UGBS 043 Office Management - University of Ghana PDF

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE EDUCATION DIPLOMA IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND ACCOUNTING UGBS 043: OFFICE MANAGEMENT Session One – INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONS LECTURER: MRS. GIFTY AGYAPOMAA OKO-ADJEI Contact Information: [email protected] Session Objective By the end of this session, the student will be able to: Identify and explain briefly the topics for the semester. Explain an organization enumerating its characteristics and principles. List and explain the types of organizations with examples. Discuss the 14 principles of management by Fayol. Differentiate between a formal and an informal organization using examples. Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of formal and informal organizations. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 2 Topic One Introduction to Organizations Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 3 What is an Organisation? An Organisation is one of the fundamental functions of management. For example after writing out the objectives or goals of an enterprise and course of actions to be followed, it is necessary to give practical shape to the work to be performed to meet the objectives. There is the need to divide the work and prepare a structural plan. Therefore, organisation can be seen as a group of people co-operating under a leadership for the accomplishment of a common end. Organisation is the arrangement of functions deemed necessary for the attainment of the objective and it is an indication of the authority and responsibility assigned to individual charged with the execution of their respective functions. A consciously coordinated social unit composed of two or more people that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 4 Characteristics of an Organisation 1) It is a group of individuals who may be small or large, but with a common purpose. 2) The group in the organisation works under the direction of the executive leadership. 3) It is a function of various arrangements, example: different departments with different activities. 4) It consists of small direction authority which controls the collective efforts of the group. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 5 Xtics Cont’d 5) It refers to a structure of duties and responsibilities 6) It is established for the accomplishment of common objectives. 7) It is a continuous function and is preferred in varying degrees by all levels of management; from the first line supervisor to the top executive of the enterprise. 8) It cannot be static for simple reasons, that an organisation which is effective today may not be satisfactory tomorrow. It needs periodic changes and modification according to current needs and situations in terms of objectives, jobs and personnel. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 6 Importance of an Organization The need for organisation arises when two or more people work together. A one-man business will have no difficulties about coordinating the efforts of buying, selling and other management functions of the business. However, when the business starts to grow, separate departments are created for buying/sales, accounting, administration, and so on. The growing complexities of a large scale organisation brings about the need and the importance of organisation, which has grown substantially. The importance of organisation can also be judged from the fact that a good organisation is now regarded as the foundation of sound management. What are some of the importance of organizations? Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 7 Principles of Management Principles of management may be defined as a fundamental statement or general truth providing a guide to a thought or an action within an organisation. Principles of management are the guidelines and fundamental rules for the efficient management of any undertaking. Drawing from Henri Fayol, the following are the principles of effective and efficient management: Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 8 Principles Cont’d 1) Division of work – efficiencies can be achieved by the specialization of work practices from both technical and managerial perspectives, however, there are limits to the amount of work that can be divided. 2) Authority – there is a need for a system in which a person or people can direct the work of others and retain responsibility. These people gain authority based on qualifications and experience and use these power bases to give the orders that create obedience. 3) Discipline – if an organisation is to be efficient, it must be tightly controlled. Discipline is vital, albeit the manifestation of discipline is dependent on the organisation's leaders. 4) Unity in command – clear lines of responsibility requires that a person of lower rank should only receive orders from one person of senior rank. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 9 Principles Cont’d 5) Unity in direction – organisational success depends on being able to align all activities. There should be one leader and one plan which all should follow. 6) Centralization – the degree to which an organisation is centralized or decentralized will depend on the functions of that organisation, but the structure should be devised to allow people to contribute to the best of their abilities. 7) Scalar chain – a linear hierarchy of authority should define the communication path through the organisation. It should extend from the top of the organisation to the bottom. Horizontal communication is permissible as long as managers are kept informed. 8) Subordination of individual interest to general interest – the goals of organisation are paramount and should not be influenced by the goals of one person or group. 9) Remuneration – pay should be fair to both the staff and the employers. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 10 Principles Cont’d 10) Order – this denotes good management practice, everything has its place and everything in its place. It also relates to the environment being conclusive to the activities taking place there. 11) Equity – all staff should be treated with a high and equitable level of kindness and patience. 12) Stability of personal tenure – task specialization takes an investment in training from the organisation. High staff turnover therefore has larger resource implications. Turnover should therefore be kept at a minimum. 13) Initiative – subordinate initiative should be encouraged and developed as far as it is practicable. 14) Esprit de corps – harmony, strength and a cohesive corporate culture will foster organisational success. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 11 Steps in Organisation Management The following steps are involved in organising the structure of an enterprise: Identifying the Objective: It is important to bear in mind the objectives or target of an organisation or department. The objective must be determined keeping in view the environmental situation. They must be clear, precise and complete, and free from ambiguity or confusion. Unless the manager or supervisor knows the objective, he may not be able to organize properly and motivate people towards the attainment of the objective. Segregation of Work into Activities: After laying down objectives, the manager must identify the total work involved in achieving them. For instance, the total work involved of a manufacturing enterprise may be divided into production, financing, personnel, marketing, and such other activities. Re-grouping the Activities: The next step is to group the various activities into practical units based on similarities and importance, and to indicate the person who would be doing the work. For example, purchasing, machining, and assembling maybe placed under manufacturing whilst recruiting, training, job grading, and compensations may be placed under personnel. Apportioning and assigning activities to Jobs: Jobs must be clearly defined and the activities related to them must be clearly identified and assigned. This will help management to fix the authority and responsibilities of the employees concerned. Slide 12 Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Administration Vs Management There is a sharp difference of opinions among experts about the meaning and significance of the terms, “administration”, “management” and organisation”. Some writers maintain that there is no difference between those terms, while others are of the view that, they are not synonymous and have different meaning. 1)The term administration is one function of an enterprise which relates to the overall determination of policies and major objectives. 2)Administration is largely determinative, whereas management is essentially executed. This means that Administration’s function is to determine the policies upon which enterprises are to be conducted. While the function of management is to carry out policies laid down by the administration group. 3)Administration includes broad policy making and management is a part or element of administration. 4)The term administration is more often used in non-business enterprise or government departments. The term management may be used for business and non-business enterprises. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 13 General Principles of Organisation 1)Principles of Objectives: The objectives of an enterprise should be clearly laid down, within the enterprise there should be unity and uniformity in the policies and objectives of different departments so that every part of the organisation including the office 2)Principles of Inter Related Functions: Because organisations no longer have mutually exclusive functions, but rather integrated functions, the functional area – for example sales, production, financing, marketing and personnel are interrelated. 3)Principles of Definition: The duties, responsibilities, authority and relations of everyone in the organisational structure should be clearly and completely defined. Preferably in writing. 4)Principles of Work Assignment: The work assigned to each individual in the organisation should take into consideration the special strength and talents of the individual. This means that the individual should be given assignment that is commensurate with his ability and interest. 5)Principle of Ultimate Responsibility: The responsibility of a higher authority for the acts of his subordinates is absolute. The responsibility for his workers to do a given task, and if the worker commits a mistake, the supervisor is the one accountable to his supervisors. He cannot escape responsibilities by saying that the mistake was committed by a particular worker. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 14 What is Formal Organization? A formal organisation is one in which positions, responsibilities, authority and accountability at each level is clearly defined. A formal organisation is bound by the rules, systems, procedures and methods as laid down by the top management from time to time. There are four basic components of a formal organisation: 1. The work –is divisionalised ; 2. Persons –are assigned to perform the divisionalised jobs; 3. The-environment – under which the work is done 4. The relationship among persons or work units. A formal organisation is systematically planned and it is based on the principles of the delegation of authority and the principle of responsibility. It makes use of organisational charts and attempts to maintain a balance among the various types of work to be done, each being given the importance that its true value deserves. