Peterson's TOEFL Grammar Flash PDF

 PETERSON'S GRAMMAR FI.ASH The Quick Way to Bullcl Grammar Power Milada Broukal TOEFL® AND TWE® ARE REGISTERED TRADEMARKS OF EDUCATIONAL TESTING SERVICE, WHICH WAS NOT INVOLVED IN THE PRO...

 PETERSON'S GRAMMAR FI.ASH The Quick Way to Bullcl Grammar Power Milada Broukal TOEFL® AND TWE® ARE REGISTERED TRADEMARKS OF EDUCATIONAL TESTING SERVICE, WHICH WAS NOT INVOLVED IN THE PRODUGION OF, AND DOES NOT ENDORSE, THIS PRODUQ. Peterson's Princeton, New Jersey  About Peterson's Peterson's is the country's largest educational information/communicati!)ns company, providing the academic, consumer, and professional communities with books, software, and on-line services in support of lifelong education access and career choice. Well-known references include Peterson's annual guides to private schools, summer programs, colleges and universities, gradu­ ate and professional programs, financial aid, international study, adult learn­ ing, and career. guidance. Peterson's Web site at petersons.com is the only comprehensive-and most heavily traveled-education resource on the Internet. The site carries all of Peterson's fully searchable major databases and includes financial aid sources, test-prep help, job postings, direct inquiry and application features, and specially created Virtual Campuses for every accred­ ited academic institution and summer program in the U.S. and Canada that offers in-depth narratives, announcements, and multimedia features. TOEFL® and JWE® are registered trademarks of Educational Testing Service. Visit Peterson's Education Center on the (World Wide Web) at www.petersons.com Copyright © 1997 by Peterson's All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher. TOEFL* GRAMMAR Flash was adapted from TOEFL® Test Assistant: Grammar by Milada Broukal and published by Heinle & Heinle/ITP. Broukal, Milada. TOEFL grammar flash : the quick way to build grammar power I Milada Broukal. p. em. ISBN 1-56079-951-X 1. English language-Textbooks for foreign speakers. 2. English language­ Grammar-Examinations-Study guides. 3. Test of English as a foreign language­ Study guides. 4. English language-Examinations-Study guides. I. Title. PE1128.B71473 1997 428.2'4'076-dc21 97-34268 CIP Executive Editor: Mark Moscowitz Senior Production Editor: Bernadette Boylan Xyvision Product Manager: Gary Rozmierski Proofreader: Catherine Magnola Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Acknowledgments vii To the Teacher ix To the Student xi The Structure and Written Expression Section of the TOEFL® Test xiii PART 1: TYPES OF STRUCTURE AND WRimN EXPRESSION OUESTIONS 1 CHAPTER 1: NOUNS 2 Introduction: The Brain 2 Grammar: Singular and Plural Nouns 4 On the TOEFL® Test 8 Exercises on Nouns 9 CHAPTER 2: PRONOUNS 11 Introduction: Penguins 11 Grammar: Pronouns 13 On the TOEFL® Test 19 Exercises on Pronouns 21 CHAPTER 3 PARTS OF A SENnNCE 23 Introduction: Phyllis Wheatley 23 Grammar: Parts of a Sentence 24 On the TOEFL® Test 30 Exercises on Parts of a Sentence 31 CHAPTER 4: VERBS 33 Introduction: The Olympics 33 Grammar: Verbs 35 On the TOEFL® Test 44 Exercises on Verbs 46 ill iv TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH CHAPTER 5: PREPOSITIONS 48 Introduction: Mount St. Helens 48 Grammar: Prepositions 49 On the TOEfL® Test 55 Exercises on Prepositions 56 CHAPTER 6: ARTICLES 58 Introduction: Islands 58 Grammar: Articles 60 On the TOEfL® Test 65 Exercises on Articles 66 CHAPTER 7: NOUN ClAUSES 68 Introduction: Michael Faraday 68 Grammar: Noun Clauses 69 On the TOEFL® Test 73 Exercises on Noun Clauses 74 CHAPTER 8: ADJECTIVE ClAUSES 76 Introduction: American Indian Smoke Signals 76 Grammar: Adjective Clauses 77 On the TOEfL® Test 82 Exercises on Adjective Clauses 83 CHAPTER 9: ADVERB ClAUSES 85 Introduction: Distant Galaxies 85 Grammar: Adverb Clauses 86" On the TOEfL® Test 91 Exercises on Adverb Clauses 92 CHAPTER 1 0: PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES 94 Introduction: Land Art 94 Grammar: Prepositional Phrases 95 On the TOEfL® Test 98 Exercises on Prepositional Phrases 99 CHAPTER 11: COMPARATIVES AND SUPERlATIVES 102 Introduction: Violins 102 Grammar: Comparatives and Superlatives 103 On the TOEFL® Test 107 Exercises on Comparatives and Superlatives 108  CONTENTS v CHAPTER 12: CONJUNCTIONS 110 Introduction: The Soya Bean's Industrial Uses 110 Grammar: Conjunctions Ill On the TOEFL® Test 115 Exercises on Conjunctions 116 CHAPTER 