Topic 6: The End of the Cold War PDF

Topic 6: THE END OF THE COLD WAR THE END OF THE COLD WAR The Political and Economic System of the USSR Until the Late 1980s Political System ◦ Communist Party Rule: The Soviet Union was a one-party state governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). The General Secretar...

Topic 6: THE END OF THE COLD WAR THE END OF THE COLD WAR The Political and Economic System of the USSR Until the Late 1980s Political System ◦ Communist Party Rule: The Soviet Union was a one-party state governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). The General Secretary was the most powerful figure, overseeing the government and military. ◦ Centralised Control: The state controlled all aspects of life, including the economy, media, and education. Political dissent was not tolerated, and the government maintained strict control over the populace through surveillance and censorship. ◦ Bureaucracy: A vast bureaucratic apparatus known as the "nomenklatura" managed the administration of the state, ensuring the implementation of party policies and maintaining loyalty to the CPSU. Economic System ◦ Planned Economy: The USSR had a centrally planned economy, where the state controlled production, distribution, and prices. Five-year plans set economic goals for sectors like industry and agriculture. ◦ Collectivisation: Agriculture was organised into collective farms and state farms, aiming to increase efficiency and production, but often resulting in inefficiency and low productivity. ◦ Industrialisation: Focus on heavy industry and military production led to significant industrial growth but often at the expense of consumer goods and living standards. ◦ Resource Allocation: Economic priorities were often determined by political goals, leading to imbalances and inefficiencies. Resources were directed towards military and industrial sectors, leaving consumer needs unmet. Challenges and Inefficiencies ◦ Stagnation: By the late 1970s, the Soviet economy was experiencing stagnation, characterised by slow growth, inefficiency, and technological backwardness. ◦ Resource Misallocation: Overemphasis on military spending and heavy industry resulted in shortages of consumer goods and poor living standards. ◦ Lack of Innovation: The absence of market competition and incentives stifled innovation and productivity, leading to technological lag behind Western economies. Gorbachev's Reforms in the Soviet Union Background ◦ Assumption of Power: Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary of the CPSU in 1985, recognising the need for reform to address economic stagnation and political inefficiencies. Key Reforms ◦ Perestroika (Restructuring): Aimed at reforming the economy by introducing elements of market mechanisms and reducing central planning. It included measures to increase enterprise autonomy, encourage private enterprise, and attract foreign investment. ◦ Glasnost (Openness): Promoted transparency and freedom of information, encouraging open discussion of social, political, and economic issues. It led to increased media freedom and public discourse, exposing governmental failures and corruption.  ◦ Democratisation: Introduced political reforms to increase participation and reduce the monopoly of the Communist Party. Multi-candidate elections were introduced, and power was gradually decentralised. ◦ Foreign Policy: Gorbachev pursued a policy of "New Thinking" in foreign relations, emphasising cooperation over confrontation. Key initiatives included reducing nuclear arsenals (INF Treaty, 1987) and withdrawing Soviet troops from Afghanistan. Challenges and Outcomes ◦ Resistance to Change: Reforms faced resistance from hardliners within the CPSU and bureaucratic inertia, limiting their effectiveness and implementation. ◦ Economic Difficulties: Economic reforms were inconsistent and poorly implemented, leading to further economic decline and shortages. ◦ Political Unrest: Increased openness led to rising political dissent and demands for greater autonomy in Soviet republics, contributing to political instability. ◦ Collapse of the USSR: The failure to adequately reform the economy and manage political tensions contributed to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, ending the Cold War. How the End of the Cold War Was a Game-Changer for South African Politics International Context ◦ Shift in Global Power Dynamics: The end of the Cold War reduced East-West tensions and changed the international landscape, affecting countries engaged in ideological conflicts supported by either the US or the USSR. ◦ Impact on Africa: The Cold War had influenced many African conflicts, including in Angola and Mozambique, where superpowers supported opposing sides. Its end led to a reduction in foreign military and financial support. Impact on South Africa ◦ Reduction of External Threats: The fall of the USSR and the end of its support for liberation movements in Southern Africa reduced perceived external threats to South Africa, prompting a reassessment of its security policies. ◦ Diplomatic Pressure: The international community increased diplomatic pressure on South Africa to end apartheid, with reduced geopolitical justification for Western support of the regime. ◦ Economic Sanctions: Global economic sanctions and disinvestment campaigns intensified, increasing the economic pressure on the apartheid regime. Domestic Changes ◦ Negotiation Process: The end of the Cold War created a conducive environment for negotiations between the apartheid government and liberation movements. The ANC, SACP, and other organisations gained legitimacy without being labeled as communist threats. ◦ Political Reforms: The apartheid government, recognising the changing global context, initiated political reforms and negotiations with the ANC and other anti-apartheid groups. ◦ Release of Nelson Mandela: In 1990, Nelson Mandela was released from prison, signalling a significant step towards ending apartheid and transitioning to democracy. ◦ 1994 Democratic Elections: The first democratic elections were held in 1994, resulting in a peaceful transition to majority rule and the election of Nelson Mandela as South Africa's first black president. THE NEW WORLD ORDER The USA's Relations with the Rest of the World Post-World War II Leadership ◦ Marshall Plan: Initiated in 1948 to aid Western European economies and prevent the spread of communism, strengthening US influence in Europe. ◦ NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation was established in 1949 as a military alliance to counter Soviet influence. Cold War Dynamics ◦ Containment Policy: The US adopted a strategy to prevent the spread of communism, leading to involvement in conflicts like the Korean and Vietnam Wars. ◦ Détente: In the 1970s, the US and Soviet Union pursued a period of improved relations, marked by arms control agreements like SALT I. Post-Cold War Era ◦ Unipolar Moment: Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the US emerged as the sole superpower, promoting democracy and free markets globally. ◦ Interventions: US foreign policy included military interventions in Iraq (1991) and the Balkans (1990s) and promoting peace processes, such as the Oslo Accords between Israel and Palestine. 21st Century Challenges ◦ War on Terror: Post-9/11, the US focused on combating terrorism, leading to wars in Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003). ◦ Pivot to Asia: Increasing focus on Asia, particularly in response to China's rise as a global power. ◦ Current Relations: Balancing cooperation and competition with major powers like China and Russia while addressing global issues like climate change and cybersecurity. The 1944 Bretton Woods Conference. Background and Purpose ◦ Economic Stability: Convened to establish a framework for international economic cooperation and prevent economic instability that contributed to WWII. ◦ Participants: 44 Allied nations met in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. Key Outcomes ◦ International Monetary Fund (IMF): Created to promote international monetary cooperation, exchange rate stability, and provide temporary financial assistance to countries. ◦ World Bank: Established to provide long-term loans for post-war reconstruction and development projects. US Dollar as Reserve Currency ◦ Gold Standard: The US dollar was linked to gold, and other currencies were pegged to the dollar, facilitating international trade and investment. ◦ Impact: Laid the foundation for the post-war economic boom and expansion of international trade, but faced challenges leading to the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in the 1970s. Globalisation Definition and Drivers ◦ Interconnectedness: Globalisation refers to the increasing interdependence of economies, cultures, and populations worldwide. ◦ Technology: Advances in transportation and communication technology have facilitated global trade and cultural exchange. Economic Impact ◦ Trade and Investment: Expansion of international trade and foreign direct investment (FDI), leading to economic growth and development. ◦ Inequality: Globalisation has contributed to rising income inequality within and between countries, benefiting some while marginalising others. Cultural Impact ◦ Cultural Exchange: Increased cultural interaction and exchange, leading to greater diversity and understanding. ◦ Cultural Homogenisation: Concerns about the dominance of Western culture and the loss of local traditions and identities. Political Impact ◦ Sovereignty: Globalisation challenges traditional notions of