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Formal Organization The advantages of formal organisation 1)Avoidance of role conflict 2)Avoidance of overlapping of authority and responsibility 3)Advantage of specialization 4)Defining standardizing systems, rule policies, and procedures of an enterprise. The disadvantages of Formal Organisation 1)It does not recognize informal relationship 2)It creates problems of communication 3)It emphasizes structure rather than people. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 16 What is an Informal Organization? An informal organisation always exists together with a formal organisation in every enterprise. In an organisation, people develop informal groups among themselves which are bound together by social, technological, work or other interests, such groups make up an informal organisation. It is that network of personal and social relations which is not established by the organisation. It is an accepted fact that since people work together, social relationship and groupings are bound to arise on account of their frequent contact with one another which gives rise to informal organisation. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 17 Advantages and Disadvantages of Informal Organization Advantages of an Informal Organisation 1. It provides a useful channel for communication 2. It covers deficiencies of formal organisation 3. It Influences the formal organisation to work carefully 4. It brings about mutuality among group members who derive job satisfaction by the exchange of ideas and views Disadvantages of an Informal Organisation 1. It may tend to act on basis of mob psychology 2. It may be a source of rumor or wastage of time 3. It may tend to oppose change Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 18 Types of Organisation The process of organisation involves the grouping of activities and the establishment of authority and relationship among these activities. But even this is not enough, the various activities have to be necessarily co–ordinated for the accomplishment of organisational objectives. There are four different types of organisations 1) Line organisation 2) Functional organisation 3) Line and staff organisation 4) Committee organisation Read on the above Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 19 Think about Questions What is the difference between Administration and Management? Define an organization and explain the various principles of organizations. What are the characteristics of an organization? Discuss and explain any ten principles of management by Fayol. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-Adjei Slide 20 UNIVERSITY OF GHANA DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE EDUCATION DIPLOMA IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND ACCOUNTING UGBS 043: OFFICE MANAGEMENT Session Two – Background to an Office LECTURER: MRS. GIFTY AGYAPOMAA OKO-ADJEI Contact Information: [email protected] Session Overview The role of an office is central to every organisation. The reason for this is because; information concerning the operation of an organisation must be received, processed, stored and communicated. Yet all these things take place in an office. As a result, no organisation can do without an effective and efficient functioning of an office. This session would introduce you to what an office job is with emphasis on the general office functions, office routine, types of an office etc. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 2 Session Objective By the end of this session, the student would be able to: 1. Define what an office is. 2. Identify and discuss the functions of an office. 3. Outline the principles of an office 4. Explain the main office work and activities. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 3 Topic Two BACKGROUND TO AN OFFICE Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 4 Meaning of an Office The office could be regarded as a location or a place where business is carried out. In common parlance, an office is understood to be a place where clerical work and all kinds of paper work (e.g. letters, correspondence, files, and records) and so on are performed. It is a central place where all sorts of clerical work is done to co- ordinate and control the affairs of the organisation. A few definitions may be noted. Alternatively, the office is the administrative core of a business centre which provides services, communicates and keeps records. An office is a place where business is transacted or professional services are available”. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 5 Office Job Office activities which is also known as the office job is mostly concerned with receiving the records of an enterprise and preserving them for the purposes of usage. Office work not only deals with records, but also includes communicating, mechanical, data processing and scheduling. The office activities is also concerned with records, statistics, computation, planning and scheduling. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 6 Office Activities Being the core centre of every organisation, various activities take place in an office. Yet a number of factors influence the activities that take place in a typical office which include, but not limited to the size of the organisation, the age of the of the organisation and the type of the organisation, that is whether or not it is a not-for profit organisation or otherwise. Even though offices differ from one another in terms of the major tasks, samples are as follows: 1) Processing incoming mails. 2) Processing outgoing mail. 3) Dictation 4) Transcript 5) Typing 6) Printing 7) Filling 8) Record retrieval 9) Records disposal 10) Communication Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 7 General Office Functions The common management functions in a typical office are: a) Planning - Planning is the first fundamental function of management. Planning prior to activities, guides and engineers the courses for action required by management in order to achieve its goals. It is the selecting and relating of facts, making and using assumptions regarding future visualization and formulations of proposed activities believed to be necessary to achieve desired results. b) Organising - organisation is the process of combining the work done by an individual or group to perform with facilities necessary for its executions that the duties so performed provide the best channels for the efficient, systematic, positive and coordinated application of the available effort. c) Staffing - Refers to the selection of personnel for the various jobs/positions necessary for the running of the organisation. It refers to choosing and preparing the staff so that the selection, recruitment, training, development, promotion, and remuneration of employees will be accurate. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 8 General Office Functions Cont’d d) Leading/directing - the process of directing refers to the way an executive issues instructions to their subordinate. It includes leadership, communication and supervision. e) Communication – here, communication is the process of passing information from one person to another. It involves systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding. f) Supervision - supervision attempts to bring about conformity between planned and actual results. g) Motivating: motivating is the process of stimulating an individual to take actions which will bring about the satisfaction of a need and the accomplishment of a desired goal. Motivation moves a person to action. Sometimes, it is achieved by the use of power, force, providing inducements and incentives to employees and by satisfying the needs of the employees. h) Coordinating – it consists of monitoring, balancing and keeping the team together by ensuring a suitable allocation of task to various members, and by seeing to it that these tasks are performed with an opinion among the members themselves. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 9 Office Routine Functions 1) Receiving and recording of collected information: In a suitable form, this recorded information is needed for preparing future policies and taking decision. 2) Arranging (or) Processing Information: All the information received cannot be used in the same form. Offices have to convert it in the form of notes, reports, diagrams, and graphics showing different aspects of business. 3) Communicating of Recorded and Arranged Information Promptly: Office has to supply information to different departments and outside bodies who are related in some way or the other. 4) Public Relations Function: An office has not only maintained relations with the other departments, it also needs to maintain a good relation with the outside world or the public. Maintaining good relations with the companies increase the reputations and good will of the company. 5) Retention of the Records: Office records include correspondence, invoices, letters, orders, financial and cost records, and minutes. These records have to be returned in the future for reference Slide 10 Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Office Routine Functions Cont’d 6) Safeguarding Assets: It is the function of the office to safeguard the assets of the organisation, which may be fixed assets like buildings, plants, machineries, office equipment, lighting, air conditioning equipment, movable assets like furniture, office machineries, or cash titles deeds, records, and documents 7) Controlling Office Cost: with the adoption of scientific method for office management, a modern office is further supposed to discharge the function of controlling office costs. This may be done by, (a) Mechanization of the office (b) Adopting time and labour saving devices in the office (c) Using better forms (d) Analyzing the existing office routines and adopting improved ones Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 11 Office Routine Activities Cont’d 8) Development of office systems: For the efficient and economical performance of office operations, each major phase of office work has to be carefully analysed and planned which are interdependent and interrelated. The routine steps for performing each phase of work have to be determined along with furniture, equipment, machine, form etc. One of the important functions of the office is to plan and set up suitable systems and routines for each major phase of office work. 9) Designing of requisite form: Office work being mostly paper work, suitably designed office forms are of vital importance for the systematic and speedy performance of office work. Use of standardised forms simplifies office operations, increases output of work and reduces cost of management. Modern offices adopt a new approach called “system approach” which emphasizes on the mechanization of the use, preparation and movement of forms and other records. 