Neuroscience & Behavior Past Paper PDF

30/10/2024  Why do psychologists study the brain & the nervous system? NEUROSCIENCE & BEHAVIOUR  How d...

30/10/2024  Why do psychologists study the brain & the nervous system? NEUROSCIENCE & BEHAVIOUR  How does the nervous system communicate electrical & chemical messages from one part to another? Topic 3  What are the basic elements of the nervous system?  How does the nervous system work?  1 2 Neurons are the basic unit of the nervous system. ‘Neuroscience & Behaviour’ is the study  Neurons of the brain & the nervous system.  Glial Neurons have a unique feature ~ the ability to communicate with other cells and transmit information Playing the piano, driving a car, & hitting a tennis ball across relatively long distances. Communication depends on specific & accurate muscle coordination. among neurons is necessary for normal functioning. For the muscles to produce the complex movements that make up any meaningful physical activity, the Neural networks: Clusters of brain must provide the right messages to the muscles neurons that communicate with and coordinate those messages. Such messages are each other. passed through specialized cells, called neurons. 3 4 The human body is made up of trillions of cells through the body & are involved in the control of behavior. Cells of the nervous system are specialized to carry “messages” through an electrochemical process. Different kinds of neurons perform different functions. Three major kinds of neurons are found in the body:  To learn how neurons carry messages, read about sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. the action potential. Together they make up the chain of nerve cells that  Chapter 3 – NEUROSCIENCE AND BEHAVIOUR carry an impulse through the nervous system. ►Module 7: How Neurons Fire ►Page 55 - 57 5 6 1  30/10/2024 1. Sensory (afferent) neurons 2. Motor (efferent) neurons Gather sensory information. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and Neurons that transmit information from the spinal cord & send an impulse to a muscle or gland, perimeter of the body to the nervous system so the muscle or gland reacts in response. & brain. # Motor neurons communicate information from the ► Respond to touch, sound, light & numerous other nervous system to the muscles & glands. stimuli affecting cells of the sensory organs that then send signals to the central nervous system. 7 8 3. Interneurons The Neuron An interneuron is a neuron that carries nerve impulses from one neuron to another. Interneurons are the neurons that provide connections between sensory neurons & motor neurons, as well as between themselves. 9 10 Neurons have… Neurons have…  Cell body that contains a nucleus that provides  Axon - carries information away from the cell body energy for the neuron. The nucleus contains the toward other neurons. hereditary material that determines how a cell will function.  Terminal buttons - the end of a neuron's axon, from which neurotransmitters are released. It transmits  Dendrites– a cluster of fibers at one end of a neuron that collects input or receives messages signals to the dendrites (to other neurons). from other neurons. 11 12 2  30/10/2024 Glial Neurons have… Neurons are physically held in place by glial cells. Glial cells are non-neuronal  Myelin sheath - a substance (protective coating of fat cells & represent the other & protein that warps around the axon) that speeds up major component of the nervous system. the neuron’s firing. Those axons that carry the most Glial cells do not have a direct role in information important & most urgently required information have processing but fulfill other roles necessary for the the greatest strengths of myelin. normal functioning of nerve cells (support & nutrition). 13 14 There are 3 types of glial cells in the mature central nervous system: astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglial cells. Glial cells provide nourishment to neurons & insulate Astrocytes ~ restricted to the brain & spinal cord, have elaborate local processes them; help repair damage; and support neural that give these cells a starlike appearance. The major function of astrocytes is to maintain, in a variety of ways, an appropriate chemical environment for neuronal functioning ~ guide developing neurons to their signaling. destinations, buffer ions & chemicals that would harm Oligodendrocytes ~ restricted to the central nervous system, lay down a neurons, & provide myelin sheaths around axons. laminated, lipid-rich wrapping called myelin around some, but not all, axons. Myelin has important effects on the speed of action potential conduction. In the When glia do not function properly, the result can be peripheral nervous system, the cells that elaborate myelin ~ called Schwann cells. disastrous, most brain tumors are caused by Microglial cells are smaller cells derived from hematopoietic stem cells (although mutations in glia. some may be derived directly from neural stem cells). They share many properties with tissue macrophages and are primarily scavenger cells that remove cellular debris from sites of injury or normal cell turnover. Some neurobiologists prefer to categorize microglia as a type of macrophage. Following brain damage, the number of microglia at the site of injury increases dramatically. Some of these cells proliferate from microglia resident in the brain, while others come from macrophages that migrate to the injured area from the circulation. 15 16 Mirror Neurons Mirror neurons may help explain how (and why) Neuroscientists have discovered the existence of humans have the capacity to understand others’ mirror neurons ~ specialized neurons that fire not intentions. Specifically, mirror neurons may fire when only when a person performs a particular behavior we view someone doing something, helping us to but also when a person simply observes another predict what their goals are & what they may do next. individual carrying out the same behavior. In humans, brain activity consistent with that of mirror # Mirror neurons could help explain how we learn neurons has been found in the premotor cortex, through mimicry & why we empathize with others. supplementary motor area, primary somatosensory cortex, and inferior parietal cortex. 