Topic 10. Enlightenment: History of Sports PDF

Didactic Unit V. Sport in the Modern Age Topic 10. Enlightenment History of Sports Prof. Dr. Alejandro Leiva Arcas Bachelor’s Degree in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences  Historical introduction The Enlightenment, or “Age of Reason”, was a historical period t...

Didactic Unit V. Sport in the Modern Age Topic 10. Enlightenment History of Sports Prof. Dr. Alejandro Leiva Arcas Bachelor’s Degree in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences  Historical introduction The Enlightenment, or “Age of Reason”, was a historical period that developed from the late 17th century until 1789. It was characterized by the rise of a cultural movement that emphasized the use of reason, critical thinking, the application of science, and the pursuit of progress. The movement emerged as a response to the rigidity of Ancien Régime society, driven by the growth of expanding sectors such as the economy, the rise of the bourgeoisie, international trade, and the consolidation of the Scientific Revolution. All of this created a favorable environment for proposing new ways of understanding the world, free from superstition and ignorance, and based on knowledge, education, and social advancement. On a social level, the Enlightenment is notable for the emergence of a new intellectual elite that believed in the positive transformation of society. This group was made up of philosophers, scientists, writers, and thinkers who advocated for concepts such as reason and merit. Among them, the French Encyclopedists stand out (Diderot, D’Alembert, Voltaire, Rousseau, etc.). It was common for them to meet in academies, societies, or cafés, which contributed to the debate, sharing, and dissemination of new ideas. Many of these individuals became ministers or advisors to monarchs, replacing nobles and family members, thus bringing a reformist vision to politics. 2  Enlightened despotism The influence of the new intellectual movement brought by the Enlightenment thinkers contributed to sovereigns adopting a new form of government known as Enlightened Despotism. This consisted of a series of reforms aimed at the modernization and advancement of society, but executed top-down without renouncing their absolute power: “everything for the people, but without the people.” This was, therefore, an attempt to reconcile the absolute authority of kings with the reformist and rationalist ideas of the Enlightenment that were gaining prominence. The monarchs were convinced that, by introducing reforms for the good of the people, they were fulfilling their mission to govern justly and effectively. However, their absolutist mindset prevented taking into account the citizen’s opinion or the participation of the people in any government initiative, thus maintaining the hierarchical and authoritarian structure of the absolute monarchy. Nevertheless, these reforms, despite being carried out unilaterally, allowed significant advances in areas such as the improvement of the economy, the modernization of public administration, the enhancement of justice, and the expansion of education. 3 Physical Education in the Enlightenment 4  Enlightened education Education underwent a significant transformation during the 18th century thanks to the pursuit of knowledge, reason, and progress, accompanied by the rise of critical and scientific thinking. Education was revitalized and valued as one of the main tools to enlighten society and guide its citizens toward a better state of well- being. At the same time, the debate began on whether education should be made accessible to a greater number of people, rather than being limited to the children of the elite or to religious institutions. This vision led to the creation of new schools and educational programs that welcomed increasingly larger populations. Education was conceived from the perspective of the integral development of the individual, which is why Physical Education received new momentum as it was understood to be a fundamental part of shaping one’s character, health, and morality, integrating this subject into educational curricula. The new educational ideas were organized into major movements such as naturalism, rationalism, and philanthropism.  Enlightened education  Naturalism: A philosophical and cultural movement that argued that nature is the foundation of all knowledge and reality. Based on this principle, the educators of this movement advocated for children’s return to the natural environment to promote their development through direct experience and contact with nature. Notable authors: Rousseau, Helvétius.  Rationalism: For its part, this movement focused on the use of reason as the primary tool for understanding the world and achieving truth. The rationalists championed critical thinking, scientific observation, and reason as the sole source of knowledge.Notable author: Kant.  Philanthropism: A primarily pedagogical movement aligned with Rousseau’s naturalism, though with a more structured approach. While naturalism advocated for free and spontaneous development in harmony with nature, the philanthropists emphasized the need to incorporate well-defined curricula and educational objectives. Notable authors: Basedow, Guts Muths, and Pestalozzi. Jean-Jaques Rousseau Geneva (1712) – Ermenonville (1778) A French philosopher and creator of the so-called “Natural Method” or “Natural Education”, which advocated for the abolition of schools and a return of children to nature, where they could be educated in a free, spontaneous, and to some extent self-taught manner. With this revolutionary method, Rousseau defended the idea that the educational process should respect the evolutionary nature and natural development of the child, with physical education being an essential part of this process. Rousseau believed that civilization corrupted humanity, so it was necessary to return to nature and connect children to their environment through play and free activities. For this reason, during the early years of life, the child should focus on physical development through exercise and the exploration of their surroundings, rather than receiving intellectual training. In this sense, free play (running, jumping, climbing, wrestling) was seen as the best form of exercise, superior to artificial and elitist exercises such as fencing, horse riding, or ballroom dances. 