10) Procurement of office furniture, equipment and machinery: The efficient and economical performance of office work also requires the provision of suitable and adequate furniture. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 12 Office Routine Activities Cont’d 11) Procurement of office stationery and supply: Several types of stationery are necessary for doing the office operations. It is of utmost importance to purchase the right kind of papers, file, covers, pen, pencils, erasers, compact disc, pen drive etc., which will be used for the collection, compilation and storage of records. It is the function of the office to look after the standardization, selection, and purchase of office stationery and its distribution to different departments. 12) Performance of personnel functions: The office helps the management in the performance of personnel functions. It is the office through which vacancies are notified, employment interviews are conducted, appointment letters are sent and new employees are recruited for various positions. It also provides training for the staff. It maintains personal records of all the employees regarding their training, achievement, appraisal, leave, etc. Management of the disbursement of salaries and incentives is also facilitated by the office. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 13 Office Routine Activities Cont’d 13) Ensuring safety of assets: The assets of an office building include movable assets such as furniture, office machine, equipment of various types, cash and securities, records, deeds, documents, etc., and immovable assets like air conditioners, water coolers, lighting and ventilation systems, fans, conveyor belt systems, etc. Arrangements should be made for proper maintenance of these assets against loss or damage by theft, fire or other means, as it may affect adversely the productivity of the office staff. 14) Securing public relations: Modern offices focus on enhanced public relations which necessitate the communication of the objectives, aims and policies of the organisation to the public. In turn, the changing public opinion and the reaction of the public to certain actions of the organisation are communicated to the management. In addition, it also attends to such other activities which would enhance the image of the organisation in the eyes of the public. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 14 Types of Office 1) Front office 2) Middle office 3) Electronic office 4) Virtual office 5) Back office 1) Front office is a business term that refers to a company’s department that comes into contact with clients, including the marketing, sales, and service departments. The front office welcomes visitors, meets, greets them and handles their queries. 2) The middle Office comprises of departments of financial services that manage position-keeping. These divisions ensure that transactions capture profit flows. The middle office is usually a part of operations division, which is also in-charge of settlement. Due to their critical role, middle office functions along with the front office and is supervised by the back office managers. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 15 Types of Office Cont’d 3) The electronic office or e-office was a term coined to cover the increasing use of computer-based information technology for office work, especially in the 1980s. It is widely used since all modern offices are electronic offices. 4) The virtual office is the combination of off-site live communication and address services that allow users to reduce traditional office costs while maintaining business professionalism. The term “Virtual Office” implies space utilization, but a full application includes professional live communication of teleconferencing. 5) Back office is a part of most corporations where tasks dedicated to operating the company are performed. The term comes from the building layout of early organisations where the front office would contain the sales and other customer-facing staff and the back office would be those manufacturing or developing the products or involved in administration but without being seen by customers. Although the operations of a back office are usually not given a lot of consideration, their contribution to the business is significant. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 16 Think about Questions What is an office? Mention some of the activities performed in an office. Outline the general office functions you have learnt in class. What are the office routine activities? Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 17 UNIVERSITY OF GHANA DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE EDUCATION DIPLOMA IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND ACCOUNTING UGBS 043: OFFICE MANAGEMENT Session Three– Office Accommodation and Environment LECTURER: MRS. GIFTY AGYAPOMAA OKO-ADJEI Contact Information: [email protected] Session Overview Every office manager is concerned about getting office work performed with the maximum efficiency and at minimum cost. This would be possible if employees receive proper training, guidance and job placement. However if office staff are to attain efficiency, they must be properly accommodated, have a good working environment, and should be properly equipped. Modern equipment and proper working conditions are not in any way less important factors in improving sufficiency and reducing costs. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 2 Session Objective By the end of this lesson, the student will be able to: Identify and explain the importance of office accommodation Identify the good environment to establish an office. List the types of accommodation Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 3 Topic Three OFFICE ACCOMMODATION AND ENVIRONMENT Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 4 Principles of Office Allocation Regarding office accommodation, the office manager should bear the following principles in mind: 1) The office must be located at some convenient place. 2) Office space should be sufficient to cater for the future needs of the organisation 3) Due provisions should be made for the conveniences and amenities required for the comfort and well-being of the staff, e.g. washing room , rest room, water coolers, canteen etc. 4) Service facilities like telephones, lift, internal communication, should be available in the office, while others like banking, transport, market, post office, should be closer to the office premises. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 5 Office Location Every office manager should give a full and proper consideration to a suitable location for his office. This location or site is an important consideration because an unsuitable location may result in a waste of resources and efforts and result in time loss, inconveniences for office staff as well as business partners. Location problems may arise from the following: 1) At the time of starting a business enterprise 2) The increase volume of work may require location plan which is no longer sufficient for the expanding business, and therefore, the entire expansion of the existing office or a new location may be necessary. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 6 Office Location Cont’d 3) The facilities provided in the original location plan may no longer be sufficient for the expansion of the business. 4) The lease for the office premises may have expired and the owner of the premises is not prepared to renew it. 5) Shifting of the business by the business enterprise from one place or state to the another. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 7 The Office Building The problem of choosing the right location for the premises is as complicated as that of getting a proper and suitable building to accommodate it. The office building should be of a proper size and shape. It should be of such design to serve the particular needs of the enterprise often. It is rather difficult to get a building which is exactly suited to the requirements of the organisation. The management should try to obtain such premises which fulfils its requirements in the best possible manner. The construction of one’s own office building may be necessitated by the following: 1) When the business is large and well established. 2) When the demand for the product in services of the organisation is of relative character. 3) When there is a cost advantage in the construction of the business premises. 4) When a specific type of building is required of the office purpose e.g., centrally air- conditioned, sound proof or specifically constructed for housing computers etc. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 8 Office Layout After acquiring the building for the office, the important thing before the office manager is office spacing, planning or office layout. The office layout may be defined as an arrangement of equipment within the available floor space. It can also be seen as the determination of the space requirements and of the utilization of this space in order to provide a practical arrangements of the physical factors considered necessary for the execution of the office within a reasonable cost. The objective of an office layout is to make arrangements for the placing of men, materials, machines, furniture and equipment within the available floor space of the office in such a way that everything can be utilized in the best possible manner. 1. The determination of the correct amount of space for each employee and for machinery and equipment they use. 2. The correct arrangements of furniture, equipment and machinery etc. 3. The best possible environments condition. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 9 Office Environment Office environments comprise of the following; 1. Office lighting 2. Ventilation and temperature control 3. Interior decoration and furnishing 4. Office furniture 5. Freedom from noise and dust 6. Safety 7. Sanitary agreement 8. Security 9. Secrecy Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 10 Office Lighting Lighting is perhaps the most important of office physical conditions. Probably the best way to grasp the importance of lighting to office management is to realize that virtually every office task is important. Since office work is mostly adequate, lighting should be provided in any modern office. Office lighting is possible for the worker to see what he is doing-clearly, quickly and accurately. Less than adequate lighting results in delays, mistakes and image is indistinct instead of sharp and clear. Moreover, it causes over-strain, fatigue and headache to workers. Lighting must have all the following characteristics: 1) Sufficient quantity; Sufficient quantity of light should be provided. The foot candle is the unit measure of light and represent the amount of direct light obtained from a distance of one foot from the standard candle. 2) Intensity; the light should provide the right degree of intensity and brightness. The light should be well diffused over the work place and should not cast any shadows. It should be separated uniformly over all parts of the working surface. 3) No Glare; an efficient lighting system should not cause any surface glare. Direct glare which results from sunlight or ceiling light can be prevented by the use of shadow light fixtures. 