieve their full potential. 3. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: o A pyramid of human needs: 1. Physiological Needs: Food, water, shelter. 2. Safety Needs: Security, stability. 3. Love/Belonging: Relationships, family. 4. Esteem: Respect, achievement. 5. Self-Actualization: Realizing one’s full potential. 4. Rogers’ Self-Concept: o A positive self-concept arises from unconditional positive regard (acceptance and love without conditions). Comparison of Schools: School Focus Methods Key Contribution Structuralism Basic elements of Introspection Laid foundation for consciousness experimental psychology. Functionalism Functions of mental Observation, applied Focused on adaptability and processes studies education. Gestalt Perception and holistic Laws of Perception Showed the importance of Psychology experiences "whole" over "parts." Psychoanalysis Unconscious mind and Dream analysis, free Explored inner conflicts and childhood influences association motivations. Behaviorism Observable behavior and Experiments (e.g., Developed learning theories conditioning Skinner box) and reinforcement. Humanism Free will, self-growth, and Client-centered Emphasized personal potential personal meaning therapy and positivity. Emergence of Psychology 1. Bhagavad Gita Themes o Nirodha (Cessation of starting with a map Suffering) (Shariah), a guide Mnemonic: "Dharma- (Tariqah), truth Karma-Jnana-Bhakti" (like o Magga (Path to revealed (Haqiqah), a mantra to remember Cessation). and reaching Duty, Action, Knowledge, Retrieval Cue: Imagine enlightenment and Devotion). a muddy path (Marifah). Retrieval Cue: Visualize a (representing 4. Five Stages of Citta (Mind) chariot with Krishna suffering) leading to a (Intellect) guiding Arjuna clear, sunny path Mnemonic: "Kids (Self) using reins (Mind) to (nirvana). Must Value Every control the horses Note" 3. Sufism’s Four Stages of (Senses). Spiritual Growth o Ksipta (Restless), 2. Buddhism’s Four Noble Mudha (Torpid), Mnemonic: "She Talks Truths Viksipta (Distracted), Honestly Mostly" Ekagra Mnemonic: "Don’t o Shariah (Law), Tariqah (Concentrated), Stick Near Mud" (Path), Haqiqah Niruddha o Dukkha (Suffering) (Truth), Marifah (Controlled). (Gnosis). o Samudaya (Origin of Retrieval Cue: Imagine Suffering) Retrieval Cue: the stages as students Visualize a journey in a classroom,  progressing from distraction to total focus. Western Psychology: Mnemonics 1. Ancient Greek Philosophers Latency, each level representing a Genital. need. Mnemonic for Order: "Some People Are Happy" Retrieval Cue: Visualize a parrot pecking at grapes at o Socrates, Plato, Schools of Psychology different life stages. Aristotle, Mnemonic Hippocrates. 3. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Mnemonic: "Seven Needs Retrieval Cue: Picture Friendly Gestures Pay these philosophers seated Mnemonic: "Please Stop Back Humanity" at a symposium table. Loving Every Soul" o Structuralism, 2. Freud’s Psychosexual o Physiological, Safety, Functionalism, Stages Love/Belonging, Esteem, Gestalt Self-Actualization. Psychology, Mnemonic: "Old Age Psychoanalysis Parrots Like Grapes" Retrieval Cue: Picture , Behaviorism, climbing a pyramid with o Oral, Anal, Humanism. Phallic, Knowledge Paradigms in Psychology Paradigm Key Concepts Strengths Criticism Positivism - Objective reality exists.- - Strong in natural - Ignores subjective Knowledge through sciences.- Reliable, experiences.- observation and replicable findings. Reductionist. experimentation.- Quantitative methods. Post-Positivism - Reality exists but can be - Acknowledges - Still leans toward imperfectly known.- Knowledge research biases.- objectivity.- Limited in is probabilistic.- Mixed Flexible methods. explaining deep methods. subjective phenomena. Critical - Emphasis on power, ideology, - Addresses social - Often lacks empirical Perspectives and societal structures.- inequalities.- Gives rigor.- Subjectivity in Challenges dominant voice to marginalized interpretation. paradigms. groups. Social - Reality is socially constructed.- - Explains cultural - Overlooks biological Constructionism Focus on language, culture, and differences.- factors.- Relativistic context. Emphasizes diversity. stance.  Existential - Focus on individual lived - Deep insights into - Difficult to generalize.- Phenomenology experiences.- Subjective human experiences.- Methodological interpretation of meaning. Rich qualitative data. challenges. Co-operative - Collaborative research.- - Inclusive and - Risk of biases.- Time- Inquiry Involves participants as co- empowering.- intensive. researchers.- Focus on practical Combines practice and outcomes. theory. Paradigmatic Controversies Aspect Controversy Objectivity vs Subjectivity Debate on whether knowledge should be entirely objective or accommodate subjective insights. Universalism vs Whether theories are universally applicable or context-specific. Contextualism Science vs Spirituality Tension between empirical methods and spiritual/experiential knowledge. Significant Indian Paradigms in Psychological Knowledge Paradigm Key Concepts Psychological Implications Yoga - Integration of mind, body, and spirit.- - Enhances mental clarity and emotional Practices include Asanas, Pranayama, and regulation.- Builds self-discipline and meditation. awareness. Bhagavad Gita - Dharma (duty), Karma (action), and - Promotes resilience and stress detachment.- Focus on selflessness and management.- Encourages ethical inner balance. decision-making. Buddhism - Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path.- - Mindfulness-based interventions.- Mindfulness and impermanence. Understanding suffering and emotional detachment. Sufism - Inner purification and union with the - Reduces ego-driven behaviors.- Divine.- Emphasis on love and devotion. Enhances spiritual well-being. Integral Yoga (Sri - Synthesis of physical, mental, and - Holistic development.- Fosters spiritual Aurobindo) spiritual growth.- Self-realization as the awakening. ultimate goal. Science and Spirituality: Avidya and Vidya Concept Explanation Avidya - Misperception of reality.- Root cause of suffering.- Material attachments. (Ignorance) Vidya - True understanding of self and reality.- Leads to liberation (Moksha). (Knowledge) Integration - Science addresses the external world; spirituality addresses the internal.- Both essential for holistic growth. Primacy of Self-Knowledge in Indian Psychology Aspect Explanation Self as the - Self-knowledge is the foundation of psychological well-being.- Emphasis on inner Core transformation. Techniques - Meditation, self-reflection, and introspection.- Practices from Yoga and Vedantic traditions. Relevance - Helps manage emotions and mental health.- Builds resilience and authenticity. End of module 1 Research Overview Aspect What It Means Catchy Line Meaning Finding answers, solving problems, or learning new "Research digs deep to discover the things. truth!" Purpose Why we do research: "Explore, explain, and solve problems!" Explore Discover something new. "Uncover the unknown!" Describe Give details about a topic. "Paint the full picture!" Explain Understand the reasons behind things. "Why does it happen?" Predict Guess what might happen next. "Look into the future!" Solve Fix a problem or find a solution. "The answer to problems!" Dimension Types Examples Catchy Line By Purpose Basic Research Studying black holes. "For pure knowledge!" Applied Finding a cure for diseases. "Solve real-world problems!" Research By Method Quantitative Surveys, experiments. "Numbers tell the story!" Qualitative Interviews, observations. "Hear the voices, see the patterns!" By Time Cross-sectional A single snapshot (e.g., one-time "One moment in time!" Frame survey). Longitudinal Study over many years (e.g., "Track over time!" population growth). By Scope Descriptive Facts and details (e.g., weather data). "What is happening?" Explanatory Cause and effect (e.g., why plants "Why is it happening?" grow). Topic Key Points Simple Explanation Research - Clear, focused, and researchable A research problem is the question your Problems questions. study aims to answer, e.g., "Why do some people develop anxiety?" - Identifies gaps in knowledge or real- It focuses on what is unknown or world issues. unresolved. - Guides the entire research process. The problem shapes your study’s purpose and methods. Variables - Independent Variable (IV): The cause E.g., Amount of sleep (IV) affects memory or factor manipulated. performance. - Dependent Variable (DV): The E.g., Memory performance (DV) depends on outcome or effect measured. the amount of sleep. - Control Variables: Factors kept E.g., All participants study the same material constant to avoid bias. to test memory. Operational - Defines variables in measurable E.g., Memory = "number of words recalled Definitions terms. from a list." - Ensures clarity and replicability of Helps other researchers understand exactly research. what you measured. Hypotheses - Null Hypothesis (H₀): States no E.g., "Sleep has no effect on memory." relationship between variables. - Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): Predicts E.g., "More sleep improves memory." a relationship or effect. - Should be testable and falsifiable. A hypothesis must be something you can prove or disprove with data. Sampling - Population: The entire group of E.g., All college students. interest. - Sample: A smaller group selected E.g., 100 college students from different from the population. universities. - Types of Sampling:  - Random Sampling: Everyone has an Best for unbiased results. equal chance of selection. - Convenience Sampling: Easy-to-reach E.g., Friends or classmates. participants. - Stratified Sampling: Ensures E.g., Equal male and female participants. subgroups are represented. Ethics in - Obtain informed consent: Ensure participants know what they’re Research Participants agree after understanding getting into. risks and benefits. - Ensure confidentiality: Protect Keep their information private. participants' identities and data. - Avoid harm: Minimize risks and Protect participants from physical or ensure well-being. psychological harm. - Follow honesty in reporting: Avoid Be truthful in sharing your results. fabricating or misrepresenting data. Paradigms of - Quantitative: Focuses on numbers E.g., Experiment measuring stress levels. Research and statistical analysis. - Qualitative: Focuses on E.g., Interviewing people about their coping understanding experiences and strategies. meanings. - Mixed Methods: Combines both E.g., A survey (quantitative) followed by approaches for a comprehensive view. interviews (qualitative). Methods of - Experimental: Tests cause-and-effect E.g., Testing how sleep affects attention. Research relationships. - Survey: Collects data through E.g., Measuring job satisfaction. questionnaires or interviews. - Case Study: In-depth study of one E.g., Analyzing the behavior of a patient with person or a small group. a rare disorder. - Ethnography: Studies cultural or E.g., Observing classroom behavior in social groups in their natural setting. schools. - Correlational: Examines relationships E.g., How stress relates to academic between variables without performance. manipulation. - Longitudinal: Studies the same group E.g., Tracking personality changes over over a long period. decades.  Ethnography - Immerses the researcher in the E.g., Living with a tribal group to study their culture or community being studied. rituals and daily life. - Involves participant observation and Researcher acts as an observer and field notes. participant. Imporatnt points: Research Method Definition Types / Subcategories Research Approaches used to Includes both qualitative and quantitative methods. Methods in collect, analyze, and Psychology interpret data to answer psychological questions. Interviews A method of collecting Structured: Pre-determined questions, fixed qualitative data through order.Semi-structured: Flexible questions, allowing for direct interaction between elaboration.Unstructured: Open-ended questions, the researcher and conversation-like, based on participant’s participant. responses.Focus group interviews involve group discussions on a specific topic. Questionnaires A written set of questions Closed-Ended: Respondents choose from a set of used to gather self- options.Open-Ended: Respondents can answer in their reported data from own words.Likert Scale: Respondents rate their participants, commonly agreement/disagreement with statements.Semantic used in surveys. Differential Scale: Respondents rate attitudes based on opposite adjectives (e.g., good-bad). Observation A method where the Naturalistic: Observing in a natural setting without researcher watches and interference.Controlled: Researcher manipulates the records behaviors of environment.Participant: Researcher becomes part of participants in a natural or the group being observed.Non-participant: Researcher controlled environment. observes without being involved. Quasi- A study that examines the Non-equivalent groups design: Groups differ on pre- Experimental effect of an independent existing characteristics.Time-series design: Observes Studies variable on a dependent effects over time, often before and after an variable without random intervention.Matched groups: Participants matched on assignment of relevant characteristics to control for confounding participants. variables. Field Studies Research conducted Ethnography: A deep immersion in the culture or outside of the laboratory context being studied.Case Study: In-depth analysis of in a natural setting. one or a few individuals or events.Survey research: Collection of data from a large sample, typically through questionnaires or interviews. Cross-Cultural Research comparing Comparative Studies: Comparing behaviors, beliefs, Studies psychological phenomena and attitudes across cultures.Emic Approach: Studying across different cultures to behavior from within the cultural context.Etic understand cultural Approach: Comparing behaviors across cultures, variations and similarities. considering universal aspects. Phenomenology A qualitative research Descriptive Phenomenology: Focuses on describing the approach focusing on the experience itself.Interpretive Phenomenology: Focuses lived experiences and on interpreting the meaning of experiences, influenced perceptions of individuals by the researcher's perspective. regarding a particular phenomenon. Grounded Theory A qualitative research Open Coding: Breaking data into categories.Axial method aimed at Coding: Relating categories to each other.Selective generating theory based Coding: Developing core categories that explain the on data collected through data as a whole. interviews, observations, or other forms of data collection. Focus Groups A qualitative research Homogeneous Focus Groups: Participants have similar method where a small characteristics.Heterogeneous Focus Groups: group of participants Participants from different backgrounds, encouraging discusses a specific topic diverse perspectives. to gather insights. Narratives A research approach Life History Narrative: Focuses on the participant’s where participants share entire life.Personal Experience Narrative: Focuses on personal stories or life specific incidents or experiences within the events to understand their participant’s life. experiences and construct meaning. Case Studies In-depth, qualitative Individual Case Study: Focus on one individual’s life or investigations of a single experience.Collective Case Study: Focus on a group or individual, group, or multiple cases for comparison.Instrumental Case Study: event, used to explore Used to understand a broader issue through one case psychological phenomena study. in detail. Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion Central Tendency (MMM: Mean, Median, Mode) 1. Mean o The arithmetic average of a set of numbers, calculated by summing all values and dividing by the total number of values. o Mnemonic: "Mean is the machine that averages the scene!" o Properties: ▪ Sensitive to extreme values (outliers). ▪ Best used for interval or ratio data. 2. Median o The middle value in a set of ordered numbers. If the number of values is odd, it is the exact middle number. If the number of values is even, it is the average of the two middle values. o Mnemonic: "Median is the queen of the middle line!" o Properties: ▪ Not affected by outliers or skewed data. ▪ Best used for ordinal or skewed data. 3. Mode o The value that appears most frequently in a dataset. o Mnemonic: "Mode loves to repeat, it’s the one you’ll often meet!" o Properties: ▪ Can have more than one mode (bimodal, multimodal). ▪ Useful for categorical or nominal data. Dispersion (RVS: Range, Variance, Standard Deviation) 1. Range o The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset. o Mnemonic: "Range spreads out, from max to min, no doubt!" o Properties: ▪ Simple to calculate but very sensitive to outliers. 2. Variance o The average of the squared differences from the mean, measuring the spread of data points. o Mnemonic: "Variance squares the gaps to measure the wraps!" o Properties: ▪ Provides a measure of variability, but in squared units of the original data. 3. Standard Deviation  o The square root of variance, representing the average distance from the mean. o Mnemonic: "Standard deviation roots the spread for a smoother thread!" o Properties: ▪ Most widely used measure of dispersion, showing how spread out the data is. Normal Probability Curve A symmetric, bell-shaped curve that represents the distribution of many types of data, where most values cluster around the mean and fewer values appear as you move away from the mean. Properties: o Mean, median, and mode are all equal. o The distribution is symmetrical. o About 68% of data lies within one standard deviation of the mean, 95% within two, and 99.7% within three. Mnemonic: BELL - Balanced, Evenly distributed, Logic, Likelihood. Statistical Definition Types Example Mnemon Merits Demerits Properties/Addit Method s ic ional Notes Parametri Statistical t-test: Compares - Paired t- "NORMA - More - Requires - Requires data to c Tests tests that means between test L-T - powerful normality meet assumptions assume data two groups. Normal when assumption- (normality, follows a data, assumptions Sensitive to homogeneity of normal Testing are met- outliers- variance).- Suitable distribution means." Provide Cannot be for interval/ratio and deals exact used with data. with results- Can nominal/ord interval/rati identify inal data. o data. subtle differences. Non- Statistical - Sign Test- - Sign "SIMPLE - No - Less - Useful when data Parametri tests that do Wilcoxon Test- Test: Used R- assumptions powerful violates parametric not assume Mann-Whitney for paired Simple, about than assumptions.- Used c Tests normal Test- Kruskal- data.- Independe normality- parametric for ordinal/nominal distribution Wallis Test Wilcoxon: nt data, Flexible for tests when data or non-normal and can be Compares Minimal ordinal/nom assumptions distributions. used with ranks of assumptio inal data- are met- ordinal/nom two ns, Paired Robust May lose inal data. related (Wilcoxon against some detail groups.- ), Least outliers- or Mann- normality Applicable information Whitney: required, for small by working Compares Easy sample with ranks. ranks ranks, sizes. between Robust." two independe nt groups.- Kruskal- Wallis: Compares more than two independe nt groups. Correlatio Measures Pearson’s - Pearson: "CROSS - - Helps - Does not - Pearson: Ranges n the strength Correlation: Measures Correlatio identify imply from -1 to +1, with and Measures linear linear n, relationship causation.- 0 meaning no direction of relationships relationshi Relationsh s between Only correlation.- the between two p.- ip, Order variables.- measures Spearman: Used for relationship continuous Spearman: (Rank), Can be the strength ordinal data or non- between variables.Spear Measures Strength, applied to a of the linear relationships. two man’s Rank monotonic Scatterplot range of association, variables. Correlation: relationshi s." data types.- not the Measures p between Results are cause.- May relationships ranked easy to not work between ranked variables. interpret. well with variables. non-linear relationship s (Pearson). Regressio Predicts the Linear - Linear "PREDIC - Provides - May - Linear: Best used n value of a Regression: regression T- insight into overfit the for predicting dependent Predicts : Predicts Prediction, relationship model with continuous variable continuous one Relationsh s between too many variables.- based on outcomes.Multip dependent ip, variables.- predictors.- Multiple: Allows one or more le Regression: variable Equation, Allows for Assumes for prediction with independent Uses multiple based on Dependent predictions. linearity more than one variables. independent one , - Can between independent variables. independe Independe incorporate dependent variable. nt nt, multiple and variable.- Coefficien predictors. independent Multiple ts, Trend." variables. regression : Uses multiple predictors. ANOVA Tests for - One-way - One-way "GROUP- - Suitable - Does not - Tests if group (Analysis statistically ANOVA- Two- ANOVA: MEANS - for tell which means are significant way ANOVA Compares Groups, comparing groups are statistically of differences means Relationsh multiple different different.- Suitable Variance) between the across one ips, groups.- (requires for more than two means of independe Outcomes, Identifies post hoc groups. three or nt Unique significant tests).- more variable.- variance, differences Assumes groups. Two-way Probability among normality ANOVA:." groups.- and Compares Can analyze homogeneit  means multiple y of across two factors. variance. independe nt variables. MANOV Extends - Univariate - Tests "MULTI - - Can - Requires - Suitable for A ANOVA to MANOVA- effect of Multiple handle large sample multiple dependent handle Multivariate independe DVs, multiple sizes.- Can variables.- Tests (Multivari multiple MANOVA nt Useful, dependent be interactions ate dependent variables Links, variables.- computation between variables. Analysis variables on Tests, Useful for ally of simultaneou multiple Interaction understandi complex.- sly. dependent s." ng complex Assumes Variance) variables. data sets. normality and homogeneit y of variance. ANCOVA Combines - One-way - One-way "A-COVA - Allows - Assumes - Useful when you (Analysis ANOVA ANCOVA- Two- ANCOVA - Adjust, control of linear need to control for and way ANCOVA : Controls Covariate extraneous relationship external variables of regression for one effects." variables.- s between (covariates). Covarianc to test for covariate.- Combines covariates e) differences Two-way the features and between ANCOVA of ANOVA dependent groups : Controls and variables.- while for regression.- Requires controlling multiple Increases assumptions for covariates. precision. of covariates. homogeneit y of regression slopes. Factor Identifies - Exploratory - EFA: "FACTOR - Reduces - Requires - Used for reducing Analysis underlying Factor Analysis Identifies S - Find, dimensional large sample the number of factors (EFA)- patterns in Associated ity of data.- sizes.- variables.- Can help (latent Confirmatory data , Identifies Complex to uncover latent variables) Factor Analysis without Constructs underlying interpret.- variables or that explain (CFA) prior , Themes, patterns.- Requires constructs. patterns in assumptio Observed, Simplifies assumptions observed ns.- CFA: Reduce complex of variables. Tests variables, data. normality. hypothesiz Simplify." ed factor structure. Other points includes: Non-parametric Tests: These tests are used when the data doesn't meet the assumptions required for parametric tests, like normality. They are based on ranks rather than actual values. 1. Sign Test: Used to compare two related samples or repeated measurements on a single sample. It tests whether the median difference between pairs of observations is zero. 2. Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test: A non-parametric test for comparing two related samples. It’s an alternative to the paired t-test when the differences between pairs are not normally distributed. It ranks the absolute differences between pairs and assigns signs based on whether the difference is positive or negative. 3. Mann-Whitney U Test (or Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test): Used to compare two independent samples to determine whether there is a difference in their distributions. It is an alternative to the independent t-test when data are not normally distributed. 4. Kruskal-Wallis Test: A non-parametric version of one-way ANOVA. It is used to determine if there are statistically significant differences between two or more independent groups. 