7 Emile The most influential pedagogical work of Rousseau is “Émile, or On Education”, published in 1762, where he presents his ideas about the educational system through the novelized story of young Émile and his tutor. The work outlines an educational program from birth to adulthood, based entirely on natural education and on the child’s growth and learning in harmony with their environment. According to Rousseau, the child is good and pure by nature, and civilization, through its rigid rules and social conventions, ends up corrupting them. To avoid this, it is necessary to return the child to the natural environment to develop in line with their innate nature. In his book, Rousseau divides education into five life stages: 1. First stage (0-5 years): The child is guided by their senses and must remain in contact with nature. At this phase, physical development is encouraged, and intellectual instruction is avoided. 2. Second stage (5-12 years): The child is allowed to explore, learning through experience and discovering the world independently. 3. Third stage (12-15 years): This is the time to begin intellectual education based on the use of reason and critical thinking, but it remains more theoretical than practical and still maintains contact with the environment. 4. Fourth stage (15-20 years): Focus shifts to moral education and the development of character. There is an emphasis on relationships with others, social life, and emotions. 5. Fifth stage (20 years and onward): The learner is ready to live in society and start a family. They are also prepared to receive religious instruction if they so choose. 8 Claude Adrien Helvétius Paris (1715) – Paris (1771) A French philosopher and educator known for his ideas on the importance of the social environment in human development. Helvétius believed that human beings were products of their environment and that education played a crucial role in the development of their abilities and behaviors. According to his perspective, all human beings are born with similar potential, and it is education and life experiences that determine the differences between them. Helvétius lamented that Physical Education was widely ignored and disregarded among the aristocracy and the European elite. He believed that an overload of theoretical studies and the absence of physical exercise caused fragility in individuals. In this regard, he recommended the construction of specific spaces, such as exercise grounds in all colleges and schools so that students could engage in physical exercises and games. 9  Inmanuel Kant Königsber (1724) – Königsber (1804) A Prussian philosopher and one of the most important thinkers in contemporary philosophy. Although he did not focus specifically on physical education like the others, his ideas on education and human development were highly influential. Kant read Rousseau and showed admiration for his work. However, his approach was more disciplined and oriented toward the development of reason and morality, rather than the natural freedom of individuals. While for Rousseau, the child’s natural impulses had to be respected, for Kant, education needed to guide and discipline these impulses to transform them into rational and moral behaviors. For Kant, education should shape autonomous and responsible beings. In this sense, physical education was seen as a means to achieve discipline and control over instincts and desires. This approach should not be oppressive but rather an organic process that helps the individual attain their inner freedom and become a “moral being”. 10 Johann Bernhard Basedow Hamburg (1723) – Magdeburg (1790) He was a prominent German educator who played a key role in the practical implementation of the Enlightenment’s educational ideas. He was clearly inspired by Rousseau, but unlike him, Basedow put his ideas into practice within a real educational environment. In 1774, Basedow founded the Philantropinum school in Dessau, Germany, where he was able to develop his pedagogical vision. The most innovative element of this institution was the admission of students regardless of their gender, religion, or social status. However, it is true that the children of the elites had an advantage as they spent more time on academic activities compared to children from less affluent families. The second innovative point was the inclusion of Physical Education as part of the curriculum, allocating half the time to intellectual activities and the other half to physical, manual, and recreational activities. 11  In this regard, Johann Friedrich Simon played a prominent role as the Philantropinum’s teacher responsible for implementing the physical education program, currently considered one of the first modern physical educators. His methodology was based on instilling “Greek gymnastics” (running, wrestling, throwing, and jumping, clearly inspired by the Greek pentathlon) in the younger students; whereas the older—and generally wealthier—students practiced more complex exercises such as fencing, horse riding, and dancing. Due to his impatience with the children, Basedow resigned as director in 1776, just two years after the school’s founding. The institution closed in 1793, three years after his death. However, this model served as inspiration for many other schools established later, especially in Germany and Switzerland. J.F. Simon Original building of the Philanthropinum in Dessau 12 Johann Friedrich Guts Muths Quedlinburg (1759) – Waltershausen (1839) A German educator with a significant impact on modern physical education. He worked as a teacher at the Schnepfenthal Institute in Germany, which was inspired by Basedow’s Philantropinum. His principal work was “Gymnastics for Youth” (Gymnastik für die Jugend) published in 1793, considered one of the first systematic manuals of gymnastics