Transes-AnaPhy-m.pdf - Physiology Study Guide

01D – DR. CUSTODIO i.) Gastrointestinal Physiology - 10. Assimilation – Changing absorbed TOPIC OVERVIEW functions of the stomach and intestines. substances into chemically different I. Introduction to...

01D – DR. CUSTODIO i.) Gastrointestinal Physiology - 10. Assimilation – Changing absorbed TOPIC OVERVIEW functions of the stomach and intestines. substances into chemically different I. Introduction to AnaPhy Duodenum- first part of the small intestine. substances. II. Branches of AnaPhy It helps to digest food that comes from the stomach. It absorbs nutrients (vitamins, 11. Excretion – removal of wastes III. Characteristics of Life minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins) and IV. History of Physiology water from food so they can be used by the V. Body Systems body. 12. Perspiration – to secrete sweat using VI. Homeostasis the sweat glands and emit it to the external Jejunum – is in the middle. Helps further environment. VII. Feedback digest food coming from the stomach. Does the most chemical digestion. EXERCISE.. Ileum – last part, connects to the cecum INTRO TO ANAPHY (first part of the large intestine) 1. I am walking to McDonalds – stomach = tuwalya Movement ANATOMY – Study of external and 2. I stopped at the traffic lights – j.) Integrative Physiology – How internal structures and their relationship. Responsiveness different body parts work together to Science of structure of the human body and accomplish a particular function from the relationship among structures. (Ana= Up, 3. My body is growing – Growth molecular, cellular, tissue, and organ Tomy= Cut) levels. 4. I am breathing air – Respiration PHYSIOLOGY – Study of how the k.) Exercise Physiology – Changes in structure of these organisms performs 5. I got a hamburger and ate it – Digestion cell and organ functions result from their functions. It is the science of body muscular activity. 6. My body absorbed the hamburger – functions and how the body parts work. Muscular Hypertrophy refers to increased Absorption “Functions” (Physio = Nature, Logy = muscle mass, and fibers can increase in Study of) number. 7. The hamburger’s nutrients are carried in Atrophy is the wasting or thinning of my blood & distributed throughout my BRANCHES OF PHYSIOLOGY your muscle mass. It can be caused by body – Circulation SUBDISCIPLINE disuse of your muscles or neurogenic conditions. 8. The hamburger is changed to things my Hyperplasia is an increase in the number body needs – Assimilation a.) Molecular Physiology- Functions of individual molecules such as proteins. of cells. 9. Eventually, I’ll go to the bathroom – Breakdown of Lipids: Fatty Acids Macroglossia is a disease in which the Excretion Breakdown of Proteins: Amino Acids tongue is larger than normal. 10. Someday, I’ll have kids – Reproduction b.) Cell Physiology – Functions of cell. l. Pathophysiology – Functional changes Spermcell:Reproduction associated with disease and aging. Nephron:Filtration HISTORY OF PHYSIOLOGY Neuron: Conduction CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE c.) Neurophysiology – Functions of - Physiology means “study of nature” nervous systems. (physio= nature; logy= study of) derived 1. Movement- self initiated chance in from the Greek word physiologoi (Fi z’-e— d.)Endocrinology – Hormones (chemical position, motion of internal parts. OL -o – goy), a name that refers to a group regulation in the blood) and how they of ancient Greek philosophers of the sixth 2. Responsiveness (irritability) - ability control body functions. and 5 th centuries B.C who speculated to sense changes within or around the about the existence and purpose of all e.)Cardiovascular Physiology - organism and react to them things (living and nonliving) in the natural Functions of heart, blood vessels, and 3. Growth - increase the body size world. blood. RBC – transport of oxygen (fist size, cone 4. Reproduction – Parents produce - Hippocrates: Greek physician (460-375 shape) offspring/ producing new individuals. B.C) considered the “Father of Medicine”, 4 Chambers of Heart: Left atrium & right thought that the normal functioning of the atrium, left ventricle & right ventricle) 5. Respiration – Obtaining oxygen (O2), body depended on the balance of four types Aorta: Largest Artery in the body. using it to release energy from food of bodily fluids, or humors (blood, phlegm, Veins: blood vessels throughout your substances, and getting rid of wastes (CO2) yellow bile, and black bile) and that illness body that collect oxygen-poor blood and resulted when these humors were out of return it to your heart. 6. Metabolism – the sum of chemical balance. Arteries: distribute oxygen-rich blood to reactions that take place in living cells, your body. Blood vessels that bring providing energy for life processes and the - Aristotle: The Greek philosopher oxygen-rich blood from your heart to all synthesis of cellular materials. Aristotle (384-322 B.C) proposed that of your body’s cells. - Catabolism – breaks down large, every part of the body is formed for a Capillaries: delicate blood vessels that complicated molecules into smaller ones to specific purpose and that an function of a exist throughout your body. produce energy. given body part can be deducted from its Vessels: transport nutrients to organs/ - Anabolism – biosynthetic buildup of cell structure. tissue and away from organs/tissue in the material from simple inorganic or organic compounds. - Erasistratus: The Greek physician (304- blood. 250 B.C) accurately described the function f.) Immunology – How the body defends 7. Digestion – chemically changing of heart valves (Mitral Valve, Aortic Valve, itself against disease-causing agents. (breaking down) food substances, and Pulmonary Valve, Tricuspid Valve) and getting rid of wastes) distinguished between sensory nerves g.) Respiratory Physiology – Function (carry signals to your brain to help you of the air passageways. 