5. Friedman Test: A non-parametric alternative to repeated measures ANOVA. It is used when you have repeated measurements or matched samples across multiple treatments or conditions. Power Analysis: Power analysis is used to determine the sample size required to detect an effect of a given size with a given level of confidence. It helps in avoiding type II errors (false negatives). Key components are: Effect Size: The magnitude of the difference or relationship you are testing for. Significance Level (α): The threshold for determining whether the observed effect is statistically significant (commonly set at 0.05).  Power (1-β): The probability of detecting an effect if there is one. Effect Size: Effect size is a measure of the strength or magnitude of a phenomenon. Common measures include: Cohen's d: For comparing two means. Eta-squared (η²): For measuring the proportion of variance explained in ANOVA. R-squared (r²): For regression analyses. Correlational Analysis: 1. Product-Moment Correlation (Pearson’s r): Measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two continuous variables. 2. Rank Order Correlation (Spearman’s ρ): A non-parametric measure of the strength and direction of association between two variables, used when data is ordinal or not normally distributed. 3. Partial Correlation: Examines the relationship between two variables while controlling for the effects of one or more additional variables. 4. Multiple Correlation: Involves the relationship between one variable and two or more other variables. Special Correlation Methods: 1. Biserial Correlation: Measures the relationship between one continuous variable and one dichotomous variable (e.g., male/female). 2. Point Biserial Correlation: Similar to biserial, but used for situations where the dichotomous variable is truly categorical (e.g., pass/fail). 3. Tetrachoric Correlation: Measures the correlation between two dichotomous variables that are assumed to arise from underlying continuous distributions. 4. Phi Coefficient: Measures the association between two binary variables. It is used when both variables are dichotomous. Factor Analysis: Assumptions, Methods, Rotation, and Interpretation Assumptions: 1. Linearity: There is a linear relationship between variables. 2. Normality: Data should follow a multivariate normal distribution. 3. Inter-correlations: Variables should be inter-correlated. 4. Sufficient sample size: A large sample size is necessary to obtain reliable results (typically, at least 5- 10 observations per variable). Methods: 1. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA): Used to identify the underlying structure of the data when the researcher does not have a preconceived idea about the factors. 2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA): Used to test a hypothesized factor structure and evaluate its fit to the data. 3. Principal Component Analysis (PCA): A method to reduce dimensionality while preserving as much variance as possible. Rotation: 1. Orthogonal Rotation (e.g., Varimax): Assumes factors are uncorrelated. It simplifies interpretation by producing factors that are as independent as possible. 2. Oblique Rotation (e.g., Promax): Allows factors to correlate, providing a more flexible model where factors may be related. Interpretation: After rotation, factor loadings are examined. Loadings indicate the strength of the relationship between variables and factors.  A high factor loading (>0.40) typically indicates a strong relationship between the variable and the factor. Scree plot and eigenvalues can help determine the number of factors to retain. Experimental Designs: 1. ANOVA (Analysis of Variance): One-way ANOVA: Compares means of three or more groups based on one independent variable. Factorial ANOVA: Used when there are two or more independent variables (factors), examining their individual and interaction effects on the dependent variable. 2. Randomized Block Design (RBD): Divides the experimental units into blocks that are similar to each other and then randomly assigns treatments within each block. This design controls for variability among blocks. 3. Repeated Measures Design: Involves repeated observations of the same subjects across different conditions or over time. Useful for studying within-subject variability over time. 4. Latin Square Design: A technique used to control two sources of variability in experiments. It ensures that each treatment appears only once in each row and column, effectively controlling for row and column effects. 5. Cohort Studies: Observational studies where subjects are followed over time to assess the effects of a particular exposure or treatment. It can be prospective (following forward in time) or retrospective (looking back in time). 6. Time Series: A method used for analyzing data points collected or recorded at specific time intervals. It’s useful in detecting trends, seasonal variations, and forecasting future events. 7. MANOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Variance): An extension of ANOVA that examines multiple dependent variables simultaneously. Useful when multiple outcomes are influenced by the same factors. 8. ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance): Combines ANOVA and regression. It evaluates the effect of one or more independent variables on a dependent variable while controlling for other continuous variables (covariates).  