with practical applications to physical education. This concept of Gymnastik conceived gymnastics based on a model of fixed rules and the pursuit of self-improvement. In fact, he created tables to record students’ achievements, rewarding the best performers and measuring individual progress. He also authored the pioneering work “Manual on the Art of Swimming” (1798), the first sports manual for this discipline, providing techniques and advice on how to teach and practice safe swimming. Inspired by Rousseau, Guts Muths organized multi-day camping expeditions so that students could develop a deeper connection with nature. However, these were not free and spontaneous activities but rather highly planned exercises with pre-established objectives. Guts Muths also gave a nationalistic orientation to physical education, arguing that if the citizens of a country were strong and healthy, the nation would also be powerful. This idea influenced several later German authors. 13  Among the activities proposed in “Gymnastics for Youth” (1793), there were gymnastics with and without apparatus, strength exercises, balance, flexibility, throwing, jumping, and climbing. 14 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi Zurich (1746) – Brugg (1827) A Swiss educator considered one of the main reformers of education in the 18th century. His approach addressed holistic education, understanding that it should encompass all dimensions of the human being: mind, body, and spirit. He also championed inclusive education, arguing that it should be accessible to everyone, including poor families. He was strongly inspired by Rousseau’s natural education, sharing the belief in respecting the natural developmental process of the child through experience and play. As a true philanthropist, he put his ideas into practice at the educational center he founded in 1804 in Yverdon, Switzerland, where he opened a boys’ school, a girls’ school, one for the hearing-impaired, and others for underprivileged children. He integrated Physical Education and manual labor into the school curriculum, including activities such as gymnastics, hiking, sledding, skating, and fencing. His greatest contribution was the incorporation of educational values into the teaching of physical exercise, such as promoting camaraderie, cooperation, respect, empathy, and even love. 15 Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos Gijón (1744) – Puerto de Vega (1811) A Spanish writer, jurist, and politician. He served as Counselor and Minister of Justice during the reign of Charles IV. Jovellanos was one of the key figures in introducing Enlightenment ideas to education in Spain, proposing reforms aimed at modernizing and improving the country’s educational system, which he considered backward, dogmatic, and poorly adapted to the real needs of the time. Inspired by Rousseau and Pestalozzi, he proposed a radical change to the teaching model through a document titled “Bases for the Formation of a General Plan of Public Instruction,” published in 1809. In this document, he proposed ideas such as: A)The universalization and accessibility of education for all people regardless of their social status. B) Establishing education in three levels: primary, secondary, and higher. C) Standardizing education across the entire national territory. D) Emphasizing morality and civic education to create responsible and solidary citizens. E) Including physical education as a mandatory subject aimed at improving the natural movements of humans. 16  Report on the Regulation of Public Performances and Entertainments and Their Origin in Spain A document published in 1790, considered the first book on the History of Sport within Spanish historiography, as well as a critical analysis of the festive events of the time and their impact, function, and importance in society. In its first part, Jovellanos addresses the history and origin of public entertainments in Spain, from Roman influences to their evolution during the Middle Ages and the Modern Era. In the second part, he critiques these festivities, arguing that they are necessary for the happiness of the people and for helping youth become more robust and agile. However, he believes that the lack of regulation can lead to them becoming centers of idleness and moral degradation, which is why he proposes State intervention to oversee them. 17 The origin of sports associations 18 The origin of sports associations Sports associationalism was a phenomenon that promoted the formation of associations, clubs, and groups of people around common sporting interests, particularly in England. This movement was fundamental in establishing the foundations of the organization, regulation, and practice that would define the development of competitive and modern sport throughout the 19th century. Initially, the first sports clubs and societies emerged among the male members of the aristocracy, and to a lesser extent, the bourgeoisie, who saw sporting practice as a way to increase their social capital. Through these associations, they aimed to expand their social networks, enjoy leisure, and simultaneously reinforce their sense of belonging and community. These pioneering sports clubs played a crucial role in the codification of the first rules of sports such as boxing, cricket, and horse riding, which until then had been practiced in an informal manner with regional variations. By standardizing the rules, these clubs contributed to the structuring of sports and laid the foundation for their formalization. The creation of regulations was a decisive factor that enabled the expansion of the sporting phenomenon, as it established the foundation for the first official competitions. This process increased public interest and, consequently, encouraged the construction of sports venues and public spaces dedicated to hosting sporting events. 