4) No contrasts; Abrupt contrast in lighting of work surface and remainder area should not be avoided. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 11 Types of Lighting Systems 1) Direct: in this type of lightning, approximately 90-100 percent of the light is directed downward to the working surface. The system makes use of some shade on, or reflector for the source of light. It provides good intensity of light. 2) Semi-Direct: in this system, a transparent or translucent shade is used which directs 60-80 percent of this light downward; the remaining light is directed upwards and is reflected from the ceiling. 3) Indirect: in this system 90-100 percent of the light is directed towards the ceiling or walls and is then diffused and reflected downwards on the work surface. This system provides light which is soft, avoids shadow and glare and does not cause eye strain. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 12 Kinds of lighting 1) Natural: natural light or daylight is the best form of lighting. The maximum use should be made of natural lighting from whatever source available. Windows should be large and high up; but provision should be made to prevent direct sunlight falling upon the surface. 2) Artificial: artificial light may be used to supplement natural light. Since it is generally not possible to provide natural light over the whole working surface, artificial lighting has to be provided so that the working surface may be properly and evenly illuminated. Artificial lightning is mainly of two kinds: a. Fluorescent: the illumination produced by the fluorescent lighting closely resembles that of natural lighting. Although such lighting is expensive to install, it is advantageous in the sense that it provides less heat and less glare, lasts longer than filament bulbs and consumes less electricity; b. Incandescent: this type of light is provided by filament bulb. The installation of incandescent lighting is much less expensive than fluorescent lighting. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 13 Benefits of good lighting in the office 1) Increased output: A change from poor lighting conditions to good is almost certain to result in some increase in the rate of work output. 2) Better quality of work: the quality of work in an office can be improved appreciably by bringing light up to accepted standards. Where light is not good, errors are more frequent, may be due to eye strain or fatigue. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 14 Ventilation Ventilation in the office refers to the supply of clean and fresh air in right amount at the right temperature and of the right humidity. Proper ventilation is an important aspect of office environment; fresh air must pass through the office regularly. This is only possible if the office premises are properly ventilated. In the absence of proper ventilation, air becomes stale, causes headache, fatigue and restlessness to the employees. On the other hand, lack of proper ventilation makes a person sleepy and unduly tired and adversely affects his health. The following methods are generally used to maintain proper : Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 15 Ventilation Cont’d The following methods are generally used to maintain proper ventilation: 1) Natural ventilation: Natural ventilation can be obtained by providing enough doors, windows and ventilators which are of the right type at the right places. They would ensure a regular flow of fresh air from the outside of the stale air from the inside. Natural ventilation can be improved by providing roof ventilators and internal tube ventilators. 2) Artificial ventilators: artificial ventilators may be achieved by use of electric fan, air-coolers, air filters etc. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 16 Types of Artificial Ventilators 1) Electric fans: Electric fans are used to circulate air because air-circulation is much better than stagnant air. 2) Exhaust fans: These fans expel the stagnant air from the room. They are a very effective measure of ventilation. 3) Air coolers: Air coolers have also become very popular in offices. They draw in the air which passes through water and becomes cool. 4) Room heaters: Room heaters may be provided during the winter to keep the temperature of the work place above the atmosphere temperature. 5)Air conditioning: Air- conditioning is usually the most suitable form of ventilation. It contributes to mental activity and boosts the efficiency of employees. It is a costly system, but it eliminates the problem of cleanliness, heat and ventilation. Apart from providing good atmospheric conditions, air conditioning offers the following advantages. 1) It helps maintain employee efficiency. 2) It helps safeguard their health. 3) It helps keep production cost low. 4) It helps protect the product or equipment in the plan. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 17 Interior Decoration Interior decoration may be described as the art of a careful decoration of the interior of a room or a building. It has been found that an attractive décor not only adds to appearance of a room, but has a psychological effect on the people working in it. Interior decoration involves 1) A tasteful colouring of walls, doors and windows. 2) Placing of attractive art objects, pictures, painting and informative charts on the walls. 3) Floor covering, curtains and wall hangings. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 18 Furniture After deciding the layout of the office accommodation and its decoration, it is necessary to turn to the furniture that is to be put in it. Office work is mostly indoor desk work; suitable furniture should therefore be provided for office clerks so that they may be comfortable enough to perform office work speedily and efficiently. Office furniture is the basic facility with which the employee identifies himself. It is the duty of the office manager therefore to provide the right type of furniture in the office. The usual furniture found in any modern office include desks, chairs and tables, racks, cabinets, cupboards, lockers, safes, trays, admirals etc. The number of pieces and the kind of furniture to be purchased for any office depends on various factors: a. The number of departments and employees. b. The nature and volume of work to be performed c. The office space available for their suitable accommodation. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 19 Factors In selecting the furniture and other equipment to be used for a specific job, the following six questions should be considered. 1) Is the working adequate? 2) Can the clerk work comfortably? 3) Can the clerk use both hands? 4) Can the job be supervised? 5) Is the work adequately protected against dust, loss or damage? 6) Is there suitable provision for the clerk’s personal effects? Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 20 What are the factors to consider in selecting an office location? Identify the various elements of an office environment. What is ventilation? Explain with examples the types of ventilation. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 21 UNIVERSITY OF GHANA DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE EDUCATION DIPLOMA IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND ACCOUNTING UGBS 043: OFFICE MANAGEMENT Session Four– Office Equipment LECTURER: MRS. GIFTY AGYAPOMAA OKO-ADJEI Contact Information: [email protected] Session Overview Office equipment and machines play a vital role in the efficient performance of office work. They are crucial for the accurate and speedy performance of office work by the clerical staff. Office work is mostly indoor desk work, the clerks have to sit in the office for long hours of the day. The work is mostly routine and monotonous in nature. Efficient performance of work is impossible in the absence of the equipment, machines and comfortable working conditions. Appropriate office machines and equipment, should be used so that the work can be done efficiently at minimum possible cost. In today’s fast paced world, mechanization has come to play a larger role making imperative the selection and use of the right type of office machines and equipment. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 2 Session Objective By the end of this session, the student will be able to: 1) Define office mechanization giving examples. 2) Gain awareness about the concept of mechanization explaining its merits and demerits. 3) Identify the various factors to be considered in selecting office appliances, furniture, filing and accessories. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 3 Topic Four OFFICE EQUIPMENT Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 4 What is Office Mechanization? Office mechanization refers to a process whereby office machines and equipment are introduced in the office with a view to aid administrative process. Office mechanization may take over some of the functions performed by office staff, for e.g., computer is one of such machines which has taken most of the operations which were earlier performed manually. A systematic and planned effort to introduce suitable machines for doing office work is known as mechanization. A big office uses expensive machines such as typewriters, duplicating machines, calculators, etc. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 5 What is Office Mechanization Cont’d? Thus, machines have become indispensable for performing office work efficiently. Shifting to machine operations need investments in the form of capital assets like machines, equipment and other accessories. It also calls for additional cost in the form of maintenance and repair of machinery, insurance, premium, the cost of accommodation, stationery etc. Highly sophisticated machines like computer need special accommodation and maintenance which also lead to increase in cost. Therefore, the decision to mechanize office operations should be determined by the cost benefit analysis. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 6 Objectives of Mechanization Mechanization in the office has the following objectives: 1) Labour saving: Mechanization aims at saving labour. It may either reduce the total wage bill or the same number of employees may perform a larger volume of work. 2) Time Saving: Saving in time is another objective of mechanization. The work that would take hours can be done in no time with the aid of machines. 3) Accuracy: Ensuring accuracy is one of the prime objectives. The use of machines enable completion of work with accuracy. 4) Elimination of monotony: Repetitive processes are monotony. 5) Standardization: This procedure which is desirable can be best achieved with the help of machines. 6) Lesser fraud: this also minimizes the chances of fraud in office work. 7) Interpreting facts and data: Machines, like computers interpret facts and data for decision making and control. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 7 Merits of mechanization 1) Better quality of work: Machines help to improve the quality of work done in the office. It aids in systematic execution of work. 2) Lower operating cost: Operating cost per hour of work declines with the use of machines. But this requires a large amount of initial capital investment. Long term investment in machines proves to be beneficial in the long-run. 3) Greater efficiency: Machines bring speed and efficiency to all types of office work. The work that may take hours to finish manually may be finished in lesser time. Improved efficiency leads to greater profitability and at the same time creates a good image in the minds of the people associated with the organization. 4) Better accuracy: Chances of errors are eliminated. Thus the work goes on smoothly, bottlenecks and delays are almost reduced. 5) Relieves monotony: Mechanization reduces the monotony of carrying out repetitive processes which are uninteresting and time consuming. The office worker is relieved from undergoing the same process again and again. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 8 Demerits of Mechanization 1) High cost of installation: Most of the modern office machines require a huge investment. Thus, smaller firms cannot take advantage of many controls. 2) High cost of operating: Operating certain types of machines and equipment involves high cost. 3) High cost of breakdown: It is very expensive to repair the machinery in the event of its breakdown which in turn affects the flow of work. 4) Lesser flexibility of office system: This leads to less flexibility. For example, mechanization of accounting system demands a rigid structure. 5) Dominance of machines: Workers in an organisation should not become subordinate to machines. Care should be taken to avoid a situation where machines will become more important than the work it produces. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 9 Principles to be Followed In Selecting Office Appliances 1) Principles of cost: The machines and equipment concerned should have the least cost in the given circumstance. The cost of a machine has two aspects = initial cost and operating cost. If a machine is expensive and its operating costs are low, it may be preferred without compromising on the quality 2) Principle of quality: Machines and equipment must be of good quality so that the quality of work performed is of desire in view of cost. 3) Principles of maximum benefit: It is necessary for the office machine to give maximum benefit keeping in view the cost. 4) Principle of suitability: It is important that the office machines are suitable for the process for which they are bought. They should not be opted for as a mere status symbol. 5) Principle of adaptability and multiple use: It would be better to install machines with multiple uses so that idle time is used to put to maximum use. Indirectly it means that machines should be light in weight so that they can be easily moved from one place to another 6) Principle of least space occupancy: It is essential that the machines should occupy the least floor space, desk and shelf spaces Large and heavy machines often occupy costly space and thus add to the indirect of the organisation. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 10 Types of Time & Labour Saving Devices 1) Instructional machine: Telephone, mobile phone, inter-communication system and Dictaphone. 2) Copying and duplicating and computing machines – Typewriters, duplicators, addressing machines and Photostat machine. 3) Accounting, tabulating and computing machines – Adding machine, calculating machine, cash register, billing machine, accounting machine, tabulating machine and computer. 4) Miscellaneous machines – Franking machine, impression stamp, time recording machine, pay roll machine, envelope sealing machine, calculators, etc. 5) Instructional machines 6) Telephone: Every big business house uses a telephone connecting internally and with other organisations. Telephone has become a necessity for modern business houses. With the help of this facility, a firm can have quick and prompt communication with the external world. Big firms employ trained telephone operators to receive phone calls from outsiders and to connect insiders with outsiders and vice versa. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 11 Types of Time & Labour Saving Devices 7) Mobile phone: In this rapidly changing world communicating on the move has become a dire necessity. Mobile phones serve this purpose of offering mobility and connectivity to the users, any time in any part of the world. Further, businesses provide a mobile phone with a Closed User Group (CUG) facility to its employees to enable communication within the group at an economical rate. 8) Inter communication system (Intercom): Is generally used when sufficient telephone extensions are not possible. Generally intercom equipment has an automatic switch board which allows executive to refer to his staff or they may need to refer to each other frequently and quickly. 9) Dictaphone: Generally, dictation is given to the stenographer which requires the simultaneous presence off the executive under the stenographer at one place. This may not always be possible due to various reasons. Dictaphone enables the executive to dictate on the machine at his own pace and leave the message on the typewriter. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 12 Copying & Duplicating Machines 1) Typewriter: Is one of the oldest forms of office machines and is still in use in certain offices. The typewriters produce text material on a page similar to print. They are of three types electric, automatic and electronic. 2) Electric typewriters: Are standard typewriters which work with an electric motor. The touch of fingers set the keys in motion and the impressions are uniformly perfect. 3) Automatic typewriters: They are power driven machines that help to reproduce identical copies of the original copy at great speed. 4) Electronic typewriters: They are based on the sophisticated micro-processor technology. Every electronic computer has memory which enables it to remember a large volume of information and to type it out automatically at the press of a button. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 13 Duplicators This is a process where by a master copy is prepared from which a large number of other copies are obtained with the help of the same duplicator. It is a substitute for printing. There are four types of duplicating machines. 1) Offset lithograph: Under this master copy is prepared on thin metal sheets and are used for duplicating on the machines of rotary type and are generated by power at high speed. This process is recommended where long runs of many thousands of copies are required for line drawings and reproduction on any kind of paper. 2) Typeset duplicator: These duplicators are again printing machines which are very similar to those used by professional printers. The process of setting up the type is allowed to a skilled one. Once the matter to be printed has been set up, long runs of high quality are possible. It is particularly suitable for very long runs, printing of cards, and the reproduction of facsimile type written matter. 3) Addressing machine: It is used for a much wider range of activities such as a preparation of invoices, printing of job cards and wage sheets and in any kind of search where information is repetitive. Addressograph machines may be used for the repetitive printing of the same address. The addresses can be printed at a rate of 1200 per hour. The plates are preserved for future use. 4) Photostat machine: It is popularly known as “Xerox” machine taking its name from the company manufacturing this machine. Photocopying machine help in getting exact copies of the original at a very fast speed. The term xerography means dry pictures. The original document is projected on the coated plate through a lens system. Positive charges disappear in areas charged to light. A pattern of charges is left on the coated plate of exactly the same shape as a dark part of the original document. After this a negatively charged ink powder is dusted over the place which adheres to the positively charged image. The print is made Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei permanent by exposure to heat. Slide 14 Accounting tabulating and computing machines 1) Adding machines: This may be either manually or electrically operated. Most adding machines have a roll of paper on which the figures are typed, and this is known as a “Tally Roll”. It is used for addition and also for multiplication, subtraction and division, both electric and manual. 2) Calculating machines: This contribute greatly to business efficiency by eliminating routine and tiring mental work. They contribute to economy in staffing and also increase clerical efficiency. The essence of a calculating machine is that it can perform multiplication and division as well as addition and subtraction operations. It operates at a very fast speed and does not make any noise, but such machines are usually expensive. 3) Cash register & coin handling machines: Cash register is very useful where a machine is required to print a receipt, produce posting slip and sales analysis. This type of machine can record cash transaction on a tape, produce printed slips and operate the cash drawer. The machine is key set and electrically operated. 4) Billing machines: Are used to prepare invoices, bills of lading, memo, etc. The machine makes all calculations of discounts, commission, addition, subtraction, total, etc. Papers and carbons are fed into the machine and set automatically. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 15 Accounting tabulating Cont’d 5) Accounting machines: Accounting and book keeping machines may as well be compared with typewriters. These machines are used for: Posting in journals, cash book, ledger, etc. Preparing of cheques, payrolls, cash receipt and payment sheet Preparing of copies of ledger accounts along with posting Calculating figures and drawing ledgers or cash book balances 6) Tabulating machines: These are combinations of adding machines and sorting devices and they involve two processes, sorting information into classes and adding up the total of cash class. If in an office a large amount of information is to be handled daily, automatic tabulating and sorting machines can be used. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 16 Electronic computer It is the latest addition to the long list of office machines. It is a general purpose machine with the capability of performing most clerical operations at high speed. It is an electronic device by which data is processed electronically at great speed. An electronic computer is a replica of human brain. It minimizes the chances of error and leads to an integrated approach for various systems of operation known as Electronic Data Processing (EPD). There are two kinds of computers; a. Analog and b. Digital computers. Analog computers are used for scientific and research data processing. Digital are used for calculating the data in one billionth of a second. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 17 Functions of a computer 1) It receives programmes of instructions, stores them in the memory and uses them when instructed. 2) Performs arithmetical calculations. 3) Serves as a store house of information. Provides information when required. 4) Arranges information in the desired sequence. 