13:· PARALLEL STRUCTURE 118 Introduction: Vitamin C 118 Grammar: Parallel Structure 119 On the TOEFL® Test 122 Exercises on Parallel Structure 123 CHAPTER 14: WORD ORDER 125 Introduction: Computers 125 Grammar: Word Order 127 On the TOEFL® Test 130 Exercises on Inversion 131 CHAPTER 15: WORD FORMS 133 Introduction: Benjamin Franklin 133 Grammar: Word Forms 134 On the TOEFL® Test 139 Exercises on Word Forms 140 CHAPTER 1&: WORD CHOICE AND REDUNDANCY 142 Introduction: Asbestos 142 Grammar: Word Choice 144 Redundancy 149 On the TOEFL® Test 150 Exercises on Word Choice and Redundancy 151 PART II: STRUCTURE AND WRinEN EXPRESSION PRACTICE TESTS 153 PRACTICE TEST 1 154 PRACTICE TEST 2 1&0 PRACTICE TEST 3 1&& PRACTICE TEST 4 172 PRACTICE TEST 5 178 Answer Key 185  ACK·IIDILEDGMEIITS. I would like to thank the following professionals for their contribution by reviewing TOEFL® Grammar Flash and giving many helpful insights and suggestions: Paul Abraham, Simmons College Lida Baker, University of California, Los Angeles Kelly Franklin, Maryville College Tom Leverett, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale Virginia Martin, Bowling Green State University Nancy Pfmgstag, University of North Carolina at Charlotte Bruce Rogers, Econotnics Institute vii  TO THE TEACHER TOEFL® Grammar Flash prepares students for Section 2, Structure and Written Expression, of the TOEFL® Test. The text is designed for both self-study and classroom use. The book is divided into Parts I and II. Part I includes sixteen chapters, each focusing on a grammar area tested in the Structure and Written Expression section of the test. Part II provides five Structure and Written Expression practice tests. In Part I, the chapters are organized in order of difficulty, and not according to the frequency of errors that occur on the test. However, if time is limited, the five chapters indicated below, which treat grammatical issues that most often cause errors on the TOEFL® Test, can be studied first. The remaining chapters have about the same ratio of error frequency and can be studied in any order. Chapter 1 5 Word Forms Chapter 16 Word Choice and Redundancy Chapter 4 Verbs Chapter 1 3 Parallel Structure Chapter 2 Pronouns In each chapter the errors made in both the Structure part and the Written Expression part of the TOEFL® Test are covered together. The "On the TOEFL® Test" section of each chapter gives examples of errors tested in the Structure part or the Written Expression part as they occur on the test. Also, the grammar focus exercise that follows is based on errors made in the Structure and Written Expression section. Each chapter in Part I opens with a reading passage of general interest. The aim of this passage is to provide a context for the grammar focused on in the chapter as well as introduce students to the academic content areas covered in the Structure and Written Expression section. The level of difficulty in these initial passages is lower than that of the reading passages in the Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension section of the TOEfL® Test, since their aim is not to improve reading skills but to provide a context for the grammar focused on in the chapter and make the grammar section of the exam more engaging and interesting for the student. ix x TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH Structure of Each Chapter INTRODUCTION The Reading passage focuses on the grammar area of the chapter and at the same time covers a content area of the TOEFL® Test through a subject of general interest. Exercises based on the reading passage introduce and reinforce the structure or grammar area focused on in the chapter. FOCUS ON GRAMMAR AREA This part covers one of the grammar areas tested in the Structure and Written Expression section of the TOEFL® Test. The examples and exercises are related in subject matter to the content area of the chapter. Strategies are given throughout this part. ON THE TOEFL® TEST This part focuses on the identification of errors found on the TOEFL® Test, giving specific examples. EXERCISES ON GRAMMAR FOCUS AREA This part provides practice with TOEFL® Test-type questions on the grammar area focused on in the chapter. Items are in areas of mixed content.  