national sovereignty, with international organisations and agreements influencing domestic policies. ◦ Global Governance: Emergence of institutions like the United Nations, WTO, and multinational corporations in shaping global governance. The global dominance of Western capitalism Expansion of Capitalism ◦ Post-WWII Growth: Western capitalism, characterised by free markets and private enterprise, expanded globally after WWII. ◦ Neoliberalism: Since the 1980s, neoliberal policies emphasising deregulation, privatisation, and free trade have become dominant. Influence and Criticism ◦ Economic Growth: Capitalism has driven economic growth and innovation but is criticised for prioritising profit over social and environmental concerns. ◦ Inequality and Exploitation: Critics argue that capitalism leads to inequality, exploitation, and environmental degradation. Global Financial Institutions ◦ IMF and World Bank: These institutions promote capitalist policies and reforms in developing countries, often linked to structural adjustment programs. ◦ Critiques: Structural adjustment programs have been criticised for exacerbating poverty and inequality in some countries. The global balance of power Post-WWII Bipolarity ◦ US and Soviet Union: The Cold War era was characterised by a bipolar power structure, with the US and Soviet Union as superpowers. Post-Cold War Unipolarity ◦ US Dominance: After the Soviet Union's collapse, the US emerged as the sole superpower, leading to a unipolar world order.  Emerging Multipolarity ◦ Rising Powers: Countries like China, India, and Russia have gained influence, challenging US dominance and contributing to a more multipolar world. ◦ Regional Powers: Regional powers like the European Union, Brazil, and South Africa play significant roles in their respective regions. Current Dynamics ◦ US-China Rivalry: The strategic and economic rivalry between the US and China is a defining feature of the current global order. ◦ International Cooperation: Despite power shifts, global challenges like climate change and pandemics require international cooperation. The World Trade Organisation (WTO) Establishment and Purpose ◦ Creation: Established in 1995, the WTO succeeded the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) to regulate international trade. ◦ Objectives: Promotes trade liberalisation, ensures fair competition, and provides a platform for trade negotiations and dispute resolution. Functions and Structure ◦ Trade Agreements: Oversees multilateral trade agreements and ensures member countries adhere to agreed rules. ◦ Dispute Resolution: Provides a mechanism for resolving trade disputes between member countries. Criticism and Challenges ◦ Developing Countries: Criticised for favouring wealthy nations and corporations, with developing countries facing barriers to market access. ◦ Trade Disputes: Increasing trade tensions and disputes, particularly between major economies like the US and China. The effect of globalisation on Africa. Economic Opportunities ◦ Growth and Investment: Globalisation has facilitated economic growth and foreign investment in Africa, particularly in sectors like mining, telecommunications, and infrastructure. ◦ Trade Expansion: Access to global markets has increased exports, particularly in natural resources and agriculture. Challenges and Concerns ◦ Dependency: Many African economies remain dependent on exports of raw materials, making them vulnerable to global price fluctuations. ◦ Inequality: Economic benefits have been unevenly distributed, with persistent poverty and inequality. Cultural and Social Impact ◦ Cultural Exchange: Globalisation has led to increased cultural interaction and exchange, but also concerns about cultural erosion and Westernisation. ◦ Migration and Urbanisation: Increased migration and urbanisation as people seek economic opportunities in cities and abroad.  Political and Environmental Impact ◦ Governance: Globalisation has influenced governance and policy-making, with international organisations and agreements shaping domestic policies. ◦ Environmental Concerns: Exploitation of natural resources and environmental degradation are significant challenges facing many African countries. SOUTH AFRICA'S UNFINISHED PROCESS OF LIBERATION South Africa avoids civil war Negotiated Transition ◦ Apartheid Era: The apartheid system, characterised by racial segregation and oppression, faced increasing internal resistance and international pressure. ◦ Key Figures: Nelson Mandela (ANC leader) and F.W. de Klerk (last apartheid president) played crucial roles in negotiating a peaceful transition. Democratic Transition ◦ Negotiations: Multi-party negotiations led to the dismantling of apartheid and the drafting of a new democratic constitution. ◦ 1994 Elections: The first democratic