9. Single-Subject Designs: Focuses on the response of a single subject to different experimental conditions. Common in clinical and educational psychology, where individual responses are tracked across multiple conditions. Bye bye module 2 Psychological Testing 1. Types of Tests TYPE PURPOSE EXAMPLE INTELLIGENCE TESTS Measure how we think, solve problems, Wechsler Intelligence Scale (WISC), and learn. IQ Tests CREATIVITY TESTS Check our ability to think differently and Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking innovate. (TTCT). APTITUDE TESTS Predict potential skills in specific areas Differential Aptitude Test (DAT). like language or math. PERSONALITY TESTS Understand behaviors, motives, and MMPI, Rorschach Inkblot Test. emotions. NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL Explore brain function for memory, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Bender focus, or motor skills. Visual-Motor Test. Test Construction STEP DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES AND TIPS 1. DEFINING THE Clearly outline what the test is Example: A test to measure "academic PURPOSE designed to measure (e.g., stress" in high school students. anxiety, intelligence, personality traits). 2. DEFINING Identify and operationalize the Example: For "anxiety," define constructs CONSTRUCTS constructs the test will measure. like "physical symptoms" and "worry." 3. ITEM WRITING Craft test items based on the - Likert Scale: "I feel anxious in social constructs. Use simple, clear settings" (Options: Never to Always).- language tailored to the target Multiple-choice with clear distractors. population. 4. ITEM REVIEW Subject items to expert review to Example: An expert might suggest ensure relevance, clarity, and rephrasing "I feel nervous" to "I feel cultural appropriateness. uneasy" for better understanding. 5. PILOT TESTING Administer the initial items to a Tip: Include diverse participants to account small sample representative of for varying interpretations. the target population. 6. ITEM ANALYSIS Analyze pilot test results to refine - Difficulty Index: Proportion of items. respondents who answered correctly.- Discrimination Index: Difference in performance between high and low scorers. - Distractor Analysis: Ensure incorrect options in multiple-choice questions are plausible but incorrect. 7. STANDARDIZATION Administer the refined test to a Catchphrase: "A good test is like a large, representative sample to compass—it always points to the right establish norms. direction!" Norms help interpret scores by Example: IQ tests standardized with a comparing them to the typical mean of 100 and a standard deviation of performance of the population. 15. 8. ESTABLISHING Measure the consistency of test - Test-Retest Reliability: Administer the RELIABILITY results over time and across test twice and calculate correlation.- conditions. Internal Consistency: Use Cronbach’s Alpha. - Inter-Rater Reliability: Ensure consistency between different evaluators. 9. ESTABLISHING Assess whether the test measures - Content Validity: Are all aspects of the VALIDITY what it claims to measure. construct covered?- Criterion Validity: Correlation with external criteria. - Construct Validity: Does it align with theoretical expectations? 10. TEST REVISION Continuously refine the test Example: Remove ambiguous items or based on feedback and empirical those with low discrimination indices. data. 11. PUBLISHING THE Finalize the test format, scoring Provide clear guidelines for both test- TEST guidelines, and administration takers and administrators. instructions.  12. POST-PUBLICATION Collect data from real-world use Example: Periodically update norms to MONITORING to ensure the test remains reflect population changes. reliable and valid over time. Reliability Definition: Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of test scores over time, across different conditions, or among evaluators. TYPE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE TEST-RETEST Measures the consistency of scores A memory test given to students twice a RELIABILITY when the test is repeated after a time week apart should produce similar interval. results. INTERNAL Evaluates how well items in a test Using Cronbach’s Alpha to ensure CONSISTENCY measure the same construct. questionnaire items on anxiety are cohesive. INTER-RATER Checks agreement between different Two teachers grading essays using the RELIABILITY evaluators scoring the same test. same rubric should give similar scores. Validity Definition: Validity determines whether the test measures what it claims to measure. TYPE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE CONTENT Assesses whether the test covers all An intelligence test must include verbal, logical, VALIDITY relevant aspects of the construct. and spatial reasoning components. CRITERION Compares test performance with an High correlation between a job performance VALIDI