lO THE STUDENT Peterson's TOEFL® Grammar Flash will prepare you for Section 2, Structure and Written Expression, of the TOEFL® Test. The book is designed for both self-study and use in a classroom with a teacher. In sixteen chapters it covers all the main areas of grammar tested in this section of the test and provides you with simple explanations, TOEFL® Test-type examples, and practice. For further practice there are five Structure and Written Expression practice tests in Part II of the book. You can check your answers to the exercises in the book and the practice tests in the Answer Key at the back of the book. As well as preparing you for the types of errors that are tested in the Structure and Written Expression section of the TOEFL® Test, this book introduces and familiarizes you with the major content areas that appear on the TOEFL® Test. These content areas are physical sciences, social sciences, and the arts and humanities. I hope this book will make the content areas and grammar more interesting and accessible to you. xi The Structure and Written Expression Section of the TOEFL® Test Section 2 of the TOEFL® Test tests your understanding of English grammar. The section is divided into two parts, with a different type of question in each part: A: Structure (questions 1-1 5) tests sentence completion. 8: Written Expression (questions 16-40) tests error identification. The number of items in the Structure and Written Expression parts are as follows: Short Long Form Form Structure 15 23 Written Expression 25 37 Total 40 60 Time 25 minutes 35 minutes Language: Section 2 tests standard written English. The language in this section is more formal than the language in the listening Comprehension section. There will be no contractions (there's) or idiomatic expressions. Topics: The topics in Section 2 are about academic subjects: the physical sciences (astronomy, geology), social sciences (anthropology, nutrition), or the arts and humanities (music, art). But you do not have to know about these subjects to answer the questions. There are cultural references to the United States and Canada. These references may be to people, places, or things related to the United States and Canada, but you do not have to know any of these references or facts. All you have to do is concentrate on the structure of the sentence. A knowledge of the facts referred to in this section are entirely irrelevant to your score. Grammar points tested: Although a wide range of grammar points is tested, certain grammar points occur over and over again. Each chapter of this text concentrates on a particular grammar point tested on the TOEFL® Test. xiii xiv TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH TACTICS There are two ways of answering the questions appearing on the TOEFL® Test. 1. By analyzing the grammar of a sentence: In the Structure part you can analyze the part that is missing, and in the Written Expression part the incorrect underlined item can be worked out. 2. By using your intuition: Some people "feel" an answer is right or wrong, although they may not know the grammar. This way may work for a person who has learned English by listening and speaking. STRATEGIES FOR STRUCTURE AND WRinEN EXPRESSION Familiarize yourself with the directions for both parts so you do not waste time reading the directions and examples. Answer every item. If you do not know the answer, do not leave a blank space. Always guess, even if you do not know. Wrong answers will not count against you. You can use a "guess" letter. A guess letter is one letter, A, B, C, or D, that you can use to answer all the items you do not know. You are more likely to get some correct if you use the same letter through the whole test than if you change letters all the time. Use your time carefully. Always read the four choices, even if they seem easy. You may make a careless mistake by answering a question too quickly. Don't lose time thinking about something you do not know. Mark the item lightly on your answer sheet so you can go back to it later. Go on to the next item. You should not spend more than thirty seconds per item.  STRUCTURE AND WRITIEN EXPRESSION xv Strategies for Structure: Questions 1-15 This part of the test consists of fifteen incomplete sentences. A part of each sentence is replaced by a blank. Under each sentence four choices are listed, A, B, C, and D. One of the choices logically and grammatically completes the sentence. Look at the answer choice$ first. If they are short, you can get an idea of what to look for when you read the sentence. If they are long, read the sentence (stem) first. Analyze its structure. Work out how many clauses there are. See if the clauses have subjects and verbs. look for connectors that join the clauses. Then look at the four choices. If you still do not know the answer, eliminate as many distractors as you can and take a guess from your remaining choices. Read all the choices. Never choose an answer before reading all four choices. Some of the choices may be very similar, and you may make a careless mistake. Read the senlence complelely with the answer you have chosen. Make sure your answer fits. If the answer does not sound right , it may not be. If you do not know, guess and go on. If you have time you can come back to the difficult items later. Watch For the following when you insert your answer into the sentence: Your answer may have an unnecessary word or phrase. It may be incomplete. It may be ungrammatical. If so, discard that answer and reconsider the remaining three. Use your time carefully. Do not spend so much time that you will not have enough time to finish the Written Expression part. Budget your time carefully. Do not spend more than thirty seconds on each item. xvi TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH = foe: Written Expression: Questions 16-30 Strategies This port of the test consists of twenty-Five sentences. Each sentence has four words or phrases, A, B, C and D that are underlined. You must identify the incorrect word or phrase. Read the complete sentence quickly. Do not read just the underlined words or phrases. The underlined words or phrases may be correct on their own but incorrect in the context of the sentence. The error will always be unc/erlined. Do not look for errors in other parts of the sentence. The rest of the sentence will only provide you with the clues to help you Find the error. If you cannot find the error, go through a mental checklist of the most common types of errors (see the following table for a list of common errors) and see whether one of the underlined parts Fits into one of the categories. lf.you still cannot find the error, elimina 'the parts that seem correct, and then take a guess from your remaining options. Most Common Errors in Written Expression· Error Category Frequency Word form 21% Word choice 15 Verbs 12 Parallel structure 9 Pronouns 7 Singular/plural nouns 6 Verbals (inflnitives, gerunds, participles) 6 Prepositions 6 Articles 5 Comparative and superlatives 4 Word order 4 Conjunctions 2 Redundancy 1 Other types of errors 2 Based on Bruce Roger's analysis of 20 different exams that test takers were allowed to keep after Disclosed Test Admission. a Typ e s of S tru c t ure ancl Wr i tt en E x pre s s i on Qu e s t i ons  ' 1 NOUNS Introduction: The Brain The brain can store The human brain weighs 100 trillion pieces /"'' / ; :,:", of information. In each second the brain receives more than 1 00 omooo brain. The brain weighs one-fiftieth as The brain loses much as the body, 1 ,000 cells per _____ but uses one-fourth day, which are -- -­ (25 percent) of the not replaced. and body's oxygen. yet memories The left side of the are maintained. -brain controls the The brain cannot -­ right side of the body; feel pain. If a the right side of the surgeon operates on the brain, the patient feels no / brain controls the left side of the body. pain. During the first six brain; if you are left-handed, months of a baby's life, you have a strong its brain doubles in size. right brain. The left brain controls math, language, and logic. The right brain controls art, color, and music. 2  CHAPTER 1 NOUNS 3 EXERCISE 1 [ ==..-- - _ 1....... ·-·... dl :t The brain stores 100 trillion pieces of ______ ) , ? 2. Men's brains are heavier than ______ brains. 3. The brain uses one-quarter, or ______ , of the body's oxygen. 4. The left brain controls math, ______ , and ______ 5. The right brain controls color, ______ , and ______ 6. The human brain weighs about 3.5 ______ 7. The brain cannot feel ______ 8. The brain receives more than 100 ____________ messages from the body. ExERCISE 2 " From the Nading, work out wMther these statements are , '.. true or false. Check T for true and F for faJ... ,,,.. , 1. The weight of the brain depends on intelligence. T F 2. A jazz musician has a dominant right brain. T F 3. A left-handed person has a dominant left brain. T F 4. When you play a game of chess, you use the left side of your T F 5. Your lost brain cells are always replaced. T F 6. The brain feels pain when you have a headache. T F 4 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH Grammar: Singular and Plural Nouns Nouns can be classified into two groups: count nouns, which can be counted and which take an s, and noncount nouns, which cannot be counted and which usually do not take an s STRATEGY Look for a noncount noun that is pluralized where it generally should not be. Look at the following table: Singular Plural Count noun a cell cells one.cell two cells some cells a lot of cells many cells Noncount noun information some information a lot of information much information Count nouns 1. Take a/an or one in the singular. 