Transcription and Translation PDF

10/29/2024 Unit 2: How Do Cells Decode Genetic Information into Functional Proteins? 93 How Do Cells Decode Genetic Information into Functional Proteins? It is a beautiful system made complex by many levels of control, on-off switches, feedback, and fine- t...

10/29/2024 Unit 2: How Do Cells Decode Genetic Information into Functional Proteins? 93 How Do Cells Decode Genetic Information into Functional Proteins? It is a beautiful system made complex by many levels of control, on-off switches, feedback, and fine- tuning. Segments of DNA are transcribed into RNA, and this RNA is then translated into proteins. The resulting proteins then fold into their three-dimensional configurations and combine with other proteins, or are decorated with sugars or fats to create finely-crafted tools for carrying out specific cellular functions. Protein functions range from structural supports and motors to catalysts of biochemical reactions and monitors of the cell's internal and external environments. 94 1  10/29/2024 2.1 Information Transfer in Cells Requires Many Proteins and Nucleic Acids How Is Genetic Information Passed on in Dividing Cells? When a cell divides, it creates one copy of its genetic information — in the form of DNA molecules — for each of the two resulting daughter cells. The accuracy of these copies determines the health and inherited features of the nascent cells, so it is essential that the process of DNA replication be as accurate as possible. 95 One factor that helps ensure precise replication is the double-helical structure of DNA itself.. In particular, the two strands of the DNA double helix are made up of combinations of molecules called nucleotides. DNA is constructed from just four different nucleotides — adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G) — each of which is named for the nitrogenous base it contains. Moreover, the nucleotides that form one strand of the DNA double helix always bond with the nucleotides in the other strand according to a pattern known as complementary base-pairing — specifically, A always pairs with T, and C always pairs with G (Figure 2). Thus, during cell division, the paired strands unravel and each strand serves as the template for synthesis of a new complementary strand. 96 2  10/29/2024 In most multicellular organisms, every cell carries the same DNA, but this genetic information is used in varying ways by different types of cells. In other words, what a cell "does" within an organism dictates which of its genes are expressed. Nerve cells, for example, synthesize an abundance of chemicals called neurotransmitters, which they use to send messages to other cells. 97 What Are the Initial Steps in Accessing Genetic Information? Transcription is the first step in decoding a cell's genetic information. During transcription, enzymes called RNA polymerases build RNA molecules that are complementary to a portion of one strand of the DNA double helix 98 3  10/29/2024 RNA molecules differ from DNA molecules in several important ways: They are single stranded rather than double stranded; their sugar component is a ribose rather than a deoxyribose; and they include uracil (U) nucleotides rather than thymine (T) nucleotides. Also, because they are single strands, RNA molecules don't form helices; rather, they fold into complex structures that are stabilized by internal complementary base-pairing. 99 Three general classes of RNA molecules are involved in expressing the genes encoded within a cell's DNA. Messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules carry the coding sequences for protein synthesis and are called transcripts; ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules form the core of a cell's ribosomes (the structures in which protein synthesis takes place); and transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules carry amino acids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis. 100 4  10/29/2024 mRNA is the most variable class of RNA, and there are literally thousands of different mRNA molecules present in a cell at any given time. Some mRNA molecules are abundant, numbering in the hundreds or thousands, as is often true of transcripts encoding structural proteins. Other mRNAs are quite rare, with perhaps only a single copy present, as is sometimes the case for transcripts that encode signaling proteins. mRNAs also vary in how long-lived they are. In eukaryotes, transcripts for structural proteins may remain intact for over ten hours, whereas transcripts for signaling proteins may be degraded in less than ten minutes. 