8. Absorption – Passage of digested touch, taste, smell and see) and motor Pharynx: supports respiratory and products (food substances) through nerves ( responsible for all voluntary digestive systems. membranes and into body fluids. skeletal and somatic movement such as Alveoli: the lungs and blood exchange moving the leg or arm. 9. Circulation – Movement of substances oxygen and carbon dioxide while throughout the body. breathing in and out. - William Hewson: English Physician (1739-1774) determined that a substance h.) Renal Physiology – functions of the now known fibrinogen is necessary for kidney. blood clotting to occur. - Galen: (A.D 130-201), another Greek Physician, correctly described functions of the kidneys and spinal nerves and demonstrated the arteries contain blood. Galen erroneously believed that air entering the body was the transformed by the brain, liver, and heart into “souls” or “spirits” that governed the vital functions of the body. Galen became UNDISPUTED AUTHORITY ON MEDICINE in the western world. - Renaissance: cultural movement in Europe from14th to the 17th century characterized by a revival of classical influences on art and literature. Beginning of modern science: Experimentation in the physical and life sciences started to flourish. Modern form is known as the Scientific Revolution during 16th and 17th. - William Harvey (1578-1657): through dissection and experimentation, he was HOMEOSTASIS able to correctly explain the circulation of blood through the body: The heart pumps from the heart, and veins return blood back - Is an inner STABILITY of the body, even to the heart. Harvey’s discovery is if the ENVIRONMENT OUTSIDE THE considered to be the beginning of modern BODY CHANGES. (Balance) experimental physiology. (Viena Cava – 1. It is achieved when the STRUCTURES largest vein ; Aorta largest artety) and FUNCTIONS are properly - Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) COORDINATED demonstrated the digestion of food in the 2. The entire regulation process of stomach involves a chemical process. HOMEOSTASIS is made possible by the (Mechanical process happens in mouth) COORDINATED ACTION of many - Carl Ludwig (1816-1895) invented ORGANS and TISSUES under the control kymograph, an instrument designed to of the NERVOUS and ENDOCRINE measure and record variations in fluid SYSTEMS. pressure. He was also the first to use 3. NOTE THAT when HOMEOSTASIS isolated, perfused organs for breaks down, we become SICK or DIE. experimentation. 4. STRESS: - Claude Bernard (1813-1878): By 19th century the cell as fundamental unit of life a.) One way to disrupt HOMEOSTASIS ( the cell theory) was firmly established, is to introduce STRESS, Claude first proposed that the cells of a b.) STRESS is the overall disruption that multicellular organism flourish because forces the body to make ADAPTIVE they live in the relative constancy of le CHANGES. milleu interieur – the internal environment c.) Factors causing stress are called – despite continual changes in the STRESSOR. Ex: Heat, Cold, Viruses, organism’s external environment. Mental Disturbances, Hormones, People - Walter B. Cannon (1871-1945) later - is a response to the INITIATING coined the term homeostasis to describe STIMULUS It can be POSITIVE OR this internal constancy. NEGATIVE. - Otto Frank( 1865-1944) & Ernest a. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK: When the Starling(1866-1972): described how the response is OPPOSITE strength of the heart’s contraction is affected by the degree of stretch of the to the initiating stimulus. e.g. Increased heart wall – the so called Frank-Starling production of HEAT by the body to oppose law of the heart. the effect of COLD weather. - Alan Hodgkin (1914-1998) & Andrew b. POSITIVE FEEDBACK: When the Huxley (1917-2012) described the response REINFORCES mechanism of the action potential in a giant squid axon. the initial stimulus. e.g. When blood glucose level DECREASES , the response - Hugh Huxley (1929-2013) along with of positive feedback is to DECREASE it several others described the sliding further. filament mechanism of muscle contraction. * POSITIVE FEEDBACK LEADS TO DEATH, EXCEPT IN BODY SYSTEM CASES SUCH AS CHILD DELIVERY, WOUND HEALING and a few other examples.  called mitosis. But larger eukaryotic organisms, like animals, reproduce in a different way. Two different cells, called 01D – DR. CUSTODIO gametes, come together to make a new life. 3. Prokaryotes were the earliest and Gametes are made through most basic forms of life meiosis. TOPIC OVERVIEW Prokaryotes can live in extreme I. Cells environments that would be deadly to most other organisms. Some archaeans even live II. 10 Truths about Cell and parts in animal intestines. Others live in hot III. 2 Membrane Function springs, swamps and wetlands. IV. Cell Division 4. There are more bacteria in the body 8. Groups of cells form tissues. than human cells. Tissues are groups of cells that are the CELL same type and have the same role. Different Some scientists have found that, in a person's body, there are 9 bacteria for every types of tissues can also come together to Cells are the basic building blocks of life. human cell. In other words, our body is form organs, like hearts and lungs. home to a huge amount of bacteria, which All living things, or organisms, 9. Cells have varying life spans. often work to help it out. are made of cells. Different cells have different life spans, For example, bacteria in the stomach help from a few days to a year. Brain cells can Some life forms are made of a it with digesting food. live for a whole lifetime. single cell. Humans, on the other hand, have up to 100 trillion cells 5. Cells contain DNA. 10. Cells commit suicide. in their bodies. Cells carry DNA and RNA, When a cell becomes damaged or infected, That is about 1,000 times the which are the information it will self-destruct. This is called number of stars in our galaxy! building blocks that tell cells apoptosis, and it keeps one damaged cell how to work. from harming the rest of the body. There are hundreds of different types of cells. They give our DNA and RNA are known as Cells with cancer are not able to go bodies their shape, give us nucleic acids. through apoptosis. This is why they keep energy, let us have children and copying themselves, through mitosis. They In prokaryotic cells, DNA is in much more. can then spread cancer to the rest of the the nucleoid. In eukaryotic cells, it is in the nucleus body. 10 TRUTHS ABOUT A CELL DNA form long strands called MEMBRANE FUNCTION chromosomes, which tell an 1. Cells are too small to see without a organism how to grow and look. microscope. PASSIVE TRANSPORT Human cells have 23 pairs of Cells come in many sizes, from 1 to 100 chromosomes, for a total of 46. - Refers to movement of molecules along a micrometers wide. There are a million gradient. micrometers in one meter, and more than 6. Cells contain structures called 25,000 in a single inch. In other words, organelles which have - A naturally occurring phenomenon cells are so small they are almost always specific roles. impossible to see with just your eyes. - Does not require the expenditure of Organelles are parts of a cell with certain energy on the part of the cell. The study of cells is called cytology. Since responsibilities. In prokaryotic cells, there cells are so small, it would have been is mostly one type of organelle called EXAMPLE: impossible to study them without the ribosome. Eukaryotic cells have many 1. DIFFUSION invention of the microscope. By using this different types of organelles, tool, cell biologists can see details of even 2. OMOSIS the tiniest cells. The nucleus controls how the cell grows and behaves. 