2. Usually take a fmal s/es in the plural. Noncount nouns 1. Do not take a/an in the singular. 2. Do not generally have a plural form. Some count nouns are irregular and do not take an s in the plural. Here are some common irregular count nouns: man-men foot-feet woman-women tooth-teeth child-children fish-fish  CHAPTER l NOUNS 5 Noncount nouns cannot be counted because they come in a mass or in an uncountable form. Nouns such as blood, music, and excitement cannot be counted. The following is a short list of some noncount nouns: Food: rice, sugar, fruit, milk, bread, butter, cheese Fluids: blood, water, oil, coffee, tea, gasoline Raw materials: wood, paper, glass, iron, silver, wool Gases: oxygen, nitrogen, air, pollution, steam General: furniture, mail, money, traffic, equipment Groups: jewelry, machinery,)uggage, clothing, cash Languages: English, Chinese, Japanese, Spanish Academic subjects: chemistry, mathematics, psychology ' Abstract things: education, health, intelligence, beauty, knowledge, sleep, hope, music, time QUANTIFIERS A quantifier is a word that indicates an amount or quantity. 1. Some quantifiers are used only with plural count nouns. both many a few several fewer They are controlled by several nerves. We have fewer cells as we get older. 2. Some quantifiers are used only with singular count nouns. another each every Each gland has a different purpose. Every muscle has its own group of nerves. 3. Some quantifiers are used only with noncount nouns. a little much less amount The amount of oxygen available to the brain is important. If your brain gets less oxygen than it needs, you could become unconscious. 4. Some quantifiers are used with both plural count nouns and noncount nouns. all plenty of any a lot of enough most lots of some more Brain cells use up a lot of energy. Most animals rely on instinct. 6 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH ExERCISE 3 Correct the errors in noun forms in the following sentences. 1. Intelligence is the ability to use thought and knowledges to understand things and solve problems. 2. Hormones help adjust the mixture of sugar, salt, and waters in your body. 3. Psychology, meaning the study pf the mind and how it works, comes from a Greek word meaning lifes or soul. 4. Brain cells use up a lot of energy, so they need a constant supply of oxygens. 5. Each hemisphere of the brain receives informations about the opposite side of the visual field. 6. Although millions of brain neurons are active at any one time, they do not use much electric powers. 7. Lights entering the eye forms an image on 1 30 million tiny light cells. 8. Most animal are not able to rely on learning and memory. COMPOUND NOUNS Strategy look for compound nouns in which both nouns are pluralized, instead of just the second noun. Compound nouns are two nouns that are used together to make one word or idea. The first noun acts as an adjective to the second noun and usually does not take s. The second noun can be plural. brain cell brain wave computer scientists Compound nouns may also be used with number expressions.  CHAPTER 1 NOUNS 7 Strategy Beware of compound nouns with numbers, where the compound noun used as an adjective may be in the plural form! The brain uses as much power as a ten-watt lightbulb. (noun used as an adjective) The brain uses as much power as a lightbulb of ten watts. (noun used as a noun) He recited a 16,000-page book from memory. (noun used as an adjective) He recited a book of 16,000 pages from memory. (noun used as a noun) NUMBERS Strategy When you see noons invoMng numbers, such as hundred, thousand, or mil­ lion, make sure that they are not in the plural form when they follow numbers. Numbers such as hundred, thousand, million, and trillion are plural when there are no numbers before them. The brain receives 100 million messages a second. The brain stores trillions of messages. ExERCISE 4 Correct the errors in the following sentences. 