5) Helps in evaluating various courses of action 6) Applies checks to the data fed into the computer. Points out inconsistency in the data, if any. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 18 Advantages of computer 1) Can store a large volume of information. 2) Data is processed at a very high speed. 3) Computers help indirect savings by having its application to inventory control, stock evaluation, etc. 4) Computers relieve clerical staff from the routine and monotonous job. 5) Help in coordination and assimilation data for the whole business. For instance, it can easily reveal stock position of various courses of action. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 19 Disadvantages of a Computer 1) The installation of a computer often requires preparatory work regarding configuration, number of machines, networking, etc. 2) It is a costly device to install and maintain. It can be used only by big organisations. 3) Trained personnel are required to operate the computer. Thus labour cost is increased. 4) Maintenance cost of a computer is very high. Any break down of a computer would completely dislocate the office work. 5) The installation of a computer is generally resisted by the employees because they feel that it will lead to replacement of human labor. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 20 Furniture Office furniture is necessarily a part of the total environment in which the employees work. It can be described as a basic facility with which an employee identifies himself. Right kind of furniture must be provided so as to provide maximum comfort. The choice between the wooden furniture and metallic furniture will largely depend upon the following actors: 1) Amount of investment 2) Mobility 3) Safety against fire 4) Ease of maintenance 5) Design 6) Durability 7) Space occupied, etc. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 21 Principles in selecting the furniture 1. Funds: The amount of funds available determines the kind of furniture to be purchased; but at the same time it would be essential to keep in mind the most suitable type of furniture. 2. Durability: It is an important factor. Steel furniture, which is becoming quite popular in modern offices, is more long lasting than the wooden furniture. 3. Saving in space: Decisions regarding choice of furniture should depend upon the space available in the office and the number of persons working there. 4. Comfort: Furniture offering comfort must be chosen. This adds to speed and better morale of the employees. 5. Appearance: Good appearance of furniture improve the ambience of the office. Thus furniture should not only be functional but it should also have a pleasing appearance. 6. Hygiene: The ease of cleaning furniture or space underneath is a problem to be considered at the time of its choice. 7. Finish: Glossy surfaces should be avoided because they create glares and thus increase the tension. 8. Saving in labour: Economy in working is an important function of office furniture. Certain furniture has built-in units for storage that save movement and walking about by the employees. Preference should be given for such kind of furniture Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 22 Types of Furniture Every office requires different types of furniture. Furniture can be classified on the basis of its physical appearance like chairs, desk, etc. Another classification is on the basis of the purpose for which it is used e.g. Executive furniture, Special purpose furniture, Built-in furniture and General clerical furniture. 1) Desk: The performance of an office employee is very much influenced by the type of desk he uses. Therefore, a suitable type of desk should be provided to the employees. The primary function of any desk is to provide a suitable surface for writing, checking, sorting and examining. As far as possible, the desks selected for office should have a multi-purpose use. There are different types of desks for different persons depending upon the nature of work and status- i)Executive desk ii) general purpose desk and iii) Computer desk. 2) Executive desk: These are designed to suit individual tastes and quite often they are designed as a showpiece of an organisation. Their purpose is also to impress visitors. 3) General purpose desk: It is a general purpose single pedestal desk with les elaborate design. 4) Computer desk: Computer desks are generally standard flat-topped, single or double pedestal desk with provision for placing keyboard. 5) Tables : Are generally needed for sorting of mail dispatch, temporary housing of files, registers and file trays, for holding meeting of committees, etc. However, in some offices table fitted with drawers and other devices are still used by clerks for writing purpose. Most of these are of conventional dimensions. 6)Chairs: The types of the chairs which are in use in modern office are revolving chairs, saddle-seat chairs and computer operator chairs. There is a need for providing the right type of chairs to the office employees as they spend most part of the day in the office. Chairs meant for computer operators should have adjustable back rest to enable the user to perform their work efficiently. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 23 Think about Questions What are the factors to consider in selecting office furniture? Outline some principles underlying the selection of office furniture. Explain any three advantages of office mechanization. What are the demerits of office mechanization? Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 24 UNIVERSITY OF GHANA DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE EDUCATION DIPLOMA IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND ACCOUNTING UGBS 043: OFFICE MANAGEMENT Session Five– Office Management Systems and Control LECTURER: MRS. GIFTY AGYAPOMAA OKO-ADJEI Contact Information: [email protected] Session Overview The service provided by an office literally extends to all the departments of the organization. Apart from disseminating the information to the concerned departments, it also procures the required stationery forms and performs secretarial work on behalf of all the departments. In order to carry out this task effectively it has to device a procedure. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 2 Session Objective By the end of this session, the student will be able to: 1) Explain what office control is 2) Identify and explain office procedures 3) Describe what office management system is 4) Show how systems operate within and outside the organization. 5) Describe how office management systems benefit the organization. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 3 Topic Five OFFICE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND CONTROL Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 4 Meaning of office procedure A procedure is a series of logical steps by which all repetitive business actions are initiated, performed, controlled, and finalised. A procedure establishes what action is required, who is required to act and when the action is to take place. Its essence is laying down the chronological sequence and its implementation is translated into results or actions. A procedure is a planned sequence of operations for handling recurring business transactions uniformly and consistently. It is a series of operations directed towards achieving a particular objective such as placing orders, receiving the goods and inspection of the same. Every system is composed of a number of procedures. For instance, a pay roll is made up of a network of procedures for determination of wage rate, calculations of time spent on the job, wages and subsequently preparations of pay roll. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 5 Benefits and Procedures The importance of system analysis has gained so much of importance that there is now a strong trend to view an entire organization as one master system, consisting of separate systems for selling, credit, control, accounting, handling of personnel and carrying out other work sequences. The contribution of the procedures to office management effectiveness is as follows: Procedures Provide The Sequence Of Action: to perform any activity, every employee is instructed to follow a definite track. It minimizes delay and errors in the smooth flow of work. 1) Economizes the uses of resources: this is possible due to increase in efficiency and elimination of wasteful motions and delays. 2) Facilitates coordination: Good systems provide for coordination of different procedures necessary to perform a work. They can also serve as the basis for achieving coordination procedures among different sections of the organization. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 6 Cont’d 3) It serves as the basis of control: it provides mechanization for comparison of actual performance with standards and thereby facilitate correction of deviations. 4) Training system can be used to train the new employees: employees can be made to understand the details of their jobs easily, if they know the system and the relationship of their jobs to various systems. 5) Ensure smooth operations: the primary objective of the office procedure is to perform the office operations effectively and economically. This is achieved by simplifying the procedures, eliminating unnecessary business forms and records, avoiding duplication of activities and mechanizing the routines whenever possible to achieve economy and efficiency. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 7 Limitations of Procedures Office procedures suffer from the following limitations: 1) Limitation of planning: A procedure is no better than the planning that goes into it. Therefore, a procedure must be planned by doing sufficient ground work and it must be given a trial before it is put into practice. A procedure must be kept up to date because it may become obsolete due to changes in the organization. 2) Limitation of rigidity: A procedure may tend to be rigid as it represents ‘one best way of doing work’. Every procedure must incorporate an element of flexibility and should not discourage initiative from the employees. 3)Limitation of situation: A procedure may not succeed in all situations. It may fail to handle unusual situations. 4) Limitation of integration: Different procedure are inter- dependent requiring their integration for achieving the objectives, but integration of system is a very difficult task. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 8 Characteristics of a Sound Procedure A well designed procedure should possess the following characteristics: 1)Efficiency: A procedure is said to be efficient if it achieves the desired result by using the minimum time, effort and equipment. The value of output will be greater than the value of inputs 2)Effectiveness: A procedure is said to be effective if it accomplishes its goal within the constraints imposed upon it. It should ensure economy in the office operations. 3)Simplicity: A procedure should be simple to understand and follow. It may not be good to be complex. It should be so designed that it fits into the organizational requirements. 4)Consistency: A procedure should ensure consistent results every time, otherwise it will be devoid of reliability or dependability. It should cause minimum number of mistakes. 