3. FITRATION 2. There are two main types of cells. Mitochondria give the cell 1. DIFFUSION: spreading out of Cells are either eukaryotic or energy. molecules of gas or liquid from areas of prokaryotic. higher concentration to areas of lower The endoplasmic reticulum concentration until an equal concentration of Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus, which is makes carbohydrates, like sugar the molecules in the available space is an area that stores DNA and is surrounded & fats. reached. by a kind of skin called a membrane. Ribosomes help make proteins. Mechanism Of Diffusion Animals and plants have eukaryotic cells, and are called eukaryotes. The Golgi complex bundles up proteins and fats, and sends them Prokaryotes are tiny creatures that are where they need to be. made of a single, prokaryotic cell. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus Lysosomes help the cell digest with a membrane. Instead, they have an what's inside it. open area in the middle called nucleoid. 7. Cells have various ways of Bacteria and archaeans are examples of reproducing prokaryotes. Cells are able to make copies of themselves. Most prokaryotic cells do this through binary fission. In binary fission, a single cell splits into two new cells that are just like it. Eukaryotic cells can also split in two through a series of steps  Example: formation of urine in the kidneys is by filtration. hydrostatic pressure. The higher the pressure of the blood in the capillaries, the higher is the filtration rate. CONCENTRATION GRADIENT – the CELL DIVISION difference between the amounts of molecules present at two points, which determines the movement of molecules This process effects proliferation of cells required for the growth and maintenance Solute is the substance that is being of the organism. dissolved, while the Solvent is the dissolving medium. Somatic cells divide by mitosis while sex cells divide by meiosis. a) MITOSIS: ACTIVE TRANSPORT - No reduction Its rate depends on the following factors: Refers to movement of molecules - Produce diploid daughter cells -Temperature- warmer solutions diffuse against a gradient. genetically identical to their parent cell. faster Requires the expenditure of - Sister chromatids move towards opposite -Concentration of the solution- the energy on the part of the cell. poles greater concentration at some point in a Endocytosis is the ingestion of solution, the greater will be the tendency - Mitosis is the process of nuclear cell material by cells for diffusion division in nonreproductive, or Phagocytosis – cell eating somatic/germ cells. -Size of the molecules- larger molecules diffuse more slowly than smaller ones Pinocytosis – cell drinking - A fertilized egg, or zygote, divides by mitosis to produce a multicellular -Viscosity of the solution- the thicker the 1. ENDOCYTOSIS organism. solution, the slower is the rate of diffusion. Phagocytosis - Damaged cells are replaced by mitosis. 2. OSMOSIS Pinocytosis CHROMOSOMES: -occurs when unequal concentration of dissolved substances are separated by a semi- 2. EXOCYTOSIS --All nonreproductive cells in a species permeable membrane. have the same number of chromosomes. Transcytosis -Type of diffusion specifically for water -46 in humans molecules moving across a semi permeable membrane. Half of these chromosomes come from each parent. -The solution cannot pass through the membrane and the only way to attain equal -Result is two sets of chromosomes: Diploid concentration on both sides of the -- Chromosome 1 from Mom and membrane is for the solvent to move from chromosome 1 from Dad are called the area of higher concentration to the area of lower concentration. homologous chromosomes. Exocytosis - membranes of a vesicle inside the cell can fuse with the plasma membrane to discharge the contents of the vesicle outside the cell Transcytosis – a substance may be picked up on one side of the cell, transported completely across the cell and discharged on the other side. 3. FILTRATION occurs when water and dissolved substances move through a membrane because of unequal pressure on the 2 sides of the membrane.  Prophase – Chromosomes condense enough to be seen with There are two phases of cell division: a light microscope. --Mitosis – nuclear cell division - Spindle forms between the 2centrioles. Prophase -Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores. Metaphase Telophase -Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm Multiple nuclear divisions not accompanied by cytokinesis result in a multinucleate cell. ----------------------------------------------- CELL CYCLE Metaphase – Alignment of the chromosomes along center of cell Cells come from preexisting cells through (metaphase plate). the process of cell division. -Fibers attached to kinetochores on both Cell division – mitosis and cytokinesis – sides of each chromosome. occupy a very small portion of the cell cycle. -Anaphase – Separation of the sister chromatids. -Centromere splits apart – sister chromatids move toward opposite poles (migration) -Disassembly of the tubulin subunits shortens the microtubules. Interphase includes: G1 – growth phase where RNA and functional proteins are synthesized. Telophase – re-formation of the nuclei once the chromosomes are S – DNA replication. at opposite poles. G2 – growth phase where structural - Chromosomes unwind proteins are made. -Daughter cells are produced Mitosis Cytokinesis – division of the Cytokinesis cytoplasm. -During S phase, each of the 2 homologues -Two complete, diploid cells that are replicates, resulting in identical copies identical to the original cell. called sister chromatids. -During cytokinesis in animal cells, the -Chromatids remain connected at a linkage cell pinches in two. site called the centromere. -A cleavage furrow produced by microfilaments deepens until the cell splits.  