19 Boxing Modern boxing evolved in 18th-century England as a civilized form of combat that eventually replaced the noble duel. Boxing, as it developed in England, was characterized by the implementation of rules, giving it the appearance of a sport with a sense of “fair play” rather than merely a street fight. Between the 17th and 18th centuries, the first professional boxers (prizefighters) began to emerge, fighting with bare fists in front of paying spectators. This led to the creation of “rings” defined by ropes and matches divided into rounds. The role of the referee was also introduced to ensure the clean conduct of the fight. This structuring transformed boxing into a sport that was more appealing to the masses and into a form of controlled and regulated entertainment. Over time, boxing turned into an exhibition sport that attracted a wide range of spectators, from the working class to the nobility. This led to the proliferation of betting, the emergence of sports promoters, and the growth of an audience increasingly willing to pay for these events, turning boxing into a mass phenomenon. It was during the 18th century that the first “sporting heroes” of boxing appeared, such as James Figg and Jack Broughton. 20 James Figg (1695-1734) James Figg was the first great boxing champion of England and a key figure in the consolidation of the sport. It is estimated that he participated in around 270 matches (some sources cite up to 300) and lost only one, making him the first unofficial champion of the country. Figg’s fame grew so much that he fought before King George II and numerous members of the English nobility, solidifying his reputation as the best boxer of his time. In addition to his career as a boxer, Figg was a prominent promoter of the sport, contributing to its expansion by constructing his own ring at the Greyhound Inn in his hometown of Thame, in Oxfordshire. Later, he moved to London, where he opened a boxing school on Oxford Road, in the Marylebone district. This space became an important center for training and the promotion of boxing. For many, James Figg is considered the true father of modern boxing and one of the most influential figures in the transformation of boxing into a structured and respected sport. Jack Broughton (1703-1789) Jack Broughton was the successor champion to James Figg and was responsible for introducing a technical and methodical approach to the sport. Thanks to his advancements, boxing improved in the execution of punches and in movement within the ring. After a 35-minute fight with the boxer George Stevenson in 1741, who died days later due to his injuries, Broughton worked to create a set of rules aimed at safeguarding the health of the boxers. In 1743, he published the first codification of boxing at his amphitheater in Tottenham Court Yard, rules that remained in effect until 1838. Among these rules were the prohibition of hitting an opponent on the ground, punches below the waist, and a 30-second count before declaring a K.O. Additionally, Broughton designed the first padded gloves, which were used by the students at his boxing academy. However, these gloves were never used in professional fights during his time; it wasn’t until 1889 that their use became mandatory. 23 Cricket Cricket is one of the most popular and iconic sports in England, which, although dating back to the 16th century, had its first structuring and solid development in the 18th century. This sport is a prime example of the English sports associational movement. In 1744, the first formal rules were introduced, allowing for the standardization of cricket through the uniform regulation of aspects such as the length of the bat, the size of the field, and the inclusion of basic rules that gave the game coherence. The dissemination of these rules was made possible by the creation of the first cricket clubs, such as the Hambledon Club in 1760 and the Marylebone Cricket Club in 1787, which still remains active today and is regarded as the world authority on cricket regulation. These clubs contributed to providing cricket with a more solid and organized structure, which increased its popularity and attracted a growing number of spectators. These early clubs were mostly composed of lords and aristocrats, and in addition to being sports clubs, they served as meeting places for the elite, where their social ties were strengthened in reserved and privileged spaces. Interestingly, the 18th century also saw the first women’s cricket match recorded in 1745 between the “Maidens of Brambley” and the “Maidens of Hambleton,” which was described as being just as competitive as a men’s match. 24  Pedestrianism The rise of betting in the 18th century also boosted the popularity of pedestrianism, or footraces, which became a widely followed phenomenon in England. The first references to this practice mention footmen, servants who ran ahead of carriages to clear the path in difficult terrain and watch for potential dangers. Soon, the aristocracy began to take interest in these figures, organizing races between them and placing considerable bets. Over time, pedestrianism ceased to be an exclusive entertainment for the nobility and became a mass spectacle, attracting runners from different social classes. In many cases, the races transformed into crowded events, drawing large audiences and generating huge sums of money in wagers. Notable feats include those of Foster Powell, who in 1773 completed a route of 650 kilometers between York and London (round trip) in just six days. Another challenge was undertaken by Scottish Captain Robert Barclay in 1809, who walked one mile per hour for 1,000 consecutive hours to win a bet of 1,000 pounds. This event, followed by thousands of spectators, generated around 100,000 pounds in side bets. Pedestrianism was not an exclusively male domain; women also participated in these challenges, often in contexts involving betting. Unfortunately, there are also records of darker and more controversial episodes, such as races between pregnant women or competitions involving dwarfs and people with disabilities, 25 reflecting the harsh and dehumanizing aspects of the time. Didactic Unit V. Sport in the Modern Age Topic 10. Enlightenment History of Sports Prof. Dr. Alejandro Leiva Arcas Bachelor’s Degree in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences