HSC1010 The Science of Psychology PDF

HSC1010 The Science of Psychology Part 1: The Psychology Discipline Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Welcome to Psychology Instructors and contact Information Assistant Profe...

HSC1010 The Science of Psychology Part 1: The Psychology Discipline Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Welcome to Psychology Instructors and contact Information Assistant Professor Peter Tay Psychologist, Module Co-Lead [email protected] Dr Justus Wee Rui Hao Psychologist, Module Instructor [email protected] Ms Sara-Ann Lee Wanzhen Clinical Psychologist, Module Instructor [email protected] Welcome to Psychology Lecture format Each 2-hour lecture will comprise 2 parts Each part represents a different psychology topic Preparation: Readings of lecture and textbook chapters Readings for all weeks (6 – 12) already on LMS Lecture slides will be uploaded prior to lecture Psychology Seminars Seminar Format Each 2-hour seminar will comprise experimental & clinical applications of theoretical content from lectures Worksheets & activities will be provided and conducted during seminar sessions Preparation: Readings of lecture and textbook chapters Seminar material will be uploaded at end of each week Assessments Continuous Assessment 1 (40%) Sociology Group Project Continuous Assessment 2 (30%) Psychology Test 1 Week 10 Content from weeks 6 – 9 50 MCQs, 1-hour Continuous Assessment 3 (30%) Psychology Test 2 Week 14 Content from weeks 10 – 12 50 MCQs, 1-hour Learning Objectives Define the discipline of psychology and its goals Understand the evolution of psychology Identify early psychological approaches Describe contemporary psychological approaches Understand different professions within the psychology field Explain importance of psychology for health sciences Who are Psychologists? Questions laymen ask… So, can you read my mind? Counsellors can make money one meh? Can you tell me how to reduce stress? What can you do to treat depression?.. … I have bad memory; I forget things easily… Who are Psychologists? Questions psychologists ask… How do we learn a behavior? How do we form attitudes about people and situations? Why do people differ in how sad, elated, or anxious they become? Why is it so hard to quit bad habits? How can we reduce stress? How can we learn more effectively? Resultado de imagem para psychology logo design | Psychology, Logo design, Logos What Psychology Is NOT Simplistic or superficial beliefs about psychology, and about ways of applying psychology which are not based on science, often popularised by certain personalities, magazine articles, television shows, advice columns, or the like, that influence the general public Pop Psychology What Psychology Is NOT Pop Psychology Talk shows Self-Help Books  What Psychology Is NOT Pseudoscience using psychological jargon and buzzwords without accuracy or relevance, heavily based on experience instead of well- known science Psychobabble What Psychology Is NOT Pseudoscience (pseudo = false): Promises quick fixes to life’s problems “reliving” the supposed trauma of your birth to resolve your unhappiness as a child “reprogramming” one’s brain to become more creative at work Psychology is more complex, more informative, and far more helpful as based on rigorous research & empirical evidence (careful observation, experimentation & measurement) What Psychology Is NOT What Psychology Is NOT Numerology Astrology Graphology Fortune-Telling Non-scientific Practices What Psychology Is NOT Astrologer: choose an Aries instead of an Aquarius as your next love to overcome your romantic problems Psychic: romantic problems due to being jilted in a former life Predictions of psychics, astrologers are so vague they are meaningless (“spirituality will increase next year”) No psychic has ever found a missing child or serial killer What Psychology Is NOT Often psychological research produces findings Most women suffer from that directly contradict emotional mood swings due to prevailing beliefs premenstrual syndrome If you play Beethoven to your infant your child will become smarter Hypnosis can help you accurately Like scientists in other fields, remember your 3rd birthday psychological researchers strive not only to discover new phenomena and correct mistaken ideas, but also deepen our understanding of an already familiar world (eg., origins of Common Sense aggression) What Is Psychology? The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes Scientific: Precise and careful observation of humans and animals using the scientific method Behaviour: all overt (evident and observable) actions & reactions (talking, facial expressions & movement) Mental Processes: all internal, covert (hidden) activity of our minds (thinking, feeling and remembering) The Goals of Psychology All sciences have a common goal: to learn how things work The goals of psychology aimed at uncovering mysteries of human and animal behaviour: Describe: What is happening? Explain: Why is it happening? Predict: When will it happen again? Control: How can it be changed? Not all psychological research will meet all 4 goals The Goals of Psychology Cognitive Social Biological perspectives perspectives perspectives Interventions Psychology Toolbox  Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) “Psychology has a long past, yet its real history is short.” History of Psychology Psychology’s Forerunners Plato (428 BC-348 BC): theoretical structure of the human mind (intellect, spiritual centre & desires) psyche (mind & soul): the framework of human behaviour & impulses Psychology’s Forerunners Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC): Para Psyche (About the Mind): the first known text in the history of psychology Mind: primary reason for the existence and functioning of the body Mind & Reason could exist independently of the body Unlike Plato, believer in nurture (human mind blank at birth, experiences define the formation of the mind and knowledge- base) – 1st behaviourist Psychology’s Forerunners File:Hippocrates rubens.jpg Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370) Father of Medicine Rejected the superstition of priests and founded a medical school Disease results from natural causes and must be treated by natural methods Physical reasons underlying many mental ailments (e.g., epilepsy) 1st physician: thoughts, ideas, and feelings come from the brain and not the heart Often prescribed rest, exercise, diet, music, and association with friends to restore natural balance Psychology’s Forerunners File:Hippocrates rubens.jpg Hippocrates The right side of the brain controls the left side of the body and vice versa The Art of Healing: symptoms of melancholia (depression), mania, postpartum depression, phobias, paranoia and hysteria – The Nature of Man: 1st theory on temperament. Human moods, emotions and behaviours caused by excess / lack of body fluids (humors): blood, yellow bile, black bile, & phlegm Contributions to Psychology: – Describing the natural causes of psychological conditions – Recommending holistic treatments – Describing behavioural problems – Formulating long-lasting theories of temperament and motivation (based on imbalances of humors) Milestones for Ψ Development Objective Introspection: Wundt (1832-1920) Psychology’s First Laboratory (1879): measuring the ‘atoms of the mind’ Apply scientific principles to study the human mind Consciousness (state of being aware of external events): thoughts, experiences and other basic elements Objective Introspection: the process of objectively examining and measuring mental processes resulting from physical sensations First attempt to bring objectivity and measurement into psychology Milestones for Ψ Development Structuralism: Titchener (1867-1927) Self-Reflective Introspection: Objective Introspection used on thoughts, as well as physical sensations Structuralism: using introspection to reveal the structure of the mind Introspection waned as unreliable due to variability of experience, and debate on key elements of experience Milestones for Ψ Development Functionalism: James (1842-1910) Harvard: 1st school in US to offer classes in Ψ Principles of Psychology textbook (1890) Did not believe that scientific study of consciousness was yet possible Interested in importance of consciousness in everyday life Functionalism: how the mind allows people to function in real world – work, play and adapt to surroundings Heavily influenced by Darwin’s ideas on natural selection (physical traits that help an animal adapt to its environment and survive passed on to offspring) Functionalism no longer prevalent approach but influenced educational & organizational psychology, and behaviorism Early Ψ Approaches Gestalt Ψ (Wertheimer, Kohler & Koffka) Looks at the human mind and behaviour as a whole not in parts “The whole is other than the sum of its parts” Emphasized dynamic nature of visual perception Incorporated in cognitive psychology Early Ψ Approaches Psychoanalysis: Freud Interested in nervous disorders with no physical causes – must be in the mind All threatening urges and desires are repressed in the unconscious mind - when they try to surface they create the nervous disorders Early childhood experiences are crucial Emphasised the ways our unconscious thought processes and emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behaviour Freudian psychoanalysis (theory and therapy) basis of much modern psychotherapy (insight into and change of behaviour) Early Ψ Approaches Behaviourism: Pavlov, Watson, Skinner Pavlov (1849 – 1936): conditioning & learning Watson & Skinner(1924): scientific study of observable behaviour – focus on scientific enquiry; focus on observable behaviour, not consciousness; focus of his early work was on phobias Behaviourism still a major – psychological approach; influential to cognitive psychology Early Ψ Approaches Humanism: Rogers & Maslow (1950s) Behaviourism and Psychoanalysis too limiting Focus on how environmental influences can nurture or limit growth potential Attention on having human needs of love and acceptance satisfied Humanism today exists as a form of psychotherapy for self- understanding and self-improvement Contemporary Ψ Approaches Cognitive: focus on mental processes (1960s) the study of human mental processes and their role in thinking, feeling, and behaving focus on memory, intelligence, perception, thought