rest of the body. Foreign particles and microorganisms at the site of injury are “walled off” 01D – DR. CUSTODIO from the tissues by clotting process. Pain and limitation of movement resulting from edema and tissue TOPIC OVERVIEW destruction all contribute to I. Tissue Physiology disturbed function (functio laesa) II. Tissue Damage and Inflammation III. Summary of Mediators of Acute Inflammation IV. Tissue Repair V. Basic Pattern of Repair VI. Fibrin Formation VII. Inflammation VII. Revascularization TISSUE DAMAGE AND INFLAMMATION Inflammation (flamma, flame) - response when tissues are damaged. - Agents that cause injury are microorganisms, cold, heat, radiant Chemical mediators also stimulate pain energy, chemicals, electricity and receptors and increase the permeability of mechanical trauma blood vessels. - This response mobilizes the body’s The increased permeability allows defenses, isolates and destroys materials such as clotting proteins and microorganisms and other injurious white blood cells to move out of the blood agents and removes foreign materials and vessels and into the tissue, where they can damaged cells, so that tissue repair can deal directly with the injury proceed. As proteins from the blood move into the What are the events in acute tissue, they change the osmotic inflammation? relationship between the blood and the tissue. Water follows the proteins by 1. Alteration in blood flow and vascular osmosis and the tissue swells, producing permeability edema. 2. Migration of WBC to injured site Edema increases the pressure in the tissue, which can also stimulate neurons and cause 3. Phagocytosis and enzymatic digestion of This disturbance is valuable in a pain. dead cells sense that it warns the person to protect the injury from further 4. Repair of injury by regeneration damage If the inflammatory response 5 CLINICAL SIGNS OR lasts longer or more intense, he MANIFESTATIONS OF or she can be given drugs to INFLAMMATION ARE: suppress the symptoms like antihistamines, aspirins rubor - redness (prevents the synthesis of prostaglandins and the anti- dolor - pain inflammatory drug) cortisone. tumor - swelling There will be times when the body’s inflammatory response is calor – heat not enough to combat the effects functio laesa – loss of function of injury or fight off an infection and that is the only time when Unpleasant it may seem but these antibiotics is required processes usually aid in recovery. TISSUE REPAIR After a person is injured, chemical substances called chemical mediators are Tissue repair is the substitution released/ activated in the tissues and the of viable cells for dead cells. adjacent blood vessels Tissue repair can occur by --Examples of mediators are histamine, regeneration or replacement kinins, prostaglandins and leukotrienes Regeneration – new cells are Clotting proteins present in Some mediators induce dilation of blood produced that are of the same type as blood diffuse into the interstitial vessels and produce redness and heat. those that were destroyed spaces and form a clot. Clotting Dilation of blood vessels is beneficial also occur by platelet Replacement – a new type of because it speeds the arrival of white blood aggregation in the injured blood tissue is produced as like producing a scar cells and other substances important for vessels. and causes loss of tissue function fighting infections and repairing the injury. Clotting isolates the injurious Most wounds heal by regeneration and agent and separates it from the replacement which process dominates depends on the tissue involved and the Neutrophils are killed in this A large amount of granulation nature and extent of the wound process and can accumulate as a tissue is converted to a scar, mixture of dead cells and fluid which consists of dense irregular 3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF CELLS called pus collagenous connective tissue ACCORDING TO ABILITY TO REGENERATE: Secondary union – if the edges At first, a scar is bright red are not close together or because numerous blood vessels labile- continue to divide throughout are present. Later, the scar there is extensive loss life. becomes white as collagen - adult stem cells, cells of mucus - when a wound that cannot be accumulates and the vascular membranes stitched causes a large amount channels are compressed hemopoietic and lymphatic tissues of tissue loss Healing is faster, with a lowered stable- low level of replication and can risk of infection and a reduced regenerate when signaled degree of scarring - connective tissue and glands, liver, pancreas do not divide after growth ceases but retain the ability to replicate and are INFLAMMATION capable of regeneration. permanent- very limited ability to REPAIR BY SECONDARY UNION replicate and if killed, a different type of cell will replace will replace it Because the wound edges are far apart, the clot may not close the gap - neurons, muscles (skeletal and cardiac) completely, and it takes the epithelial cells - another factor is when the cell body is much longer to regenerate and cover the not destroyed, recovery is imminent wound - cardiac muscles and skeletal muscles Increased tissue damage means that have limited ability to regenerate unlike both the degree of inflammation and the smooth muscles that readily regenerate. risk of infection are greater and there is more cell debris for the phagocytes to remove BASIC PATTERN OF REPAIR Much more granulation tissue forms, and the contraction of fibroblasts in Primary union/ intention – if the wound the granulation tissue leads to wound is close together like an incision from a contracture, resulting in disfiguring and scalpel debilitating scars - wound edges have smooth borders and It is advisable to suture a large wound, are in close vicinity so that it can heal by primary rather than secondary union - such wounds will heal within 6 – 8 days FIBRIN FORMATION - Fibroblasts from surrounding connective tissue migrate into the - clot and produce collagen and other extracellular matrix components. EVENTS IN PRIMARY UNION: - Capillaries grow from blood vessels - at the edge of the wound and The wound fills with blood and a revascularize the area and fibrin in clot forms the clot is broken down and removed - The result is the replacement of the The clot contains the threadlike clot by granulation tissue, a delicate, protein fibrin, which binds the granular-appearing connective tissue edges of the wound together. that consists of fibroblasts, collagen The surface of the clot dries to and capillaries. form a scab, which seals the wound and helps prevent REVASCULARIZATION infection An inflammatory response induces vasodilation and takes more blood cells and other substances to the area. Blood vessel permeability increases, resulting in edema (swelling). Fibrin and blood cells move into the wounded tissues because of the increased vascular permeability Fibrin isolates and walls off micro organisms and other foreign matter. Some of the white blood cells that move into the tissue are phagocytic cells called neutrophils (ingest bacteria, thus helping fight infection. Also they ingest tissue debris and clear the