101 Cells can be characterized by the spectrum of mRNA molecules present within them; this spectrum is called the transcriptome. Whereas each cell in a multicellular organism carries the same DNA or genome, its transcriptome varies widely according to cell type and function. For instance, the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas contain transcripts for insulin, but bone cells do not. Even though bone cells carry the gene for insulin, this gene is not transcribed. Therefore, the transcriptome functions as a kind of catalog of all of the genes that are being expressed in a cell at a particular point in time. 102 5  10/29/2024 What Is the Function of Ribosomes? Ribosomes are the sites in a cell in which protein synthesis takes place. Cells have many ribosomes. the number depends on the activity of a particular cell in synthesizing proteins. For example, rapidly growing cells usually have a large number of ribosomes 103 What Is the Function of Ribosomes? Ribosomes are complexes of rRNA molecules and proteins. Sometimes, ribosomes are visible as clusters, called polyribosomes. In eukaryotes, some of the ribosomes are attached to internal membranes, where they synthesize the proteins that will later reside in those membranes, or are destined for secretion. Although only a few rRNA molecules are present in each ribosome, these molecules make up about half of the ribosomal mass. The remaining mass consists of a number of proteins — nearly 60 in prokaryotic cells and over 80 in eukaryotic cells. 104 6  10/29/2024 What Is the Function of Ribosomes? Function of rRNA: Within the ribosome, the rRNA molecules direct the catalytic steps of protein synthesis — the stitching together of amino acids to make a protein molecule. In fact, rRNA is sometimes called a ribozyme or catalytic RNA to reflect this function. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic ribosomes: They are different from each other and these differences are exploited by antibiotics, which are designed to inhibit the prokaryotic ribosomes of infectious bacteria without affecting eukaryotic ribosomes, thereby not interfering with the cells of the sick host. 105 How Does the Whole Process Result in New Proteins? After the transcription of DNA to mRNA is complete, translation — or the reading of these mRNAs to make proteins — begins. Recall that mRNA molecules are single stranded, and the order of their bases — A, U, C, and G — is complementary to that in specific portions of the cell's DNA. Each mRNA dictates the order in which amino acids should be added to a growing protein as it is synthesized. In fact, every amino acid is represented by a three- nucleotide sequence or codon along the mRNA molecule. For example, AGC is the mRNA codon for the amino acid serine, and UAA is a signal to stop translating a protein — also called the stop codon 106 7  10/29/2024 How Does the Whole Process Result in New Proteins? A ribosome is composed of two subunits: large and small. During translation, ribosomal subunits assemble together like a sandwich on the strand of mRNA, where they proceed to attract tRNA molecules tethered to amino acids (circles). A long chain of amino acids emerges as the ribosome decodes the mRNA sequence into a polypeptide, or a new protein. 107 How Does the Whole Process Result in New Proteins? tRNA are responsible for matching amino acids with the appropriate codons in mRNA. Each tRNA molecule has two distinct ends: one of which binds to a specific amino acid, and the other which binds to the corresponding mRNA codon. During translation, these tRNAs carry amino acids to the ribosome and join with their complementary codons. Then, the assembled amino acids are joined together as the ribosome, with its resident rRNAs, moves along the mRNA molecule in a ratchet-like motion. The resulting protein chains can be hundreds of amino acids in length, and synthesizing these molecules requires a huge amount of chemical energy. 108 8  10/29/2024 (1) Translation begins when a ribosome (gray) docks on a start codon (red) of an mRNA molecule in the cytoplasm. (2) Next, tRNA molecules attached to amino acids (spheres) dock at the corresponding triplet codon sequence on the mRNA molecule. (3) (3, 4, and 5) This process repeats over and over, with multiple tRNAs docking and connecting successive amino acids into a growing chain that elongates out of the top of the ribosome. (6) When the ribosome encounters a stop codon, it falls off the mRNA molecule and releases the protein for use in the cell. 109 In prokaryotic cells, transcription (DNA to mRNA) and translation (mRNA to protein) are so closely linked that translation usually begins before transcription is complete. In eukaryotic cells, however, the two processes are separated in both space and time: mRNAs are synthesized in the nucleus, and proteins are later made in the cytoplasm. 110 9