processes, problem-solving, language and learning Cognitive neuroscience: studies the brain activity underlying mental activity (e.g., MRI, PET) Contemporary Ψ Approaches Sociocultural: emphasizes social and cultural influences on behaviour Biological Perspective: emphasizes bodily events and changes associated with actions, feelings and thoughts – Evolutionary Psychology: how are we humans alike because of our common biology and evolutionary history – Behaviour Genetics: how are we diverse because of our differing genes and environment Biopsychological: (integrated approach): considers the influences of biological, psychological and social-cultural factors Ψ Settings & Subfields Ciccarelli & White, Psychology, 2020 Professionals within the Ψ Field Psychiatrist: does work similar to that of a clinical psychologist but is likely to take a more biological approach; has a medical degree (M.D.) with a speciality in psychiatry Clinical Psychologist: diagnoses, treats and/studies mental and emotional problems, both mild and severe; has a PhD or a Psy.D. Psychoanalyst: practices psychoanalysis; has specific training in this approach after an advanced degree (M.D. or Ph.D.); may treat any kind of emotional disorders or pathology Psychotherapist: does any kind of psychotherapy; may have anything from no degree to an advanced professional degree, term unregulated Counsellor: may have degrees from counselling programs; deals with normal life problems; no training in the assessment or treatment of mental health issues; term not regulated Why Ψ for Health Sciences? Understand the person – not just the symptom Assess the condition in a 360-degree way Identify the impact of psychological variables on treatment Communicate effectively with the patient, their families and their treating team Understand importance of critical thinking as a health professional and researcher Develop critical thinking skills Enrich research skills Science of Psychology – Part 1 of 2 End HSC1010 The Science of Psychology Part 2: Critical Thinking & Scientific Method in Psychology Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Understand critical thinking and its importance for psychology and health sciences Describe the scientific method in psychology Understand key research methods in psychology Explain the ethics of psychological research Critical Thinking Video the movie Lucy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NdLTEC6X3pk Critical Thinking Scientific Attitude: The Path to Critical Thinking To shift reality from fantasy and sense from nonsense requires a scientific attitude being skeptical but not cynical being open but not gullible Scientific Attitude requirements: 1. Curiosity: passion to explore and understand without misleading or being misled 2. Scepticism: refusal to believe without evidence or scientific, sound reasons 3. Humility: awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to new perspectives Critical Thinking Studying psychology teaches you how the brain works, but also how to use yours by thinking critically Critical Thinking (Smart Thinking): ability to assess claims and make objective judgments on the basis of well-supported reasons and evidence, rather than emotion or anecdote Critical thinking is not negative thinking (i.e., criticizing an argument) Critical thinking is the ability to think creatively and constructively (i.e., alternative explanations for events, implications of research findings, application of new knowledge) Critical Thinking in Ψ Contribution of Critical Thinking in Psychology Surprising findings: Within days newborns can recognize mother by her odor (Marin et al., 2015) After brain damage, a person may be able to learn new skills yet be completely unaware of such learning (Cohen & Squire, 1980) Demystifying popular assumptions: Most people do not suffer from low self-esteem (Baumiester et al., 2003) high self-esteem is not always good Opposites do not generally attract (Burleson et al., 2009) Identifying effective policies: Taxes are effective at reducing purchases of sugar-sweetened beverages only when the customer is made aware that it’s added and the tax amount is undefined (Donnelly et al., 2021) Critical Thinking in Ψ Eight essential critical thinking guidelines: 1. Ask questions: be willing to wonder 2. Define your terms (hypothesis, operational definitions) 3. Examine the evidence 4. Analyse assumptions and biases 5. Avoid emotional reasoning 6. Do not oversimplify 7. Consider other interpretations 8. Tolerate uncertainty Critical Thinking Critical Thinking in Healthcare & Health Sciences: Clinical reasoning & clinical decision-making skills dependent on one’s critical thinking ability The healthcare professional has to be a critical thinker ready to learn to evaluate arguments and sort truths from falsehoods in the context of evidence- based medicine Understand the distinction between evidence-based medicine versus complimentary & alternative medicine Scientific Method in Ψ Scientific Method: a self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis Psychological science welcomes ideas and conceivable theories, then tests them Theory works: if the tests supports the predictions Theory is revisited or rejected: if predictions fail Psychology uses scientific methods to try to: determine facts reduce uncertainty Scientific Method in Ψ Five Steps of the Scientific Method 1. Perceiving the Question – about an observed situation that you would like an explanation (description goal) 2. Forming a Hypothesis – a tentative explanation about the situation (description & explanation goals) 3. Testing the Hypothesis – by collecting data and analysing results (explanation goal) 4. Drawing Conclusions – about investigation’s success or failure to explain situation (prediction goal) 5. Report Your Results – share exactly what, why, and how you did it, and how it can be repeated (control goal) Scientific Method in Ψ Research Methods in Ψ Descriptive Methods: Establishing the Facts Correlational Methods: Looking for Relationships Experimental Methods: Hunting for Causes Research Methods in Ψ Descriptive Studies: Establishing the Facts a) Observational Studies: observe people or animals in natural environment or research setting b) Case Studies: study the individual in greater detail; researchers try to learn as much as they can about the individual c) Surveys: ask questions (e.g., via telephone, internet, or questionnaire) about topic researchers are studying d) Psychological Tests: use assessment instruments that measure and evaluate personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes, abilities, values and interests Research Methods in Ψ Correlational Studies: Looking for Relationships A positive or negative correlation is a measure of the direction of a relationship between two variables A correlation does not establish cause and effect only a relationship The coefficient of correlation specifies the strength and direction of the relationship Research Methods in Ψ Experiment Methods: Hunting for causes Only method to determine cause of a behaviour is to deliberately manipulate one or more variables and measure changes in the variable(s) of interest The Variables: Independent (variable that is manipulated) Dependent (the measure used to evaluate the manipulation of the independent variable) Sample Selection: Experimental Group (gets the IV or manipulation) and Control Group (receives no treatment or treatment should not have an effect) Random Assignment in one of the 2 groups ensures control over confounding variables Research Methods in Ψ Experiment Methods: Hunting for causes Experimental Hazards Placebo Effect: the expectations and biases of the participants in a study can influence their behaviour Experimenter Effect: the experimenter’s biases can affect or influence participant’s behaviour To resolve these biases: Single Blind Study: Participants blind to condition assigned Double Blind Study: Participants and experimenters blind to condition(s) Research Methods in Ψ Research Basic Purpose How Is What is Weaknesses Method Conducted Manipulated Descriptive Observe and record Case studies, Nothing No control of behaviour observations, variables; single cases surveys misleading Correlational Detect naturally Collect data on Nothing Cannot specify cause occurring relationships; 2 or more and effect assess how well one variables; no variable predicts manipulation another Experimental Explore cause and Manipulate one Independent Sometimes not effect or more factors; variable(s) feasible; results may random not be generalizable; assignment not ethical to manipulate certain variables Myers & Dewall, Psychology 11th Ed., 2015, p38 Drawing Conclusions Evaluating the Findings Descriptive Statistics: Finding out what’s so – organise and summarise data (mean and standard deviation) Inferential Statistics: Asking “so what?” – how meaningful the findings are (significance tests and confidence intervals) Interpreting the Findings (choosing the best explanation, judging the result’s importance) Research Ethics Ethics of Psychological Research Psychological scientists have a primary goal of protecting the health and welfare of their human or animal participants Several bodies that review research projects: National Medical Ethics Committee Hospital Ethics Committees Institutional Review Boards @ Universities Research Ethics Guidelines for Doing Research with People: Rights and well-being of participants come first, the study’s value to science come second Participants must be able to make an informed decision (informed consent) about participating Deception of participants must be reasonable and justifiable Participants should be able to withdraw from the study at any time Participants must be explicitly informed and protected from risks Investigators must explain to participants the nature of the study and expectation of results at its conclusion Participant’s identities and personal information must be confidential The researcher is responsible for detecting and addressing any undesirable consequences for the participants Research Ethics Ethical considerations for research with animals: Main focus is to avoid any unnecessary pain or suffering Ensure comfort, health and humane treatment, minimise infection, illness and pain (American Psychological Association) Housing animals under reasonably natural loving conditions