area for repair) WOUND HEALING  01D – DR. CUSTODIO 3. Melanin absorbs ultraviolet light and - The body accomplishes releasing heat by protects underlying structures from its producing sweat. The sweat damaging effects. spreads over the surface of the skin; as it evaporates, the body loses heat. 4. Hair provides protection in several TOPIC OVERVIEW ways. -When blood vessels in the dermis I. Integumentary System Physio -The hair on the head acts as a heat constrict, less warm blood flows from II. Facts about Human Integument insulator and protects against ultraviolet deeper structures to the skin and heat loss III. Functions of the Skin light and abrasion. decreases. IV. Skin Receptors -The eyebrows keep sweat out of the V. Epidermal Layers & Keratinization eyes, 4. VITAMIN D PRODUCTION VI. Hair Growth & Stages -The eyelashes protect the eyes from - Vitamin D functions to stimulate the VII. Maintaining Homeostasis/Wound foreign objects uptake of calcium and phosphate from the Healing -Hair in the nose and ears filters dust intestines , to promote their release from VII. Skin Cancer and other materials. bones and to reduce calcium loss from the VIII. Burns - Axillary and pubic hair are a sign of kidneys, resulting in increased blood IX. UV rays and skin sexual maturity and protect against calcium and phosphate levels X. Rule of Nines abrasion. - these minerals are necessary for normal XI. Developmental Aspects of the 5. Nails protect the ends of the fingers and bone metabolism and calcium is required Integument: Old Age toes from damage and can be used in for normal nerve and muscle function defense. - Natural sources of vitamin D are liver (especially fish liver), egg yolks, and dairy FACTS ABOUT HUMAN 6. The intact skin plays an important role products (e.g., butter, cheese, and milk). INTEGUMENT in reducing water loss because its lipids act as a barrier to the diffusion of water. - Largest organ (15% of body weight) - Surface area of 1.5-2 m2 2. SENSATION - The skin renews itself every 28 days - The average adult has -- Receptors in the skin can detect pain, approximately 21 square feet of skin heat, cold and pressure. - the epidermis and dermal papillae are - Weighs 9 lbs well supplied with touch receptors. - Contains more than 11 miles of -The dermis and deeper tissues contain blood vessels put together pain, heat, cold, touch, and pressure - A single square inch of skin has receptors. about 19 million cells and up to 300 -Hair follicles (but not the hair) are well sweat glands innervated, and sensory receptors - Your skin is its thickest on your feet surrounding the base of hair follicles can 5. EXCRETION (1.4mm) and thinnest on your detect hair movement eyelids (0.2mm) - Sweat contains water and salts, a - Your skin is home to more than SKIN RECEPTORS small amount of waste products, 1,000 species of bacteria including urea, uric acid and ammonia - Your skin constantly sheds dead cells, about 30,000 to 40,000 cells o Meissner’s corpuscles - - Still the urinary system excretes most every minute! That’s nearly 9 lbs. respond to fine touch and of the body’s waste products. per year! pressure, but they also respond - Some sources estimate that more to low-frequency vibration or than half of the dust in your home is flutter actually dead skin. o Tactile (Merkel) cells - - Dead skin comprises about a billion receptor cells detect light touch tons of dust in the earth’s o Ruffini endings - detect skin atmosphere. stretch and deformations within joints and also detect warmth FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN o Pacinian corpuscles - sense deep transient (but not prolonged) pressure and high- 1.PROTECTION frequency vibration also detect pressure and vibration when - The integumentary system is the body’s being compressed fortress, defending it from harm: o Krause end bulb - detect cold 1. The skin protects underlying structures from mechanical damage. -The dermis provides structural strength, preventing tearing of the skin. EPIDERMAL LAYERS AND The stratified epithelium of the epidermis KERATINIZATION protects against abrasion. - As the outer cells of the stratum corneum slough off, they are replaced by cells from the stratum basale. -Calluses develop in areas subject to heavy friction or pressure. 3. TEMPERATURE REGULATION 2. The skin prevents microorganisms and - When blood vessels (arterioles) in the other foreign substances from entering the dermis dilate, more warm blood flows body. Secretions from skin glands produce from deeper structures to the skin, and an environment unsuitable for some heat loss increases microorganisms. The skin also contains components of the immune system that act -Body temperature tends to increase as a against microorganisms. result of exercise, fever or a rise in environmental temperature  EVENTS IN EPIDERMAL WOUND HEALING 1. basal cells of the epidermis surrounding the wound break contact with the basement membrane. 2. The cells then enlarge and migrate across the wound as a sheet until 2. MIGRATORY PHASE advancing cells from opposite sides of the wound meet. The clot becomes a scab, and epithelial cells migrate beneath 3. When epidermal cells encounter one the scab to bridge the wound. HAIR GROWTH another, they stop migrating (contact inhibition) Fibroblasts migrate along fibrin -Migration of the epidermal cells threads and begin synthesizing stops completely when each is finally in scar tissue (collagen fibers and - GROWTH STAGE - contact with other epidermal cells on all glycoproteins), and damaged --Hair is formed by matrix cells that sides. blood vessels begin to regrow differentiate become keratinized and die (revascularization) 4. As the basal epidermal cells migrate, a --Hair grows longer when cells are added hormone called epidermal growth factor the tissue filling the wound is to the base of the hair root basal stem cells to divide and replace the called granulation tissue ones that have moved into the wound. --Hair growth stops, hair follicle shortens The relocated basal epidermal cells divide and holds the hair in place to build new strata, thus thickening the new epidermis GROWTH (ANAGEN) STAGE DEEP WOUND HEALING cells of the hair matrix divide. As new cells from the hair matrix --when an injury extends to the dermis are added to the base of the hair and subcutaneous layer. root, existing cells of the hair root are pushed upward and the --healing process is more complex hair grows longer. While the --because scar tissue is formed, the healed cells of the hair are being pushed tissue loses some of its normal function upward, they become keratinized and die --occurs in four phases: 3. PROLIFERATIVE PHASE for 2 to 6 years 