elections were held in 1994, with the ANC winning and Mandela becoming the first black president. Reconciliation and Challenges ◦ Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC): Established to address past human rights abuses and promote national reconciliation. ◦ Challenges: Despite the peaceful transition, South Africa faced ongoing challenges, including inequality, crime, and political tensions. South Africa's debt burden, the RDP and the GEAR policy Debt Burden ◦ Apartheid-Era Debts: South Africa inherited significant debt from the apartheid regime, limiting the new government’s ability to implement reforms. ◦ Debt Repayment: Prioritising debt repayment over social spending was controversial, with debates over the legitimacy of apartheid-era debts. Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) ◦ Goals: Aimed at addressing socio-economic inequalities through infrastructure development, job creation, and service delivery. ◦ Implementation: Focused on housing, education, healthcare, and basic services, but faced challenges in implementation and resource allocation. Growth, Employment, and Redistribution (GEAR) Policy ◦ Introduction: Introduced in 1996 as a macroeconomic strategy to promote economic growth, fiscal discipline, and job creation. ◦ Criticism: Criticised for prioritising economic growth over social development, with limited success in reducing poverty and unemployment. Government, its critics and counter-critics Government Performance ◦ Achievements: Progress in areas like housing, education, and healthcare, with efforts to improve infrastructure and service delivery. ◦ Challenges: Persistent issues like corruption, inefficiency, and slow economic growth. Critics ◦ Civil Society and Opposition: Highlight governance failures and advocate for policy changes, emphasising issues like inequality and service delivery. ◦ Economic Policy: Criticism of economic policies that prioritise growth over social development and job creation.  Counter-Critics ◦ Government Supporters: Argue that progress has been made despite challenges, emphasising the complexities of addressing historical injustices. ◦ Policy Defence: Defend policies like GEAR as necessary for economic stability and growth. Response to globalisation Economic Integration ◦ Trade and Investment: South Africa has embraced globalisation through trade agreements and participation in international organisations like BRICS. ◦ Economic Diversification: Efforts to diversify the economy and attract foreign investment. Challenges and Opportunities ◦ Economic Competition: Globalisation has exposed South Africa to economic competition, affecting local industries and employment. ◦ Opportunities: Offers opportunities for economic growth, technology transfer, and cultural exchange. Cultural and Social Impact ◦ Cultural Exchange: Increased cultural interaction and exchange, but concerns about cultural erosion and Westernisation. ◦ Social Challenges: Globalisation has highlighted social challenges like inequality and poverty, necessitating policy responses. CIVIL SOCIETY AND NEW WORLD ORDER The rise of extremism Global Phenomenon ◦ Causes: Extremism is fuelled by socio-economic grievances, political instability, cultural tensions, and identity politics. ◦ Types: Includes religious extremism, nationalism, and right-wing populism. Impact and Response ◦ Violence and Terrorism: Extremism leads to violence, terrorism, and challenges to democratic institutions. ◦ Counterterrorism: Governments and international organisations have implemented measures to combat extremism, emphasising security and counter-radicalisation. Social Media and Radicalisation ◦ Role of Social Media: Social media platforms facilitate the spread of extremist ideologies and recruitment. ◦ Counter-Narratives: Efforts to counter extremist narratives and promote tolerance and understanding. Civil society resistance to global capitalism. Activism and Movements ◦ Anti-Globalisation Protests: Civil society groups have organised protests and campaigns against global capitalism, emphasising social justice and environmental protection. ◦ Occupy Movement: The Occupy Wall Street movement highlighted issues of economic inequality and corporate influence in politics. Key Issues and Demands ◦ Economic Justice: Advocacy for more equitable economic systems and policies that prioritise people over profit. ◦ Environmental Sustainability: Emphasis on environmental protection and sustainable development, challenging the exploitation of natural resources. Impact and Influence ◦ Policy Changes: Civil society movements have influenced policy changes and raised awareness about social and environmental issues. ◦ Alternative Models: Promotion of alternative economic models focused on sustainability, equity, and community empowerment.