17 18 3  30/10/2024 You're walking through a park when out of nowhere, The discovery of mirror neurons suggests that the the man in front of you gets smacked by an errant capacity of young children to imitate others may be Frisbee. Automatically, you recoil in sympathy. an inborn behavior. Mirror neurons may be at the root of empathy and You see a woman sniff some unfamiliar food & wrinkle even the development of language in humans. her nose in disgust. Suddenly, your own stomach turns Mirror neurons allow us to learn through imitation. at the thought of the meal. They enable us to reflect on body language, facial  Mirror neurons could help explain how & why we expressions, & emotions. "read" other people's minds and feel empathy for Mirror neurons play an essential part in our social life. them. They are key to a child’s development, relationships, and education. 19 20 Parkinson’s Disease Neuron Death In Parkinson’s disease, neurons that produce the Although neurons are the longest-living cells in the neurotransmitter dopamine die off in the basal ganglia body, large numbers of them die during migration & (an area of the brain that controls body movements). differentiation. The lives of some neurons can take The brain can no longer control the body & people abnormal turns. shake and jerk in spasms. # Some diseases of the brain are the result of the unnatural deaths of neurons. 21 22 Huntington’s Disease Alzheimer’s Disease In Alzheimer’s disease, unusual In Huntington’s disease, a genetic mutation causes the proteins build up in & around over-production of a neurotransmitter called glutamate, neurons in the neocortex and which kills neurons in the basal ganglia. As a result, hippocampus (parts of the brain people twist & writhe uncontrollably. that control memory). When these neurons die, people lose their capacity to remember and their ability to do everyday tasks. 23 24 4  30/10/2024 Textbook - Page 60 Read Textbook  Chapter 3 – NEUROSCIENCE AND BEHAVIOUR ►Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Major Neurotransmitters Chemical Couriers Page 59 - 61 Physical damage to the brain & other parts of the ► central nervous system can also kill or disable neurons. 25 26 1. Central Nervous System The Nervous System: The central nervous system consists of the brain & the Communicating Within the Body spinal cord. The brain is responsible for our loftiest thoughts & our most primitive urges. The brain is the Nervous System overseer of the complex workings of the human body. Central Nervous System Brain-scanning techniques provide a window into Peripheral Nervous System the living brain. Using brain-scanning techniques, researchers can take a ‘picture’ of the internal workings of the brain without having to cut open a person’s skull. 27 28 Electroencephalogram (EEG) The EEG records electrical activity in the brain through The most important scanning techniques are the: electrodes placed on the outside of the skull ~ used to Electroencephalogram (EEG) transform the brain’s electrical activity into a pictorial Positron emission tomography (PET) representation of the brain that allows more precise Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMri) diagnosis of disorders such as epilepsy & learning disabilities. Transcranial magnetic stimulation imaging (TMS) 29 30 5  30/10/2024 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMri) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) fMri scans provide a detailed, 3-dimensional computer- PET scans show biochemical activity within the brain generated image of brain structures and activity. It is at a given moment. It may be used in cases of memory normally used in planning brain surgery and helps problems & seeking to identify the presence of brain surgeons distinguish areas of the brain involved in tumors. normal and disturbed functioning. 31 32 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Imaging (TMS) By exposing a tiny region of the brain to a strong magnetic spot, TMS causes a momentary interruption Structures of the Brain of electrical activity. TMS has the potential to treat certain kinds of psychological disorders Hindbrain (depression/schizophrenia) by shooting brief Midbrain magnetic pulses through the brain. Forebrain Cerebral Cortex 33 34 1. Hindbrain Pons The hindbrain (rhombencephalon) coordinates functions Bridge in the hindbrain: Acts as a transmitter of motor that are fundamental to survival: respiratory rhythm, information; coordinating muscles; and integrating motor activity, sleep & wakefulness. movement between the right & left halves of the body. Main source of the neurotransmitter, norepinephrine  Parts of Hindbrain ►important for arousal & attention. ► Pons ► Medulla oblongata ► Cerebellum. Medulla Controls critical body functions. Regulates heartbeat, breathing, swallowing, and coughing. 35 36 6  30/10/2024 Cerebellum 2. Midbrain Sits at the back of the brain and is connected to the brain stem. It is the part of the brain that controls bodily A portion of the central nervous system. Located below balance (controls motor movement & balance), helpful in the cerebral cortex and above the hindbrain, placing it learning things that involve movement (walking, jumping). near the center of the brain. It is involved in several intellectual functions (analysis, coordination of sensory information, problem-solving). Associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep-wake, arousal, and temperature regulation. Reticular formation Extends from the medulla through the pons, passing through the midbrain & the forebrain. It produces general arousal in our body & regulates the sleep-wake cycle. Main source of the neurotransmitter serotonin (important for mood & activity levels). 37 38 Thalamus Limbic system Part of the brain located in the middle of the central Structures of the limbic system jointly control a variety core that acts mainly to relay information about the of basic functions relating to emotions & self- senses. It is known as the brain’s telephone operator, preservation such as aggression, eating & reproduction. directs messages to the cortex, and transmits replies Hippocampus - plays an important role in learning & to the cerebellum & medulla. memory. Hypothalamus Amygdala - involved in fear & aggression. A tiny part of the brain, located below the thalamus. It maintains homeostasis, provides a constant body temperature, & monitors the amount of nutrients stored in the cells. It produces & regulates behaviour that is critical to the basic survival of the species (such as eating, drinking) 39 40 3. Cerebral Cortex Cerebral cortex – the largest division of the brain. Cerebral cortex consists of a mass of ►It is divided into 2 hemispheres ~ each of which is deeply folded, rippled, complex tissue. divided into 4 lobes. It plays a key role in memory, attention, perceptual Cortex is divided into 4 different lobes awareness, thought, language, & consciousness ~ Frontal lobe responsible for the most sophisticated information Parietal lobe processing in the brain. Occipital lobe Temporal lobe 41 42 7  30/10/2024 Frontal Lobe Temporal Lobe Front of the brain - part of higher intellectual thinking. Lower-center portion of the cortex ~ hearing, language, Broca’s area - speech production. learning, & memory. Motor area - largely responsible for the body’s Wernicke’s area ~ language comprehension voluntary movement. Primary auditory area & auditory association area. Occipital Lobe Parietal Lobe Top of the brain - perception of touch. Back of brain - vision (visual area & visual association Somatosensory area ~ contains neurons that register area). the sensation of touch. 43 44 Motor area of the Cortex In the cerebral cortex ~ 3 major areas The part of the cortex that is largely responsible for the body’s voluntary movement. Every portion of the motor Motor area of the cortex area corresponds to a specific locale within the body. Sensory area of the cortex Association areas of the cortex Sensory area of the Cortex Includes 3 regions: corresponds primarily to body sensations; relating to sight; relating to sound. # It is the site in the brain of the tissue that corresponds to each of the senses with the degree of sensitivity related to the amount of tissue. 45 46 The Specialization of the Hemispheres Association areas of the Cortex: The brain is divided into 2 roughly mirror-image halves. Generally considered to be the site of higher mental These symmetrical left and right halves are called processes such as thinking, language, memory, and hemispheres ~ control motion in and receive sensation speech. from the side of the body opposite their location.  Make up a large portion of the cerebral cortex and The left hemisphere of the brain generally consist of the sections that are not directly involved controls the right side of the body. in either sensory processing or directing movement. The right hemisphere controls the left side It controls executive functions ~ which abilities are of the body. related to planning, goal setting, judgment & impulse Thus, the damage to the right side of the brain is control. typically indicated by functional difficulties in the left Textbook - 77 side of the body. Cerebral Cortex 47 48 8  30/10/2024 Corpus callosum connects the 2 brain hemispheres. Corpus callosum communicates information from one side of the brain to the other. The hemispheres work interdependently in decoding, interpreting, and reacting to the world. The left brain Two hemispheres of the brain function in tandem. It is can achieve what the right brain can. It is just less a mistake to think of particular kinds of information as efficient at some tasks and more efficient at others. being processed solely in the right or the left hemisphere. 49 50 2. Peripheral Nervous System Spinal Cord Peripheral nervous system is made up of neurons with Spinal Cord ~ bundle of neurons that leaves the brain long axons & dendrites. It branches out from the spinal & runs down the length of the back. It is the main route cord & brain and reaches the extremities of the body so for transmitting messages between the brain & the that information can be sent back & forth between the body. It controls simple behaviors on its own, periphery & the central nervous system. without any help from the brain. Peripheral nervous system is divided into 2 parts: 1. Somatic nervous system 2. Autonomic nervous system. 51 52 Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Somatic nervous system consists of all the neurons Autonomic nervous system (ANS) operates in a large that take in sensory information from all over the body part of the body. & deliver it to the spinal cord & brain.  ANS controls involuntary movement of the heart, glands, lungs & other organs. Somatic nervous system specializes in the control of voluntary movements & communication of information  ANS is divided into 2 parts: to & from the sense organs. i. Sympathetic nervous system ii. Parasympathetic nervous system 53 54 9  30/10/2024 Sympathetic nervous system Sympathetic nervous system acts to prepare the body Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division for action in stressful situations, engaging all the organism’s resources to respond to a threat.  Most active when you  Calms body # Sympathetic nervous system is activated under are angry, afraid,  Produces effects conditions of stress. aroused. opposite to those of the  Fight-or-flight response sympathetic division Parasympathetic nervous system  Increases heart rate  Reduces heart rate and Parasympathetic nervous system acts to calm the body and breathing breathing after an emergency has ended.  Stops digestion  Restores digestion # Parasympathetic nervous system is active during restful times. 55 56 NEUROSCIENCE & BEHAVIOUR  Chapter 3 – NEUROSCIENCE AND BEHAVIOR  The way psychologists study the brain & the nervous system. ► Page 52 - 86  The way the nervous system communicate electrical & chemical messages from one part to another.  The basic elements of the nervous system.  The way the nervous system work.  Read Textbook 57 58 10