1) inflammatory phase, - extensive growth of epithelial cells --Hair loss of 100 strands per day is normal-- 2.) migratory phase, beneath the scab, deposition by fibroblasts of collagen fibers in random patterns, and - RESTING STAGE - 3.) proliferative phase continued growth of blood vessels --Follows growth stage and a new cycle 4.) Maturation phase 4. MATURATION PHASE begins, new hair replaces the old which falls out of the follicle scab sloughs off once the epidermis has been restored --The length of each stage depends on the 1. INFLAMMATORY PHASE to normal thickness. type oh hair: eyelashes growth stage is about 30 days and rest for 105 days. Scalp a blood clot forms in the wound Collagen fibers become more hair growth is 3 yrs and rest for 1 to 2 years and loosely unites the wound organized edges REGRESSION (CATAGEN) STAGE fibroblasts decrease in Involves inflammation, a number o When the cells of the hair matrix vascular and cellular response stop dividing, the hair follicle that helps eliminate microbes, blood vessels are restored to atrophies (shrinks) and the hair foreign material, and dying normal stops growing tissue in preparation for repair. o for 2 to 3 weeks vasodilation and increased RESTING (TELEGON) STAGE permeability of blood vessels associated with inflammation o For 3 months enhance delivery of helpful cells. o Following the resting stage, a These include phagocytic white new growth cycle begins blood cells neutrophils; o Old hair root falls out or is monocytes, which develop into pushed out of the hair follicle, macrophages that phagocytize and a new hair begins to grow in microbes; and mesenchymal its place cells, which develop into fibroblasts. MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS WOUND HEALING ADDENUM Fibrosis - process of scar tissue EPIDERMAL WOUND HEALING formation Even though the central portion of an hypertrophic scar - scar tissue epidermal wound may extend to that is formed during deep the dermis, the edges of the wound usually wound healing producing a involve only slight damage to raised scar that is elevated above superficial epidermal cells the normal epidermal surface but within the boundaries of the - Common types of epidermal wounds original wound include abrasions, in which a portion of skin has been scraped away, and minor burns.  keloid scar (cheloid scar) - If it Result of oncogene Burned area appears extends beyond the boundaries BRAF in men gray white, cherry red, into normal surrounding tissues or black; there is no ABCD - asymmetry, border initial or pain (since irregular, color mixed, and nerveendings are diameter over 6 mm destroed) Melanomas have the following Treatment - IV nutrition and characteristics (ABCD rule) fluid replacement, de-bridement, and infection control A: Asymmetry, the two sides of the pigmentedarea do not match B: Border is irregular SKIN CANCER andexhibits indentations The three major types of skin C: Color (pigmented cancer are: area)is black, brown, tan, and sometimes red A.) Basal cell carcinoma or blue B.) Squamous cell carcinoma C.) Melanoma D: Diameter is larger A. BASAL CELL CARCINOMA than6 mm (size of a pencil eraser) caused by repeated and Melanoma treatment and prognosis unprotected skin exposure to ultraviolet (UV) rays from Treate by wide sunlight surgical excision accompanied by Least malignant and most immunotherapy common skin cancer Chance of survival is Stratum basale cells proliferate poor if the lesion is and invade the dermis and over 4 mm thick hypodermis Slow growing and do not often metastasize Can be cured by surgical UV RAYS AND SKIN excision in 99% of the cases Forms of ultra violet light rays that are naturally occurring includes UVA, UVB and UVC, but they are not equally created. The sun is responsible for emitting each of the different B.) SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA types of UV light but they can also be found in man made Arises from keratinocytes of tanning beds and welding stratum spinosum torches Arise most often on scalp, ears, They encourage Vit D and lower lip production Grows rapidly and metastasizes UVC if not removed; if to lymph nodes, can be fatal Shortest wavelength (the shorter the result from prolonged exposure wavelength the more to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, harmful) either from sunlight or from tanning beds or lamps Do not penetrate the skin thanks to the Prognosis is good if treated by BURNS ozone layer radiation therapy or removed surgically Highest energy First-degree – only the portion on the UV epidermis is damaged spectrm Symptoms include UVB localized redness, swelling, and pain is the 2nd shortest wavelength and main Second-degree – epidermis and culprit of sunburn C. MELANOMA upper regions of dermis are damaged Also absorbed by Cancer of melanocytes is the ozone but about 5% most dangerous type of skin Symptms mimic first penetrates ozone layer cancer because it is: degree burns, but blisters also appear Can harm the Highly metastatic epidermis as little as 15 Third-degree – entire thickness minutes sun exposure Resistant to of the skin is damaged chemotherapy  They are stronger or weaker depending on time of day and season DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE INTEGUMENT: OLD Strong link in developing skin cancer AGE UVA Epidermal replacement of cells slows and skin becomes thinner Has the longest wavelength Skin becomes dry and itchy Penetrates the deepest Subcutaneous fat layer (dermis) and produces diminishes, leading to skin aging like spots, intolerance of cold wrinkles and even tans the skin Decreased elasticity and loss of subcutaneous tissue leads to About 95% penetrates wrinkles ozone layer Decreased numbers of Strong link in melanocytes and Langerhans’ developing skin cancer cells increase the risk of skin cancer UVA, UVB, AND Decrease in blood supply causes SUNSCREENS poor ability to regulate body temperature UVA and UVB are improperly called “tanning rays” and Functioning melanocytes “burning rays” decrease or increase; age spots Both thought to initiate skin cancer As sale of sunscreens has risen so has skin cancer those who use have higher incidence of basal cell chemical in sunscreen damage DNA and generate harmful free radicals --PABA, zinc oxide and titanium dioxide RULES OF NINES Estimates the severity of burns Burns considered critical if: Over25% of the body has second-degree burns Over 10% of the body has third-degree burns There are third-degree burns on the face, hands, or feet  01D – DR. CUSTODIO TOPIC OVERVIEW TYPES OF BONE CELLS I. Types of Cartilage Growth II. Bone Matrix: Organic & Inorganic Osteocytes III. Types of Bone Cells IV. Compact vs. Spongy - Mature bone cells V. Young vs. Mature VI. Intramembranous vs Osteoblasts Endochondral Ossification - Bone-forming cells VII. Steps in Intramembranous O. - Produce collagen and proteoglycans VII. Steps in Endochondral O. - Release matrix vesicles that VIII. Bone Fractures concentrate Ca 2+ and PO4 3− and form needlelike hydroxyapatite crystals TYPES OF CARTILAGE GROWTH Osteoclasts - Bone-destroying cells - Break down bone matrix for APPOSITIONAL GROWTH remodeling and release of calcium Chondroblasts in the Bone remodeling is a process by both perichondrium add new cartilage osteoblasts and osteoclasts to the outside edge of the existing cartilage. SPONGY The chondroblasts lay down new matrix and add new YOUNG vs MATUREE consists of interconnecting rods chondrocytes to the outside of or plates of bone called the tissue trabeculae INTERSTITIAL GROWTH Each osteocyte is associated with chondrocytes within the tissue other osteocytes through the divide and add more matrix canaliculi between the existing cells The surfaces of trabeculae are No increase in size covered with a single layer of cells consisting of osteoblasts with a few osteoclasts Trabeculae are oriented along the lines of stress within a bone BONE MATRIX: ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPACT BONE 35% ORGANIC denser and has fewer spaces organic material consists primarily of collagen and Concentric lamellae are circular proteoglycans layers of bone matrix that surround the central canal. 65% INORGANIC The outer surfaces of compact inorganic material consists bone are formed by primarily of a calcium phosphate circumferential lamellae crystal called hydroxyapatite The collagen and mineral components are responsible for the major functional characteristics of bone  - Cells within the spaces of the spongy contributes to the final shape of the INTRAMEMBRANOUS bone specialize to form red bone bone. OSSIFICATION marrow, and cells surrounding the - Osteoclasts remove bone from the developing bone specialize to form center of the diaphysis to form the the periosteum. medullary cavity, and cells within the - Embryonic mesenchyme forms a - Osteoblasts from the periosteum lay medullary cavity specialize to form collagen containing osteochondral down bone matrix to form an outer red bone marrow. progenitor cells. surface of compact bone - In long bones, the diaphysis is th - No stage is comparable primary ossification center, and - Embryonic mesenchyme forms the additional sites of ossification, called periosteum, which contains secondary ossification centers, appear osteoblasts STEPS IN ENDOCHONDRAL in the epiphyses. - Osteochondral progenitor cells OSSIFICATION - events occurring at the secondary became osteoblasts at centers of ossification centers are the same as ossification; internally, the - mesenchymal cells aggregate in those at the primary ossification osteoblasts form spongy bone; regions of future bone formation. The centers, except that the spaces in the externally the periosteal osteoblasts mesenchymal cells become epiphyses do not enlarge to form a form compact bone. osteochondral progenitor cells that medullary cavity as in the diaphysis. - Intramembranous bone is remolded become chondroblasts. The Primary ossification centers appear and become indistinguishable from chondroblasts produce a hyaline during early fetal development, endochondral bone. cartilage model with the bone's whereas secondary ossification - begins at approximately the eighth approximate shape that will later be centers appear in the proximal week of embryonic development and formed. As the chondroblasts are epiphysis of the femur, humerus, and is completed by approximately 2 surrounded by cartilage matrix, they tibia about 1 month before birth. A years of age become chondrocytes. baby is considered full-term if one of - skull bones, part of the mandible and - The cartilage model is surrounded by these three ossification centers can be the diaphyses of the clavicles perichondrium, except where a joint seen on radiographs at the time of will form connecting one bone to birth. another bone. - At about18–20 years of age, the last ENDECHONDRAL - The perichondrium is continuous secondary ossification center appears OSSIFICATION with tissue that will become the joint in the medial epiphysis of the clavicle capsule later in development. - Replacement of cartilage by bone - Embryonic mesenchymal become - When blood vessels invade the continues in the cartilage model until chondroblasts, which produce a perichondrium surrounding the all the cartilage, except that in the cartilage template surrounded by the cartilage model, osteochondral epiphyseal plate and on articular perichondrium progenitor cells within the surfaces, has been replaced by bone. - Chondrocytes hypertrophy, the perichondrium become osteoblasts. The epiphyseal plate, which exists cartilage matrix become calcified, and - The perichondrium becomes the during the time a person’s bones are the chondrocytes die periosteum when the osteoblasts actively growing, and the articular - The perichondrium becomes the begin to produce bone. The cartilage, which is a permanent periosteum when osteochondral osteoblasts produce compact bone on structure, are derived from the progenitor cells within the the surface of the cartilage model, original embryonic cartilage model. periosteum become osteoblasts forming a bone collar. Two other - After a person’s bones have stopped - Blood vessel and osteoblasts from the events occur at the same time that the growing, the epiphyseal plate periosteum invade the calcified bone collar is forming. First, the regresses into a “scar,” called the cartilage template; internally, these cartilage model increases in size as a epiphyseal line osteoblasts from spongy bone at result of interstitial and appositional - In mature bone, spongy and compact primary ossification centers (and cartilage growth. bone are fully developed, and the later at secondary ossification - Second, the chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plate has become the centers); externally, the periosteal center of the cartilage model absorb epiphyseal line. The only cartilage osteoblasts form compact bone. some of the cartilage matrix and present is the articular cartilage at - Endochondral bone is remolded and hypertrophy or enlarge. the ends of the bone. All the original becomes indistinguishable from - The chondrocytes also release matrix perichondrium that surrounded the intramembranous bone. vesicles, which initiate the formation cartilage model has become - approximately the eighth week of of hydroxyapatite crystals in the periosteum. embryonic development until as late cartilage matrix. as 18–20 years of age. - At this point, the cartilage is called - base of the skull, part of the mandible, calcified cartilage. The chondrocytes the epiphyses of the clavicles, and in this calcified area eventually die, most of the remaining skeletal leaving enlarged lacunae with thin system walls of calcified matrix. STEPS IN INTRAMEMBRANOUS - Blood vessels grow into the enlarged lacunae of the calcified cartilage. OSSIFICATION Osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate - Intramembranous ossification begins into the calcified cartilage area from when some of the mesenchymal cells the periosteum by way of the in the membrane become connective tissue surrounding the osteochondral progenitor cells, outside of the blood vessels. which specialize to become - The osteoblasts produce bone on the osteoblasts. surface of the calcified cartilage, - The osteoblasts produce bone matrix forming bone trabeculae, which that surrounds the collagen fibers of changes the calcified cartilage of the the connective tissue membrane, and diaphysis into spongy bone. This area the osteoblasts become osteocytes. of bone formation is called the - As a result of this process, many tiny primary ossification center. trabeculae of woven bone develop - As bone development proceeds, the - Additional osteoblasts gather on the cartilage model continues to grow, surfaces of the trabeculae and more perichondrium becomes produce more bone, thereby causing periosteum, and the bone collar the trabeculae to become larger and thickens and extends farther along longer. the diaphysis. - Spongy bone forms as the trabeculae - Additional cartilage within both the join together, resulting in an diaphysis and the epiphysis is interconnected network of trabeculae calcified. Remodeling converts separated by spaces woven bone to lamellar bone and  BONE FRACTURES A break in a bone Types of bone fractures - Closed(simple) fracture – break that does not penetrate the skin - Open (compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates through the skin - Greenstick- frays, hard to repair, breaks like a green twig Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization Realignment of the bone  01D – DR. CUSTODIO bladder or sweat glands; and regulate TOPIC OVERVIEW blood flow through vessels. I. Properties of Muscular Tissue II. Functions of the Muscular System 7. Contraction of the heart. The III. Connective Tissue Coverings contraction of cardiac muscle causes the IV. Muscles and Muscle Fibers heart to beat, propelling blood to all parts V. Coverings of Muscle layers of the body VI. Energy VII. Sarcomere Arrangement and CONNECTIVE TISSUE Structure COVERINGS VII. Myofibril VIII. RMP, Depolarization, Fascia Repolarization Surrounds an individual skeletal muscle , IX. Action Potential separating it from other muscles X. Sodium Potassium Pump Fascia may extend beyond the ends of XI. Muscle & Nervous System the muscle to become a tendon XII. Sarcolemma Fascia may connect muscle to muscle XIII. Sliding Filament Theory and is called an aponeurosis /Mechanism XIV. Energy XV. Aerobic vs Anaerobic XVI. Muscles PROPERTIES OF MUSCULAR ENERGY TISSUE Fibers contain multiple mitochondria for energy Most fibers have multiple nuclei, - Like nervous tissue, muscles are specifically in Cirstae. excitable or "irritable” they have the ability to respond to a stimulus - Unlike nerves, however, muscles are SACROMERE ARRANGEMENT also: Contractible (they can shorten in length) Extensible (they can extend or stretch) Elastic (they can return to their original shape)  Seventeen muscles are used when you smile, and 43 of them when you frown MUSCLE AND MUSCLE FIBERS FUNCTIONS OF MUSCULAR SYSTEM Muscles are composed of many fibers that 1. Movement of the body. Most skeletal are arranged in bundles called FASCICLES Myofibrils are striated Striations due to muscles are attached to bones and are arrangement of thick and thin filaments responsible for the majority of body Individual muscles are separated by Seen as alternating areas of light and dark movements, including walking, running, FASCIA, which also forms tendons and bands The length of each myofibril is chewing, and manipulating objects with aponeuroses divided into repeating units called the hands. sarcomeres A sarcomere is the functional 2. Maintenance of posture. Skeletal Many large muscle groups are encased in unit of skeletal muscle muscles constantly maintain tone, which both a superficial and a deep fascia keeps us sitting or standing erect. SACROMERE STRUCTURE 3. Respiration. Skeletal muscles of the thorax carry out the movements necessary Sarcomere exists from Z-line to Z-line for respiration. A-Band is dark middle band -Overlapping think and thin filaments 4. Production of body heat. When I-Band – ends of A-Band, thin filaments skeletal muscles contract, heat is given off only as a by-product. This released heat is Z-line is in the middle if the I-Band critical for maintaining body temperature. Myosin filaments are held to the Z-line 5. Communication. Skeletal muscles are by titin proteins involved in all aspects of communication, including speaking, writing, typing, MYOFIBRIL gesturing and smiling or frowning. Contains protein filaments –ACTIN (thin) and MYOSIN (thick) 6. Constriction of organs and vessels. These filaments overlap to form The contraction of smooth muscle within alternating dark and light bands on the the walls of internal organs and vessels muscle fiber causes those structures to constrict. This Aband = dArk thick(myosin) constriction can help propel and mix food and water in the digestive tract; remove I band = lIght thIn(actin) materials from organs, such as the urinary In the middle of each I band are Z lines. A sarcomereis one Z line to another  Impulses are able to cross the synapse to another nerve Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s axon terminal The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that are stimulated by the neurotransmitter An action potential is started in the dendrite ACTION POTENTIAL If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is propagated over the entire axon Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes the membrane The sodium-potassium pump restores the original configuration This action requires ATP RMP SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL - 1 STARTING A NERVE IMPULSE change different across the plasma Depolarization – a stimulus depolarizes the membrane of cells neuron’s membrane A depolarized membrane allows sodium (Na+) to flow inside the membrane The exchange of ions initiates an action potential in the neuron. DEPOLARIZATION 2 NERVE IMPULSE De