5)Flexibility: A procedure must be well defined and structured. It should not be so right that it discourages innovative ideas. It should be sufficiently flexible to absorb changes and to deal with exceptional problems. 6)Acceptability: A procedure should also be acceptable to those who are to use it. Therefore, a procedure should be designed keeping in view the human element. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 9 Guidelines for the formation of procedures The person responsible for the formulation of procedure should adhere to the following guidelines: 1)The purpose of the work should be determined, because the knowledge of the purpose is necessary for the formulation of procedure. 2)Each step in the procedure to be formulated should be carefully analysed in order to justify its purpose. 3)Each step in the procedure must advance the work and there should not be delay while doing the work. 4)It should avoid duplication of work. 5)It should minimize paper work. 6)It should help in reducing work time. 7)It should reduce unnecessary checking. 8)It should facilitate smooth flow of work without bottle necks. 9)It should make the best possible use of specialization Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 10 Flow of Work 1) Ways in which the work moves from one operation to another 2) The quantity or volume of work going through it 3) The rate at which it moves from one operation to another 4) Smoothness of its passage Every clerk must be supplied with sufficient work to keep him continuously employed throughout the day. Otherwise, efficiency will be affected due to wastage of time. In order to avoid wastage of time and resultant low efficiency, management must tackle the problem of flow of work with great care. In controlling output, the first and most important consideration is to handle work so that it shall flow steadily without any interruption; that is velocities at all points should be equal and uninterrupted. Thus, the flow of work should be planned in such a way that there is a constant and steady flow of work and that there is no wastage of time due to interruption in the flow. The manager should analyse and plan the proper flow of work, so that it flows smoothly at the desired speed without any interruption. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 11 Advantages of straight line in flow of work The flow of work should be in a forward direction with as few backward movements as possible. If this principle is not observed, there will be wastage of time, effort and delay in the flow of information. In view of this, work must always move forward. This will result in the following benefits: 1) As there is no back-tracking of work the speed of work will increase. 2) Files are handled in a systematic manner and because of this, they are not likely to be misplaced or lost. 3) There is no need for the movement of executives and clerical staff from their desks to the place where they want to send communications. This increases efficiency. 4) As the work moves in straight line for example, the work of the manager is reduced considerably. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 12 Difficulties in the flow of work 1) Unequal volume of work: generally, the office gets unequal volume of work during the day and because of this, it will be difficult to get an ideal flow of work for example, generally, the first mail received by the office is heavier than the mail received later during the day and thus there will be fluctuations in the volume of work handled by the mailing section. There will thus be interruption in the steady of flow of work. 2)Interruption to work: it affects the ideal flow of work. Interruption in work may occur due to lack of materials or information required for work, change of work due to poor planning or change in planning or callousness on the part of the manager or indifference or lethargy of the employees, or disturbance caused by visitors, etc. 3)Unequal time required for different operations: it may be possible that different operations may require different span of time for their completion. For example an operation of 4 minutes might take somebody else only 2 minutes. 4)Lack of standards: steady flow of work may also be affected if the work to be done by the individual clerks is not equal and no standards are fixed. In the absence of standards, some clerks will be over burdened with heavy work while others may have less work. 5)Lack of Planning and Scheduling: if the office manager does not plan and schedule the work before hand, it may be possible that important work may not be done quickly or may not be done within the allotted time. 6)Faulty layout: steadying of work may be affected if the layout of the office is not made according to a well devised plan. Crisscrossing and back tracking procedures will affect the flow of work. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 13 Analysis of flow of work In order to overcome these limitations, there is a need for the office manager to analyse the flow of work properly. The office manager has to prepare office layout charts and flow process charts. Office layout chart analyses the flow of work throughout the office. A flow chart may be defined as a “graphic representation of all sequence of all operations, transportation and inspection delays occurring during a process or procedure and also includes information considered desirable for analysis such as time required and distance marked”. The flow process charts help in simplifying the work procedure in the office system and routines due to which, it is known as “Work simplification chart” Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 14 Office Manuals Meaning of office manuals Controlling office activity is an important function of office management. Controlling becomes a difficult task in large organizations with a number of departments, divisions or branches. The large size of the organization, with large number of employees, makes it compulsory to put policies, regulations, functions, systems, procedures and methods framed with the view to guide the efforts of employees in the organization. In other words, an office manual is a guide book containing enough guidelines necessary, for the highest performance of the job. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 15 Need for Office Manuals Office manuals are needed for a variety of reasons, more important of which have been outlined below: 1) Avoids Duplication. Office manuals are prepared with a view to eliminate the need for constant repetition of instructions. This saves time since matters are disposed of without reference to the higher levels of the organization 2) Standardisation of Instructions. Instructions are standardised so that there is uniformity in the implementation of policies, regulations, procedure, and methods. Such uniformity is needed to give a fair deal to every employee in the organization. 3) Fixation of Responsibility. Office manuals fix responsibility for performing duties. Once instructions have been issued in book form, each employee can be held responsible for the manner in which they are carried out. 4) Aids Employee Training. Manuals are prepared to aid training, new and old employees. Established systems, procedures and duties are available in definite and compact form to the new employees. They prove useful for giving refresher courses to old employees. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 16 Types of office manuals Office manuals are of many types and may be grouped into five broad categories. They are: 1) Policy manual 2) Organization manual 3) Administrative practice manual 4) Departmental practice manual 5) Multi-purpose office manual Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 17 Types of Manuals Cont’d Policy Manuals: it can be described as a definite course of action or principle of procedure. Thus a policy defines the limits within which activities take place. Thus, a policy manual states broad managerial actions that are likely to take place. It therefore, contains decision, resolution and direction of the Board of Directors stating policies of the company. Organization Manual: organization manuals are an integral part of the organization charts. An organization manual can be defined as a written record of details regarding the description of various types of positions, their inter-relation and their authority and responsibility of each such position. In a large organization, there would be a separate section of the organization manual, each dealing with a specific department or even a section of a department. The organization manual represents the company as a whole and is an aid to determine the procedure for different departments Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 18 Types of Manuals Cont’d Administrative Practice Manual: it can be defined as a manual which contains procedure that affect all departments. Standard procedures or methods are explained in this manual to carry on work of the organization. This manual provides an overview which is to be used in each department and forms the basis for departmental practice manuals. The subject matter of administrative can be education and training of employees; personnel and public relation; instruction regarding correspondence and reports; and instructions for preparing and administering the budget. Departmental Practice Manual: it can be defined as a manual that deals with the internal policies, organization and procedures of an individual department. Thus, its scope is more limited than other manuals. In this case, every departmental or sectional writer. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 19 Types of Manuals Cont’d Types of departmental practice manuals There are many types of departmental practice manuals, each covering a different type of activity. Some of the common manuals are: 1) Mailing Manual: A mailing manual gives detailed instruction in all phase of handling both incoming and outgoing mail. 2) Filing mailing: a filing manual is for requirement of proper filing and contains such rules and regulations as may seem desirable. It facilitates supervision, aids in training new workers, standardises filing and speeds up filing work. 3) Corresponding Manual: this manual contains instructions regarding handling of correspondence, tone and structure, opening and closing of letters, inter-department correspondent, punctuation, words, sentences and phrases, the appearance of letter and the supervision of correspondence. The correspondence manual aims at standardising the correspondence work of a large organization. 4) Communication manual: a communication manual attempts to guide employees in selecting a suitable communication service which is the most efficient and less expensive to the organization. For example, where to use courier services, how to use and so on. 5) Procedures and system manual for computers: In those organizations that computers have been installed, procedures and manuals for computer use must be prepared. Such a manual should specify how efficiently the computer can be used and to what purpose. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 20 Types of Manuals Cont’d A multi-purpose manual serves as a hand book for office employees. It usually combines the essential parts of various manuals which are used by a large number of employees. It offers the following advantages: 1) It explains personal policies, as well as rules and regulations to new employees. 2) It eliminates friction and misunderstandings among workers and management as everything is defined precisely. 3) It also explains to outsiders what the organization stands for. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 21 Principles of Manual Preparation 1)Centralization: authority and responsibility for the office manual program should be centralised 2)User specification: the level of employee who is to use the manual is to be specified 3)Preparation for distribution list: this ensures distribution of manuals to those who are to have them 4)Language: language should be simple and direct 5)Arrangement: the material should be arranged in a simple manner without much complication 6)Indexing: the matter should have proper cross referencing and indexing 7)Pictorial representation: it should make use of diagrams, etc wherever required 8)Revision: manual should be revised periodically and changes should be highlighted 9)Audit: periodic audit should be carried out. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 22 Steps in Preparing Manual 1. Define the subjects to be covered by manuals 2. Organise a committee to prepare the manual 3. Determine the number of manuals to be prepared 4. Prepare the questionnaires for the steady flow of work within each department and of the job analysis of each position 5. Assemble the data from the questionnaires with clarity and record the same under proper headings 6. Study the data to determine over lapping of jobs or duplication of functions 7. Prepare and edit the manuals Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 23 Writing the Office Manuals 1. Simple, correct and direct language should be used in keeping in view of the users. 2. Objective of the manual must be clearly stated along with the policies and objectives of the organisation 3. The command style should be used 4. The idea should be expressed in a positive manner 5. Directions should be brief 6. The manual should be broken in small sentences 7. Proper use of underlining should be made to emphasize on the importance of a term, a sentence or policy etc. 8. Paragraph must be built around a singular idea to avoid confusion and over lapping of ideas Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 24 Revisions of Office Manuals 1. The responsibility of revising a manual rest on the department that created it 2. It is necessary to revise the manuals as frequently as practicable 3. When no provision has been made to revise manuals and the responsibility of revising them is not fixed, manuals should be discarded. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 25 Distribution of Office Manuals Office manuals are useless unless they are properly distributed among employees for whom they are meant. In fact they would be responsible for carrying out the instruction and ideas given in manuals. Organizational manuals may be distributed only amongst the major executives in rare cases and amongst those with lesser responsibility. The different departmental practice manuals should be distributed to departments directly affected by them. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 26 Advantages of Office Manuals The use of office manuals offer many advantages to the management as well as the employees. Some importance of office manuals are as follows: 1) Economy: manuals bring about economy in functioning. Routine matters are not referred upwards for decision. The best routine for work is described with exactness. Thus a lot of time is saved 2) Placement of responsibility: manuals define responsibility for work accomplishment which is the basic principle for successful management. Thus errors also get eliminated. 3) Standardisation of Procedures: the working of different department and their work methods are studied and analysed carefully at the time of preparing the office manuals. Thus, the work methods can be standardised to assure smoother flow of work, elimination of duplication of work and overlapping of functions. 4) Aids training: new employees can be trained with great ease since manual indicates simple and clear instructions for work. The new entrants must consult manuals and seek a brief guidance, where necessary, to do work. 5) Greater co-operation: manuals knit the organization thoroughly since they are standardised reference guide for work procedures, different persons working in different departments know each other’s problem well. This leads to a greater cohesion and co-operation. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 27 Practice Questions What is referred to as office procedure? Outline the benefits and limitations of office procedures. What are the benefits of flow of work? Discuss the various possible difficulties of a flow of work. Mention and explain the types of office manuals we have. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 28 UNIVERSITY OF GHANA DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE EDUCATION DIPLOMA IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND ACCOUNTING UGBS 043: OFFICE MANAGEMENT Session Six– Business Reports and Meetings LECTURER: MRS. GIFTY AGYAPOMAA OKO-ADJEI Contact Information: [email protected] Session Overview Meetings and reports are essential parts of an office work. They are used as monitoring, review and evaluation of work process. Every student entering the world of work must understand in detail the processes of office reports and meetings. This topic would therefore introduce you to meetings and reports. It would also give you the skill of writing business minutes, organization of formal meetings etc. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 2 Session objective By the end of the lesson, the student will be able to: 1) Define what a report is with examples. Identify the characteristics of both formal and informal meetings in an organization 2) Explain the different dimensions of a meeting and also write how to organize a formal meeting. 3) Write the minutes of meeting indicating all the necessary features. 4) Identify and explain the roles of the key stakeholders in a meeting Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 3 Topic six BUSINESS REPORTS AND MEETINGS Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 4 What is a business report? A business report could be described as a factual presentation of data or information directed to a particular reader or a group of readers, for a specific business purpose. Business reports are a type of assignment in which you analyse a situation (either a real situation or a case study) and apply business theories to produce a range of suggestions for improvement. Business reports are typically assigned to enable you to: Examine available and potential solutions to a problem, situation, or issue. Apply business and management theory to a practical situation. Demonstrate your analytical, reasoning, and evaluation skills in identifying and weighing-up possible solutions and outcomes. Reach conclusions about a problem or an issue. Provide recommendations for future action. Show concise and clear communication skills. A report must be accurate, clear and logically arranged. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 5 Types of Reports 1)Formal Reports: Formal reports are usually written by a committee or group of people after a fairly detailed research. They are commissioned reports written by an individual, a committee or a management consultant. It is based on specific terms of reference and thus require extensive work to produce. For instance, a report of a feasibility study for a project or a report of a commission of enquiry. 2) Informal Reports: These are written by individual members of an organization and are in a narrative form. Informal reports may be prompted by the observation of individuals, suggestions on methods of improvement etc. It has no items of reference and sometimes takes the form of a letter, pre printed form or memo. These are less complex and of a longer status, e.g. a subordinate reporting to his head of department. 3) Routine Reports: These are recurrent reports. They are standardized periodic reports by departments of the organization and are usually concerned with activities of the department for a specific period usually on monthly or quarterly basis. They take the form of pre printed forms required to be completed by inserting the available statistical figures and making the necessary remarks.eg, report on sale, visits, equipment and maintenance reports, safety reports, accident reports, program reports etc. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 6 Types of Reports Cont’d 4) Administrative Reports: Administrative reports include reports on conferences, meetings and other reports within the organization. They are not routine in nature and are not needed for the efficient running or performance of the organization. 5) Special Reports: Special reports are reports written in response to requests for specific information.eg reports made on a special topic after research and investigation, reports regarding a change of policy and market research report. The ultimate purpose of any report is to provide the foundation for decisions to be made and action taken. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 7 Uses/Purposes of Reports 1) Reports keep the executive up-to-date with events, developments and projects. 2) Reports serve as the basis for decision-making in an organization. 3) Reports give employees an understanding of aims, objectives, policies, procedures, problems and future outlook of an organization. 4) Reports develop in employees and management a sense of positive attitudes, loyalty, respect and teamwork. 5) They are aimed at identifying problems, and they also evaluate and interpret data. 6) They make recommendations about the best solution. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 8 Layout/Format of a Report A good report must have the following parts: 1) Date: for reference purpose, reports must be dated. 2) Name and address of the recipient: Reports must be addressed to a specific person or group of persons, that is, the name and address of the recipient must be clearly and fully written. 3) The heading or subject matter: the subject matter, date, place and time should be fully written and underlined. 4) The introductory paragraph: It should state the circumstances or instructions that called for the report. 5) The body of the Report: this part of the report should contain the investigations carried out. 6) Recommendations: these are suggestions to solve the problem. 7) Actions to be taken: This portion states clearly what actions are to be taken, who takes the actions and the time such actions are to be taken. 8) The signature: the reports must be signed. The signature block of a report written by an individual would be. Mrs. Gifty Agyapomaa Oko-adjei Slide 9 Meetings A meeting is defined as the coming together of a group of people for any lawful purpose. It can also be said to be an

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