with companions for social animals (British Psychological Society) Research Ethics Why use animals for research: Animals and humans share a common biology; Animal experiments have led to treatment of human diseases (e.g., insulin for diabetes, vaccines to prevent polio and rabies) Some research can be difficult and dangerous to investigate with human participants Animals are easier to control Animals have shorter lives: easier to study long term effects Science of Psychology – Part 2 of 2 End HSC1010 The Brain and the Mind Part 1: Brain, Sensation & Perception Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Explain the role of biology in psychology Understand the role of the nervous system and the function of its components Explain role of somatic & autonomic nervous systems Describe structure and communication of neurons Understand role of endocrine system and the function of hormones on behaviour Identify main brain structures and their functions Understand role of limbic system and the functions of its components Describe functions of different areas of cerebral cortex and lateralisation …Learning Objectives Understand cognitive neuroscience Explain sleep process, its importance & different stages Identify sleep deprivation effects and sleep disorders Understand impact of psychoactive drugs on consciousness and physiology Distinguish between sensation and perception Understand sensory thresholds and habituation Describe organs, stimuli and receptors involved in 5 senses Understand key visual perception concepts Describe functions of somesthetic senses Biology & Psychology Why are psychologists concerned with biology? Everything psychological is also biological: we are biopsychosocial systems To understand the complex organism of a human being To understand how the brain, nerves, and glands interact to control feelings, thoughts and behaviours The Biological Perspective Biological Perspective: focuses on the links between biology and behaviour Biological Psychology: branch of neuroscience that examines the biological bases of psychological processes, behaviour and learning Psychologists specialising in this branch of neuroscience: Behavioural neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behaviour geneticists, physiological psychologists, biopsychologists Brain Spinal Cord Peripheral and Autonomic Systems Neurons The Nervous System The Nervous System (NS) Body’s electrochemical communication network Gathers & processes information Produces responses to stimuli Coordinates operations of different cells NS Comprises: Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Central Nervous System (CNS) CNS: The central processing unit. Comprises: Brain: interprets and stores information and sends orders to muscles, glands and organs Spinal Cord: pathway connecting the brain and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) collection of neurons and supportive tissue running from the base of the brain down the center of the back, protected by a column of bones (spinal column) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) PNS transmits information to and from CNS Contains all portions of NS (outside brain & spinal cord) right down to nerves in the tips of fingers and toes Includes sensory & motor nerves connecting CNS to the rest of the body PNS comprises: Autonomic Nervous System Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Controls the functioning of internal organs (e.g., heart, stomach) glands and blood vessels Like an auto pilot, ANS usually operates on its own but may be consciously overridden ANS comprises 2 parts working together, in opposing ways, to adjust the body to changing circumstances: Sympathetic NS (arousing): mobilises bodily resources and increases the output of energy during emotion and stress Parasympathetic NS (calming): – enables body to conserve and – restore energy, slows things down – & keeps things running smoothly Autonomic Nervous System Psychology, 11th ed. 2015 Myers & Dewall Somatic Nervous System (SNS) Controls the body’s skeletal muscles Includes nerves that are connected to sensory receptors (cells that allow you to sense the world) and skeletal muscles (that permit voluntary action) SNS comprises: Sensory input: carries messages from senses to CNS Motor output: carries messages from CNS to muscles and glands Nervous System (NS) - Summary Psychology, 4th ed. 2015 Ciccarelli & White Communication in the NS NS building blocks: neurons or nerve cells: the communication specialists, transmitting information to, from, and within the CNS glia or glia cells: hold neurons together, as well as nourish, insulate, and protect them Structure of the Neuron dendrites: branch-like structures that receive information from other neurons and transmit it to the cell body Soma: the cell body that keeps entire cell alive and determines whether it will fire axon: neuron’s tube-like extension that transmits messages to other neurons, muscles or gland cells axon terminals: terminal branches of axon myelin sheath: fatty insulation surrounding the axon, helps speed the neural impulses myelin sheath degeneration: multiple sclerosis (communication to muscles slows, loss of muscle control) Structure of the Neuron Nerves: Bundles of nerve fibers (mainly axons) in PNS. Human body has 43 pairs of peripheral nerves, 12 pairs in the head Psychology, 11th ed. 2015 Myers & Dewall How Neurons Communicate Electrical Process: within a neuron Action potential: a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon Information is pushed through the axon based on a process of positive and negative charges of electrical atoms (ions) Chemical Process: between neurons Neurotransmitter: a chemical substance that is released by a transmitting neuron at the synapse and that alters the activity of a receiving neuron Cleaning Up Process Reuptake: process of reabsorbing excess neurotransmitters by the sending neuron How Neurons Communicate  How Neurons Communicate Synapse: the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite of the receiving neuron Psychology, 11th ed. 2015 Myers & Dewall  Some Neurotransmitter Functions Examples of how drugs affect neurotransmitters: Cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine, allowing dopamine to stay active longer SSRIs, used for depression, block the reuptake of serotonin, extra serotonin improves mood Neurotransmitter Function Malfunctions Dopamine (DA) Influences movement, Oversupply → schizophrenia learning, attention, Undersupply → Parkinson’s disease, depression sensations of pleasure Serotonin (5-HT) Affects mood, appetite, Undersupply → depression, sleep and eating disorders sleep, anxiety Acetylcholine (ACh) Enables muscle action, Oversupply → muscle contraction, convulsions learning and memory Undersupply → Alzheimer's disease Norepinephrine (NE) Helps control alertness and Oversupply → stress and panic disorder; Undersupply → arousal depression Gaba-amino butyric Involved in sleep and inhibits Undersupply → seizures, tremors and insomnia (GABA) movement Endorphins Involved in pain relief Oversupply → insensitivity to pain; Undersupply → pain hypersensitivity, immune problems Endocrine System and Hormones Hindbrain, Midbrain and Forebrain The Limbic System The Hemispheres Brain and Hormones Long Distance Messengers Endocrine System (ES): 2nd communication system interconnected with the NS Hormones: 2nd class of chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands (e.g., pancreas, ovaries, testes, adrenal glands) Hormones travel through the bloodstream to organs and cells far from their point of origin Hormones acting on brain affect interest in sex, food and aggression Both ES & NS produce chemicals that act on receptors elsewhere. NS in fraction of second; ES taking several seconds Endocrine Glands & Hormones Pituitary gland: located in the brain, secretes human growth hormone Pineal gland: located near the base of the cerebrum, secretes melatonin (biological rhythms & sleep) Thyroid gland: found in the neck, secretes thyroxin (growth & metabolism) Pancreas: controls the levels of sugar in the blood, secretes insulin and glucagon Gonads: located in ovaries and testes regulate sexual behavior & reproduction Adrenal glands: located at top of each kidney secrete over 30 hormones (corticoids/steroids) to control stress reactions Endocrine Glands & Hormones Mapping the Brain Lesioning Studies: examining brain areas that are damaged in animals and people; electrical current (via electrode) destroys target neurons Brain Stimulation: electrical stimulation to disrupt/enhance brain areas, and study changes in behaviour and cognition Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): stimulating brain from the inside (invasive) – treatment for Parkinson’s Disease, Seizures, Chronic Pain Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): stimulating brain from the outside with magnetic impulses (non-invasive) – PTSD & depression Mapping the Brain Mapping the Brain Mapping Structure: Computed Tomography (CT): Using X-rays to map brain “slices” (tumours, stroke damage, metal) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Using magnetic fields & radio receivers for detailed (and 3D) imaging of brain tissue Mapping the Brain Mapping Function: Electroencephalogram (EEG): amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface, measured by electrodes placed on the scalp Positron Emission Tomography (PET): visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task Functional MRI (fMRI): tracking changes in blood oxygen levels (increased levels=increased functioning) to study brain activity linked with specific thoughts & behaviour Brain Structures Brain divided into Hindbrain: functions essential to maintain life Midbrain: connects hindbrain and forebrain, important for sensory & motor functions Forebrain: higher functioning (thinking, decision-making) Hindbrain The Brain Stem: oldest & innermost region; extension of spinal cord. Comprises: Medulla: controls heartbeat, breathing Pons: influences sleep, waking & dreaming Reticular Formation: nerve network running from hindbrain through midbrain to forebrain, controlling arousal and attention Cerebellum (little brain): regulates movement and balance; involved in some cognitive functions Forebrain The largest and most highly developed structure. Comprises: Limbic System: emotions, motivation, memory & learning Cerebrum: largest brain structure, controls sensory, motor and cognitive processes Cerebral Hemispheres Cerebral Cortex The Limbic System Thalamus: brain’s sensory control centre; receives information from all senses (except smell) and routes it to higher brain regions responsible for vision, hearing, touch & taste Hypothalamus: regulates survival needs (thirst, hunger, sleeping, body temperature) & emotions (controls pituitary gland- hormones) Hippocampus: forming long-term memories Amygdala: arousal and regulation of emotion; initial response to sensory information (fear) Cingulate Cortex: limbic structure found in cortex; influences emotional & cognitive processing The Limbic System Cerebrum Cerebral Hemispheres: the 2 halves (left & right) of the cerebrum connected by the corpus callosum Cerebral Cortex: the outer layer of the cerebrum (grey matter), covering the cerebral hemispheres responsible for higher mental functions. Comprises: frontal lobes: complex decision-making, planning, memory, personality and social judgement. Includes motor cortex & Broca’s area (speech production) temporal lobes: hearing (primary auditory cortex; auditory association cortex); Wernicke’s area (meaning of words) parietal lobes: receives sensory input for touch & body position (somatosensory cortex) occipital lobes: receive visual information (primary visual cortex; visual association cortex) Subdivisions of Cortex Brain’s Two Hemispheres The 2 hemispheres communicate via the corpus callosum Right hemisphere controls left side of body & Left hemisphere controls right side of body Lateralization: specialization of each hemisphere in particular operations In most mental activities, 2 sides cooperate Brain’s Two Hemispheres The Biological Perspective Experience and the Brain Stimulating environments increases synaptic connections; unused connections are trimmed Plasticity: brain’s ability to adapt to new circumstances Gender differences in the brain Brain scans: Some anatomical and functional differences; however, significance of this is unclear Similarities are greater than differences Brain difference ≠ behavioural difference Differences cannot be replicated Differences could be attributed to behaviour and experiences (rather than gender) Consciousness Sleep Psychoactive Drugs Neurological Functions Biology of Consciousness Cognitive Neuroscience: interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with mental processes (perception, thinking, memory, language) relating specific brain sites to conscious experiences consciousness: generated by action potentials in communication among neurons producing a specific perception, memory, experience in awareness Dual processing: information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious & unconscious tracks Parallel processing: processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously (brain’s natural mode) Selective Attention: conscious awareness focussed on a particular stimulus (cocktail party effect) Sleep Sleep: periodic loss of consciousness; distinct from unconsciousness (coma, anaesthesia) Biological rhythms: natural cycles of activity body goes through (e.g., short: heartbeat, long: menstrual cycle; mood) Sleep-Wake cycle: Circadian Rhythm (circa: about; diem: day) 24-hour cycle Circadian Rhythm controlled by the brain Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) in hypothalamus biological clock responds to light & dark changes (jetlag: clock out of sync) regulates levels of hormones & neurotransmitters melatonin (pineal gland): ↑ dark ↓ light serotonin: ↑ awake ↓ asleep Sleep Stages 2 Sleep Periods (Kleitman 1955) cycle of ~ 90mins: Rapid Eye Movement (REM): relatively active (Non-REM/N): deeper & restful state Sleep cycle: various stages repeated 4-5 times a night Sleep stages defined by brain-wave activity by EEG N1: light sleep, drifting in & out consciousness N2: body temperature & heart rate ↓, breathing shallow, minor noises won’t wake N3 & N4: breathing & pulse ↓, muscles relax, deep sleep, hard to wake (sleepwalking & sleep disorders) REM: brain active, body inactive (paradoxical sleep)  Sleep Stages Invitation to Psychology, 6th ed. 2015 Wade, Tavris & Garry Why do we need sleep? Sleep is necessary for bodily restoration and for normal mental functioning Two Theories of Sleep: 1) Adaptive: sleep product of evolution (Siegel, 2009) sleep patterns evolved to avoid predators by sleeping when predators most active 2) Restorative: sleep vital to physical health of body (Brinkman et al., 2021) replenishes chemicals & repairs cellular damage Why do we need sleep? Sleep’s functions Protects: sleep pattern suits ecological needs of each species (bat: 20hrs vs giraffe: 2hrs) Helps recuperation: restore immune system & repair brain tissue (biological makeover) Supports growth: during deep sleep, pituitary gland releases growth hormone for muscle development (↓ as we age) Brain plasticity theory: Helps us restore & rebuild fading memories of day’s experiences (consolidates & strengthens memory) Feeds creative thinking: thinking & learning boost (“why don’t you sleep on it?”) Sleep Deprivation Short-term effects: One night: ↓ attention and concentration, mental flexibility and creativity Few nights: mental & physical consequences, emotional symptoms (irritable, depressed mood) Long-term effects: Cognitive: hallucinations and delusions Emotional: mood disorders (depression, anxiety) Physiological: risk of diabetes & heart disease Sleep Deprivation Why do we need sleep? Video credit: Ted Talk – Matt Walker – A walk through the stages of sleep Common Sleep Disorders Insomnia: recurring problems falling or staying asleep Sleep Apnea: breathing periodically stops (≥10secs) causing choking or gasping Narcolepsy: irresistible and unpredictable day time attacks of sleepiness or actual sleep, lasting 5-30mins Night Terrors: high arousal & appearance of being terrified, during N3 sleep (unlike nightmares), seldom remembered REM behaviour disorder: sleepwalking; dream-enacting behaviour; physically act out vivid, often unpleasant dreams with vocal sounds and sudden, often violent arm and leg movements during REM sleep Psychoactive Drugs Substances that alter perception, mood, thinking, memory or behaviour by changing body’s biochemistry Drug classifications are based on their effects on CNS: Stimulants (amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, caffeine) Depressants (barbiturates, benzodiazepines, alcohol) Narcotics (opioids) Hallucinogens (manufactured: LSD, PCP, MDMA – also stimulant) Marijuana (non-manufactured; cannabis) Psychoactive Drugs Psychoactive Drugs Physiology of drug effects Affect neurotransmitter levels in the brain Large amounts & frequent use can damage neurons in the brain: impair learning and memory Heavy use can lead to tolerance: increased resistance to a drug’s effects Cessation causes severe withdrawal symptoms Addiction Physical dependence: body needs drug to function; tolerance and withdrawal warning signs Psychological dependence: belief that drug needed to function Drug effects may vary depending on the person’s: previous experience with drug; physical condition; environmental setting; mental state Psychoactive Drugs – Case Examples Definitions Measuring Our Senses Sensation and Perception Sensations & Perceptions Sensation: process by which sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment Perception: process of organising and interpreting sensory information In everyday experiences sensations and perceptions blend into a continuous process Sensation begins with the sense receptors: specialized forms of neurons that convert the energy of a stimulus into electrical impulses that travel along the nerves to brain Measuring the Senses Psychophysics: studies the relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli and their effects on psychological experiences Absolute Thresholds: the minimum stimulus energy needed to consciously detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time Difference Thresholds: the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time Signal Detection Theory: detection of sensory signal comprises a sensory process & a decision process, varies with motivation, alertness & expectation Sensory Adjustments Habituation: tendency of brain to stop attending to constant, unchanging information so that it can focus on what matters (e.g., A/C noise) Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensitivity of sensory receptor cells to unchanging or constant stimulus (e.g., heavily perfumed person) Sensory Deprivation: absence of normal levels of sensory stimulation, effects vary depending on duration and person’s interpretations (e.g., involuntary vs voluntary) Sensory Overload: managed by process of selective attention (focus on what’s important); may also deprive of information that is needed (e.g., texting while walking) Vision Sense organ: the eye Visual Stimulus: light waves that travel in a straight line Perceptual properties of light: Hue: dimension of visual experience specified by colour names and related to the wavelength of light Brightness: lightness; dimension of visual experience related to amount of light emitted from or reflected by an object Saturation: vividness or purity of colour; dimension of visual experience related to the complexity of light waves Visual System Light enters the visual system through the eye Psychology, 4th ed. 2015 Ciccarelli & White Visual receptors: located in retina sending signals to ganglion cells and ultimately to optic nerve Hearing Sense organ: the ear Auditory Stimulus: sound waves (air pressure changes) Perceptual properties of sound: Frequency: cycles of waves per second corresponding to experience of pitch (high, medium, low) – shorter wavelengths → more waves per second → higher frequencies Volume: intensity corresponds to experience of loudness (how soft or loud sound is) – larger wave amplitudes → louder volumes Timbre: complexity or richness in the tone of the sound – increase in number of sounds → greater richness Hearing System Hearing receptors: hair cells (topped by cilia) embedded in the basilar membrane of the organ of Corti, in the interior Outer Ear: side cochlea eardrum & canal Middle Ear: hammer, anvil & stirrup Inner Ear: cochlea Invitation to Psychology, 6th ed. 2015 Wade, Tavris & Garry The Chemical Senses: Taste Gustation: the sensation of taste (chemicals: food molecules stimulate thousands of receptors in mouth) Gustation receptors: taste buds: special kinds of neurons in mouth (primarily tongue, but also throat, inside cheeks, roof of mouth, & in gut) taste buds line walls of papillae (bumps) on tongue 4 basic tastes: salty, sour, bitter, sweet Some researchers consider 5th taste: umami (savory meaty taste, MSG); controversial as not perceptible in most foods The Chemical Senses: Smell Olfaction (olfactory sense): the ability to smell odors (chemicals: substance molecules suspended in air) Sense organ: nose Olfactory receptor cells: specialized neurons embedded in a tiny patch of mucous membrane in the upper part of nasal passage, just beneath eyes Olfactory bulbs: areas of brain located just above sinus cavity and just below frontal lobes that receive information from olfactory receptor cells The Chemical Senses: Smell Exploring Psychology, 6th ed. 2015 Myers Somesthetic Senses Somesthetic Senses: the body senses (soma: body; esthetic: feeling), comprising: – Skin senses – Proprioceptive senses – Kinesthetic sense – Vestibular senses Skin Senses: touch, pressure, temperature & pain Sensory receptors in the skin Pain is both a skin sense and an internal sense Gate control theory: experience of pain depends on whether neural impulses get past a “gate” in the spinal cord and reach the brain Somesthetic Senses Kinesthetic Sense: body’s sense of movement & position in space – Receptors located in muscles, tendons & joints (proprioceptors) Vestibular Senses: sensations of movement, balance, & body position – Sense organs: vestibular organs (otolith & semicircular organs) located in ear – Sensory conflict theory: explanation of motion sickness (information from eyes conflicts with information from vestibular senses) The Brain and the Mind – Part 1 of 2 End HSC1010 The Brain and the Mind Part 2: Thinking & Memory Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Understand cognition Distinguish between problem solving and decision making Describe different methods of problem solving Understand barriers to problem solving Describe different types of thinking and reasoning Understand intelligence Understand how intelligence is measured, main intelligence tests, and applications of IQ testing Describe principles for development of intelligence tests Define intelligence extremes Identify influences on intelligence …Learning Objectives Describe memory, its key process and models Explain the Information Processing Model of memory Distinguish between sensory and short-term memory Understand long-term memory, its different types and organisation models Differentiate retrieval, recall, and recognition Describe different types of memory conditions and their causes Identify requirements and techniques for healthy memory Thinking Thinking (Cognition): mental activities that go on in the brain when processing, organising, understanding, or communicating information to others Cognitive Processing Problem solving: a cognitive process of the brain at the higher cognitive layer that searches a solution for a given problem or finds a path to reach a given goal (Wang, 2007) Decision making: while decision making refers to the cognitive process of choosing between two or more alternatives, ranging from the relatively clear cut to the complex ones (APA Dictionary) Problem Solving Methods Trial & Error: trying several solutions until one works (e.g., trying to recall a password) Algorithm: a methodical, step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem (e.g., math formula, recipes) Slower but more accurate than heuristic Heuristic: rule of thumb (judgemental shortcuts), based on prior experiences, that suggests a course of action without guaranteeing an optimal solution. Four types: Representativeness Availability Working backward Sub-goals Heuristics Representativeness Heuristic: a rule of thumb for judging the probability of membership in a category by how well an object/person is representative of that category Tendency to overgeneralize from few Who is the convicted characteristics or observations felon? Availability Heuristic: estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on immediate examples that come to mind if something can be recalled it must be important Falling coconuts kill 150 people per year (10 times more than sharks), but you will remember the shark attacks due to news reports Heuristics Working Backward: attempting to solve a problem by working from the goal backward to the starting point Sometimes working from the end point is faster Sub-goals: breaking large problem into smaller, more manageable goals, so that as each sub-goal is achieved, the final solution is that much closer Problem Solving Methods Insight: sudden realization of a problem’s solution “aha!” moment (e.g., getting jokes) contrasts with strategy based solutions Intuition: effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought (“gut feeling”) contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning Problem Solving Barriers Functional Fixedness: Fixated on thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions resulting in a mental block Mental Set: tendency to solve problems using approaches that worked previously for similar problems Not helpful when problem requires new approach Confirmation Bias: tendency to favour information that confirms one’s existing beliefs or theories, while ignoring any contradicting evidence E.g., Reading your horoscope and looking for things that agree with what was said to justify what you read  Problem Solving Barriers The String Problem: How do you tie the two strings together if you cannot reach them both at the same time? Solution: Use the pliers as a pendulum to swing the second string closer to you.  Problem Solving Barriers Solution: The Dot Mental set causes Problem: Can people to think of you draw four the dots as straight lines so representing a box, that they pass and they try to through all nine draw the line while dots without staying in the box. lifting your The only way to pencil from the connect all nine page and dots without lifting without the pencil from the touching any paper is to draw dot more than the lines so they once? extend out of the box of dots. Types of Thinking Convergent thinking: all thinking pointed to one solution (problem solving) Divergent thinking: generating more than one solution (creative thinking) Creative thinking: combination of flexibility in thinking and reorganization of understanding to produce innovative ideas and new solutions Thinking Creatively Reasoning Reasoning: purposeful mental activity that involves drawing conclusions from observations, facts, or assumptions. Three types of reasoning: Formal reasoning: algorithms & formal logic (e.g., IQ test, MCQ exam); problems with one (best) solution Informal reasoning: heuristics; problems often with no single correct solution that require evaluation of opposing points view (dialectical reasoning) Reflective Judgement (Critical Thinking): ability to evaluate and integrate evidence, consider alternative interpretations and reach a defensible conclusion many people never develop this ability Reasoning shares the same barriers as problem solving Definitions and Theories Measuring Intelligence Influences of Intelligence Language and Thought Intelligence Intelligence Intelligence: the ability to learn from experience, acquire knowledge, act purposefully, or adapt to new situations Influential Theories of Intelligence: Spearman’s General Intelligence Factor (g factor) Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Social Intelligence: Emotional Intelligence Emotional Intelligence Social Intelligence (APA dictionary, 2022): “know-how” knowledge in social situations and self-management (vs. abstract intelligence and concrete intelligence) Emotional Intelligence (EI): the ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions Popularised by Goleman’s (1995) Emotional Intelligence EI as important as intellectual intelligence EI can be taught and acquired/developed EI consists of 4 abilities (Mayer & Salovey, 1997): to perceive and appraise emotions accurately to access and evoke emotions when they facilitate cognition to comprehend emotional language and make use of emotional information to regulate one’s own and others’ emotions EI viewed as powerful influence on success in life Measuring Intelligence Intelligence Test: assessing person’s mental abilities, in comparison to others (age-peers) Most influential intelligence tests: Mental Ability Test (Binet, 1904; Binet & Simon, 1905) Stanford-Binet Test (Terman, 1916) Wechsler Tests Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) (1939) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) (1949) Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence (1967) Measuring Intelligence Chronological age (CA): person’s age in years Mental age (MA) measure of intelligence test performance (Binet, 1904) age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance child performing as well as average 8yr old = mental age of 8 Intelligence Quotient (IQ) – Stern (1912): number representing a measure of intelligence ratio of mental age (MA) to chronological age (CA) multiplied by 100: IQ= MA/CA x 100 allows comparison of intelligence levels of people from different age groups Stanford-Binet Test Yields IQ score (MA/CA X 100), score of 100 is average Assesses variety of verbal and nonverbal skills Composite score estimate of g factor (general intelligence) Comprises 10 subtests, assessing reasoning (verbal, quantitative, visual/abstract) and memory (short-term) In its 5th revision (SB5, Roid 2003)  Wechsler Tests Developed to address Stanford-Binet’s test criticisms (e.g., 1 score, child-focused) Age-based intelligence tests WAIS (adults); WISC (children); WPPSI (preschool children) In its 4th revision, most popular IQ test Comprises 10 subtests Yields 4 index scores: Verbal Comprehension (VCI), Perceptual Reasoning (PRI), Working Memory (WMI), and Processing Speed (PSI) WAIS-IV (new subtests)  Test Construction Principles Intelligence tests must meet 3 criteria: 1. Standardization 2. Reliability 3. Validity Both Stanford-Binet & Wechsler Tests meet the criteria Standardization Standardization: implies uniformity of procedure in administering and scoring test in large group of people norms: standardization group scores most intelligence tests follow a normal curve: distribution (bell-shaped curve) of scores around mean (average) score Reliability Reliability: test produces same results each time given to same people Validity Validity: test measures what it’s supposed to measure or predict IQ Usefulness Usefulness of IQ tests generally valid for predicting academic success & job performance identifies people who differ greatly from those of average intelligence (intelligence extremes) Neuropsychology Head injury, learning disabilities, neuropsychological disorders Culturally-fair (not completely free of cultural bias) Word of caution: IQ tests need to be administered and interpreted by well-trained and specialist psychologists Intelligence Extremes A way of assessing the validity and significance of any test is to compare people who score at the 2 extremes of the normal curve 1. The Low Extreme: Intellectual Disability deficits in mental ability (IQ < 70) & adaptive behaviour can vary from mild to severe causes of developmental delay include: chromosome & genetic disorders (e.g., down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, fetal alcohol syndrome) deprived environments drug and alcohol dietary deficiencies Intelligence Extremes 2. The High Extreme: Giftedness IQ ≥ 130 (top 2% upper end of curve), IQ>140: geniuses Giftedness generally guarantees success Terman (1925 longitudinal study) confirmed this Gifted children typically develop into well-adjusted adults, except when pushed to achieve at young ages Geniuses: some social & behavioural adjustment problems Influences on Intelligence Nature (genetic) vs. Nurture (experience) Debate Stronger correlations for IQ scores as genetic relatedness ↑ (identical twins), though not 100% IQ heritability estimated at 0.50 (experience involved) IQ scores steadily ↑ over time in modern countries (Flynn effect) The Bell Curve book widely criticized about heritability of intelligence claims based on unpublished studies evidence methodological flawed ignored experience & culture Influences on Intelligence No significant relationship between ethnicity & IQ Genetic explanations of “black-white” differences in IQ have used heritability estimates based mainly on white samples Environmental influences on intelligence: poor prenatal care malnutrition exposure to toxins stressful family circumstances living in an impoverished & disadvantaged neighbourhood Intellectual performance is strongly influenced by motivation and self-discipline Influenced by cultural expectations, attitudes toward education and beliefs about origins of mental abilities Language & Thought Does language influence thought or does thinking influence language? (Piaget & Vygotsky) Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Whorf hypothesis): language controls the development of thought processes and concepts Cognitive Universalism: concepts are universal and influence the development of language Language & thought interplay: thinking ↔ language Critical period for language development 2-7 years old Child learning a 2nd language < 7 will have no accent Cognitive Fitness Cognitive fitness: a state of optimized ability to reason, remember, learn, plan, and adapt (Gilkey & Kilts, 2007). Examples of mental activities can help keep the brain fit: Playing a musical instrument, reading etc. Definitions and Theories Types of Memory Retrieval, Recall and Recognition Memory Conditions and Healthy Memory Memory Memory Memory: active system that encodes information received from the senses, organises and stores the information, and then retrieves it when required Memory Processes Memory comprises 3 processes: Encoding Storage Retrieval Encoding: transforming incoming information (sensory input) into a form that can be stored Storage: holding information until it is needed Retrieval: locating stored information in memory and getting it out so that it can be used Models of Memory Three main models of memory: 1. Information Processing Model: information for storage is processed in series of 3 stages (Stage Model) 2. Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model: simultaneous processing of information across multiple neural networks 3. Levels-of-Processing Model: information is processed according to its meaning; deeper level of processing→ longer retention All 3 models useful, each focused on different aspects of memory Information-Processing Model Model with a “big-picture” view of memory system Memory comprises 3 systems (stages) Sensory Memory Sensory Memory: “split second” holding tank for all sensory information Iconic Memory (Visual) Duration: < 1 second Capacity: ≤ 20 items Levels of Awareness: Preconscious Unconscious Echoic Memory (Auditory) Duration: < 3 second Capacity: 1-2 items Attention Short-Term Levels of Awareness: Memory Preconscious Unconscious Other Senses Not Well Studied  Sensory Memory Examples Tone Fixation Display Tone occurs Report Sperling’s (1960) study of 1/20 second either before sensory memory: display goes off After participants had or delay of.15, fixated on the cross, the.30,.50 or 1 letters were flashed on second the screen just long enough to create a visual afterimage. Pitch of tone High, medium and low signals which tones signalled which row to report rows of letters to report. Because subjects had to rely on the afterimage to report the letters, Sperling (196) was able to measure how rapidly the afterimage disappeared by varying the delay between the Person 1: “What is the time?” display and the signal to report. Person 2: “What did you say? Oh, 10:30” 2nd person hears question after asking “what did you say?” Echoic memory, holds the sound of the question for 1-2secs. Even if you are not paying attention to words when spoken, you can “hear” them when you turn your attention to them. Short-Term Memory (STM) STM: memory’s “notepad”; holds information briefly (~30 secs) Selective attention: entry ticket for information to be transferred from sensory to STM (focused attention) Working Memory: processes information in STM STM capacity is limited: Miller’s (1956) digit span test (“magic number 7”) Instructor reads the first row of numbers to participant and asks them to repeat the sequence immediately. If participant gets this row correct, the instructor moves on to the next row until the participant makes an error Miller’s magic number 7 STM Boosts Chunking: combining information into meaningful bits (chunks) to improve STM capacity Rehearsal: repeating bits of information in one’s head to maintain it in STM Rehearsal & STM susceptible to interference if counting interrupted have to start over If introduced to group of people, tend to remember the first few people Long-Term Memory (LTM) LTM: Relatively permanent and limitless memory depot of well learned and rehearsed information Elaborative rehearsal: transferring information from STM to LTM through meaningful connections LTM types: Explicit / Declarative: conscious recall of factual information (“knowing that”) Semantic Memory: general knowledge Episodic Memory: personal recollections Implicit / Non-declarative: does not require conscious recall, but implicit in actions (“knowing how to”) Procedural Memory: motor skills & habits Conditioned Memory: automatic conditioned responses Priming: retrieval based on earlier experience  LTM Overview LONG TERM MEMORY Explicit (Declarative) Memory Implicit (Non- Declarative) Memory Conscious Recall Without Conscious Recall Processed in hippocampus & frontal Processed in cerebellum & basal lobe ganglia Episodic Conditioned Memory Priming Semantic Personal experiences & Procedural Memory motor skills conditioned responses Retrieval based on earlier Facts and general events (first day at & habits (drive car, play piano) (salivating for favourite food, experience (using word knowledge (flags) school, wedding night) anxious at dentist) recently read) LTM Organization LTM organized by related meanings & concepts for fast retrieval Various proposed models. Most prominent: Semantic Network Model: information stored in connected fashion (related concepts closely located) Parallel Distributed Processing Model: simultaneous access of connected information across multiple networks Retrieval Retrieval: process of accessing information stored in LTM Retrieval Cues: prompts to remember stored information Priming: activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory (e.g., smelling something that triggers memory of something we thought we had forgotten) Context-dependent: memory improves due to being in location similar to when memory was formed (e.g., eyewitnesses taken to scene of crime) State-dependent: memory improves due to being in a mood/state similar to when memory was formed (e.g., recalling happy memories when feeling happy) Two types of retrieval: Recall & Recognition Recall Recall: retrieving information not currently in conscious awareness but learnt previously (e.g., essay exam) Recall Issues Tip of the tongue: being aware of knowing something and confident of being able to remember it eventually, but not being able to retrieve it at that point in time What you may call it Serial position effect: tendency when learning a long list of information to recall more easily the first items (primacy effect) and last items (recency effect) Recognition Recognition: identifying items previously learnt from a list (e.g., MCQ) Recognition Issues False positive: falsely recognizing some stimulus that is not actually in memory Accuracy of eyewitness testimony (Elizabeth Loftus & Eyewitness study) LTM Reconstruction Memory is not a recording – it is a constructive process Constructive processing: retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised, or influenced by newer information Repetition increases vividness of constructive memories as well as our conviction in those memories Hindsight Bias: tendency to believe after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it (“I knew it all along”)  LTM Reconstruction Misinformation effect: incorporation of inaccurate information into actual memory False Memory Syndrome: creation of inaccurate memories usually through suggestion of others (e.g., child testimony), but also hypnosis Events must plausible Events could have happened to them personally Memory Conditions Organic amnesia: physical damage to the brain (due to disease, accident, surgery, or drugs) causing memory loss Retrograde: loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury or onset of disease Anterograde: inability to form new memories after the injury or onset of disease Memory Conditions Alzheimer's Disease: irreversible, progressive brain disorder that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills, and eventually the ability to carry out the simplest task starts as anterograde amnesia but as disease progresses retrograde amnesia can occur as well worldwide, nearly 44 million (only 1 in 4 diagnosed) no cure, but various drugs for slowing or stopping progression risk factors include: ↑cholesterol, ↑blood pressure, smoking, obesity, Type II diabetes Memory Conditions Infantile Amnesia: inability to remember clearly or accurately the first years of life (prior to age of 3) relating to explicit memories explicit memories are retained after development of one’s personal story (autobiographical memory) language acquisition Psychogenic amnesia: loss of memory and important personal information due to a traumatic event (abuse in childhood, witnessing murder as an adult) brain blocks ability to recall the event no physiological basis for disruption (not organic) retrograde amnesia woman witnessing a murder: forgets her name, identity, how she got to that place Healthy Memory Sleep sleep deprivation severely interferes with hippocampal function and memory new information better consolidated while sleeping Diet – Food rich in: omega-3 fatty acid helps memory cells communicate (e.g., salmon, tuna, walnuts) antioxidants (e.g., blueberries, spinach, green tea) vitamin B (e.g., spinach, broccoli, soybeans) Exercise Improves learning and mental performance Higher cardio vascular activity ↑verbal memory (Guadagni et al., 2020) Aerobic training ↑ brain connectivity (Voss et al., 2020) Helps prevent and treat dementia, Alzheimer's & brain aging Reduces sensitivity to stress, depression and anxiety (Anderson & Shivakumar, 2013) Healthy Memory Behavioural Techniques Rehearse and test new material Make material meaningful (form stories) Activate retrieval cues to jog your memory Use mnemonics (chunking, acronyms, rhymes) Minimise interference (study before sleep) Interleaving (avoid back-to-back study of same subject/s) The Brain and the Mind – Part 2 of 2 End HSC1010 The Environment Part 1: Learning & Conditioning Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Define learning, behaviourism & conditioning Understand classical conditioning Describe classical conditioning applications Understand operant conditioning Distinguish different types of reinforcement and punishment Describe operant conditioning applications and its challenges Distinguish between cognitive learning theories and social cognitive learning theories Identify key Influences for learning Learning Learning: the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviour, including behaviour change, resulting from experience or practice When people learn anything, some part of their brain is physically changed to record what they learnt Learning in Psychology Behaviourism: learning is the result of observable acts and events, excluding mental processes Social Cognition: learning includes not only changes in behaviour but also changes in thoughts, expectations & knowledge, that in turn influence behaviour in a reciprocal process Classical Conditioning Pavlov and His Dogs Principles and Features Applications Learning & Conditioning Behaviorists focus on conditioning Conditioning: a theory that states behaviour can be modified or learned based on a stimulus and a response Conditioning is the process of learning associations (associative learning): linking events that occur close together Two types of conditioning: Classical conditioning (2 stimuli & a response) Operant conditioning (response & consequences) Classical Conditioning Pavlov: pioneer of basic principles of learning Russian physiologist accidentally discovered classical conditioning whilst studying digestive systems in dogs (early 1900s) Awarded Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 for his work on the physiology of digestion Classical Conditioning Elements Classical Conditioning: a previously neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that triggers a response and, in turn, acquires the capacity to trigger a similar or related response Food in dog’s mouth (unconditioned stimulus) → salivation (unconditioned response) Unconditioned Stimulus (US): a stimulus that triggers a response without additional learning Unconditioned Response (UR): response triggered by an US without additional learning Classical Conditioning Elements When a food dish (neutral stimulus) was regularly paired with food, it became associated with food (conditioned stimulus) and would trigger the dog to salivate (conditioned response) Conditioned Stimulus (CS): an initially neutral stimulus triggers a CR, when paired with an US Conditioned Response (CR): response triggered by CS Pavlov’s Experiments Series of experiments to confirm results of accidental discovery of classical conditioning: Ticking of a metronome Ringing of a bell Sound of a buzzer Switching a light on Touch on the leg Classical Conditioning Principles In order for classical conditioning to take place, the following must occur for CS & US: 1. CS must come before the US 2. CS and US must occur very close together in time (< 5 secs) 3. CS must be paired with the US many times 4. CS must be distinct from other competing stimuli  Classical Conditioning Features Generalisation: tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the CS to trigger similar response: Fearing dentists surgeries and other clinics that smell similar (CS), due to association with painful tooth extraction (US) Discrimination: learn to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli and respond differently Learning doctor is not associated with tooth extraction (US) Extinction: extinguishing the CR by repeatedly presenting the CS in the absence of the US Going to dentist for check-ups only, your fear (CR) gradually reduces Spontaneous Recovery: the reappearance of an extinguished CR after a pause Watching a show on oral surgery, your CR suddenly and temporarily returns Higher-Order Conditioning: the CS is paired with new neutral stimulus creating a new (weaker) CS Sign outside dentist’s surgery (NS) becomes a CS associated with the previous CS of surgeries and fear is experienced when you see the sign Why does it work? Classical Conditioning Explanations: Behavioural Perspective: CS becomes a substitute for US by activating same part of the brain (biological process) Cognitive Perspective: CS provides information or an expectancy about the coming of the US (predictive memory) Pavlov’s Legacy Nearly all organisms learn to adapt to their environment evolutionary adaptation allowing an organism to prepare for a biologically important event Learning can be studied objectively in labs Watson: real-life implications of Pavlovian theory on preferences, emotions & tastes (1920s) Classical Conditioning Applications Learning to like: positive emotional responses (for CS) to certain objects/events (US) Associate joy (UR) for favourite food (US) with household chores (CS) Learning to fear: pairing an US with a stimulus that elicits pain, surprise, or embarrassment (CS) Biological preparedness to acquire some fears more readily than others (eg., heights, snakes) Acquired Tastes: likes/dislikes for certain foods & odors Biological preparedness to develop taste aversions with one or few pairings due to survival instinct (bad food → illness) Reacting to medical treatments: unpleasant reactions to stimuli associated with medical treatments reduced pain or anxiety in response to placebos (pills & injections with no direct physical effect on illness)  Classical Conditioning Applications Learning to like: Reacting to medical treatments Learning to fear: Acquired Tastes: Operant Conditioning The Skinner Box Reinforcement and Punishment Features and Applications Operant Conditioning The 2nd type of conditioning studied by behaviourists Operant Conditioning: the process by which a response becomes more likely or less likely to occur, depending on its consequences (behaviour controlled by consequences) Skinner: American psychologist, developed a philosophy of science radical behaviourism (emphasises role of environment in producing behaviour); founded school of experimental research psychology (experimental analysis of behaviour) Skinner Box Consequences of Behaviour Skinner: A response (“operant”) is influenced by 2 types of consequences: 1. Reinforcement: the process by which a stimulus/event strengthens the response, or makes it more likely to recur 2. Punishment: the process by which a stimulus/event weakens the response, or makes it less likely to recur Reinforcers Primary & Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer: an innately reinforcing stimulus satisfying biological needs (e.g, hunger, thirst) Secondary Reinforcer: a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (e.g., praise, “gold stars”) → Reinforcement Positive & Negative Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement: response is followed by the presentation or increase in intensity of a pleasurable stimulus resulting in the response becoming stronger or more likely to occur Negative Reinforcement: response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus resulting in the response becoming stronger or more likely to occur Schedules of Reinforcement Reinforcement Schedule: a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced Reinforcement timing: influences speed of learning, strengthens learned response and behaviour pattern Reinforcement schedule types: Continuous: reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs (quick learning) Partial: reinforcing a response only sometimes (slower but longer lasting learning) Schedules of Reinforcement SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Continuous Partial Getting money from an ATM Based on Based on time Interval attempts Ratio Fixed Variable Fixed Variable monthly salary; Boss checking commission on winning at slot discounts every on you at your items sold; free machine or Tuesday work station coffee after 5 toto buys Punishment Punishment: the process by which a stimulus/event weakens the response, or makes it less likely to recur Reinforcement increases a behaviour; punishment decreases a behaviour Punishment works when immediate, consistent, and paired with reinforcement of actual behaviour desired Punishment types: Punishment by Application (positive punishment): something unpleasant follows the response Punishment by Removal (negative punishment): something pleasant is removed Reinforcement & Punishment Psychology, 4th ed. 2015 Ciccarelli & White Operant Conditioning Features Extinction: occurs when the behaviour is no longer followed by the consequence that reinforced it (reinforcer stops → behaviour stops) Generalisation: response reinforced (or punished) in presence of one stimulus occurs (or suppressed) in presence of similar stimuli Discrimination: response occurs in presence of one stimulus but not in presence of similar ones that differ from it Instinctive Drift: tendency to revert to instinctive behaviour (biological constraint) Shaping: reinforcing small steps, or each successive approximation until desired behaviour occurs Operant Conditioning Applications Behaviour Modification: the application of operant conditioning techniques to teach new responses or to reduce or eliminate problematic behaviour Used successfully in various professional settings: Pediatric hospital: help children with autism improve communication skills Mental hospital: train patients to communicate effectively and improve psycho-social functioning Rehabilitation ward: training patients with brain damage to control inappropriate behaviours Also, used successfully for common problems: Parenting: teaching parents to toilet train children Managing unhealthy habits: smoking, drinking Improving skills: exercising, studying Operant Conditioning Applications When behaviour modification is used inappropriately or incorrectly (non-psychologists; poorly trained professionals), reinforcement and punishment may lose their effectiveness Problems with punishment: Inappropriate administration (harsh methods for toddlers) Harsh or frequent punishment results in anxiety, fear or anger (severely punished teenager may run away) Effectiveness is temporary and dependent on the presence of punisher (misbehaving when parents absent) Most behaviour is hard to punish immediately (punishing dog when you get home for something done in morning) Does not instruct what the person should do (scolding student for learning slowly) Punishment may be reinforcing as it brings attention (mother yelling at child throwing tantrum in public) Operant Conditioning Applications Problems with reward: Rewards are often misused by being given indiscriminately, unrelated to desired behaviour (giving happy-face stickers or high grades undeservingly does not improve performance) Focusing on rewards that are not directly related to the ultimate goal undermines the purpose of the action (rewarding students for playing piano may distract from the joy of playing the piano) Effectiveness of rewards depends on many factors: initial motivation, the context in which rewards are achieved, sincerity of the person giving praise Learning & the Mind Biological predisposition: biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that enhance survival (resistant to learning: raccoons “washing” food) Cognitive Learning Theory: focuses on role of cognition (thought processes) on learning Latent Learning: learning occurs but not shown until the person has a reason to demonstrate it (Tolman’s maze-running rats) Insight Learning: all-of-a-sudden learning by understanding relationships of various parts of problem, rather than through trial and error (Kohler’s Smart Chimp) Learned Helplessness: tendency to fail to act due to past history of repeated failures (Seligman’s Depressed Dogs) Learning & the Mind Social cognitive learning theories: Importance of beliefs, perceptions and observations of other people’s behaviour in determining what we learn, what we do and the personality traits we develop Observational Learning: a process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behaviour of another rather than through direct experience (Bandura and the Bobo Doll) The 4 Elements of Observational Learning: Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation Psychology, 11th ed. 2015 Myers & Dewall End The Environment – Part 1 of 2 HSC1010 The Environment Part 2: Behaviour in Social Context Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Understand the scope of social psychology & its key areas Describe the main factors affecting social influence Differentiate conformity, obedience and compliance Identify different ways groups can influence behaviour of the individual Describe social thinking and its key components Distinguish between attitudes and attributions Identify different types of social interaction Understand prejudice, its components, and causes Explain aggression through biology and experience Describe different types of prosocial relations Identify conditions with impaired social functioning Social Psychology Social psychology: the scientific study of how a person’s thoughts, feelings and behaviour are influenced by social groups (real, imagined, or implied presence of others) 3 main areas: Social Cognition (Thinking): the ways in which people think about other people Social Influence: the ways in which a person’s behaviour can be affected by the presence of others Social Interaction (Relationships): the positive and negative aspects of people relating to others Social Psychology Social cognition Social influences Social interactions 1. We construct our 6. Social behaviour is social reality also biological 2. Our social intuitions 4. Social influences behaviour are powerful, shape behaviour 7. Feelings & actions sometimes perilous 5. Dispositions shape towards people are 3. Attitudes shape, and behaviour sometimes negative; are shaped by, sometimes positive behaviour Social psychology’s principles are applicable to everyday life Applying social psychology Social Influence Conformity Groupthink and Group Behaviour Compliance and Obedience Social Influence Social Influence: behaviour is intentionally or unintentionally influenced by others Major factors affecting social influence: Conformity Groupthink Group Behaviour Compliance (Power) Obedience (Authority) Conformity Complying with Social Pressures: change in one’s opinions to match that of other people, as a result of real or imagined pressure from others Classic study on conformity: Line Experiment (Asch 1951) Participants sit in a line Participants given two diagrams Participants asked which line in second box similar to first line All but last participant instructed (before experiment) to chose B What did the last participant say? What would you say? Conformity Factors increasing conformity (McLeod, 2018): when made to feel incompetent or insecure when in a group of 3 confederates when in a group where everyone else agrees when admire group’s status and attractiveness when have not made prior commitment to a response when know that others in group will observe our behaviour when from a culture that strongly encourages respects for social standards When the task is difficult Why people conform: Normative influence: Need to feel approved (Isenberg, 1986) Informational influence: Need for information; others’ behaviour provides information on how to act in ambiguous situations (Kim & Hommel, 2015) Groupthink Extreme form of conformity When people within a group feel it is more important to maintain group unity rather than critically evaluate facts when making decisions (e.g., weapons of mass destruction) Leads to faulty decisions as group members vulnerable: illusion of invulnerability: group can do no wrong self-censorship (lack of disagreement): skeptics do not voice concerns pressure on skeptics to conform by members & leader Illusion of unanimity (self-deception & insularity): illusion of consensus through suppression of opposing and alternative views Group Behaviour Influence of a group on the behaviour of the individual Group polarization: if a group is like-minded, discussion strengthens its prevailing opinions members in group discussions make more extreme decisions than individuals not in discussion (e.g., jury) Social facilitation: Positive influence of others on performance if task perceived as easy Social impairment: Negative influence of others on performance if task perceived as difficult Group Behaviour Social loafing: people do not work as hard when in a group than individually; easy to “hide” in a group Deindividuation: loss of awareness of one’s own individuality in groups or crowds: Increases: as groups get larger when group members wear masks or uniforms destructiveness or helpfulness depending on social norms Compliance Doing what you are asked: A change in one’s behaviour requested by another person or group, often with no real authority or power Compliance – a major topic of interest for consumer psychology that studies the habits of consumers in the marketplace to increase sales Compliance Techniques Foot-in-the-Door Technique: initial small request acts as an opener for a bigger one. Door-in-the-Face Technique: initial large request, when rejected, followed by smaller one. Lowball Technique: once commitment made, cost ↑ Obedience Following Orders: a change in one’s behaviour at the command of an authority figure Milgram’s classic study on obedience (1963): participants were presented with a control panel. Each participant (“teacher”) was instructed to give electric shocks (15 - 450 volts) to another person (the “participant/learner”) who only pretended to be shocked Obedience How far do you think most “teachers” went? 2/3 obeyed to fullest extent, 65% in replication study (1974) Social Cognition Attitudes Attributions Social Interactions Prejudice and Discrimination Social Cognition Social Cognition: how people think about other people and how those thoughts influence behaviour toward those people Social thinking is based on: Attitudes Impressions Attributions Attitudes Evaluations that predispose us to respond positively or negatively to people, objects, ideas, or situations Attitudes consist of 3 components: Affective (feelings: way you feel) Behavioural (response tendencies: what you do) Cognitive (beliefs: what you believe) Affective (emotions, “guns make me sick” feelings) “gun owners are more likely Attitude on gun Cognitive to shoot a loved one than a control (beliefs, ideas) criminal” Behavioural “I v