1. People's brains weigh more now than they did 100 year ago. 2. Nerves impulses can travel at speeds of up to 488 feet per second. 3. The brain contains between 10 trillions and 1 00 trillions neurons. 4. Each neuron is linked by synapses to thousand of other neurons. 5. Nerves endings below the skin's surface pick up sensations of cold, heat, and touch. 6. There are three to four millions pain receptors in the skin. 7. A three-years-old child's brain is two-thirds the size it will finally be. 8. The brain uses 25 percents of the blood's oxygen. 8 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH On the TOEFL® Test Nouns are tested in the Written Expression section of the exam. Check for the following types of errors with nouns. 1. A noncount noun may be pluralized. Example: In a person's lifetime, the brain can store 100 trillion A B pieces of informations. C D The correct answer is (D); information is a noncount noun and cannot be plural. 2. A plural noun may be used when the verb or phrase requires a singular noun. Example: Each part of the brains controls a separate part of the A B C body. D The best answer is (B); a singular noun brain must be used with "part of the." 3. A singular noun may be used when the verb requires a plural noun. Example: Human brain are more powerful than those A of other species because of their complex circuitry. B C D The correct answer is (A); a plural noun brains must be used because the verb are is plural. 4. In compound nouns where two nouns are used together, both nouns may be pluralized instead of just the second noun. Example: Brains cells die at the rate of 1 00,000 per day by age 60, and A B C they are not replaced like other body cells. D The correct answer is (A); the correct form is brain cells.  CHAPTER l NOUNS 9 5. In compound nouns involving numbers and measurements, the com­ pound noun used as an adjective may be in the plural form. Example: Man's three-pounds brain is the most complex and orderly A B arrangement of matter in the universe. C D The best answer is (B); when a compound noun is used as an adjective, it is singular. Therefore the correct answer is threepound. 6. When noun phrases involving a number such as hundred, thousand, or million follow another number, the plural form may be used. Example: The brain loses fifty thousands neurons a day and yet A B maintains its basic patterns and memories. C D The best answer is (A); the singular form thousand should be used when it follows a number. Exercises on Nouns From the four underlined words or phrases (A), (B), (C), or (D), identify the one that is not correct. 1. The potato was the.staple of Ireland, and when the crop failed in 1840, A B C there was mass starvations. D 2. Shark can maneuver considerably faster than other fish because they A B C have no bones. D 3. Although sugar cane and sugar beet look very different, the sugars that is A B C refined from them tastes almost the same. D 4. Textiles industries are as widespread as food industries because both A B supply basic human needs. C D 5. Many animal species are totally colorsblind, but the condition is very A B C rare in humans. D 6. Our skulls is made up of eight cranial and fourteen facial bones. A B C D 10 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH 7. Diamonds, which is about 40 times as hard as talc, is made up of A B C pure carbon. D 8. The oceans contain about 97 percent of the world's water supply, and A B C about another 2 percent of the world's water supply is ices. D 9. Brain waves patterns vary among different people and in A B C different activities. D 10. The ancestor of today's horse was a little mammal called eohippus, A B which first appeared 54 millions years ago. C D 11. Lasers are of great value in areas such as communications, industry, A B medicine, and scientifics research. C D 12. Dinosaurs are classified as reptiles, although some appear to have been A B C warms-blooded. D  2 PRONOUNS Introduction: Penguins There are eighteen different kinds of penguins, and they all live south of the equator. The largest are the emperor penguins, which live in Antarctica. They lay their eggs about fifty miles from the coast. There the penguins have nothing to make a nest out of, but the eggs cannot be laid directly on the ice, or they would freeze. The emperor penguins have to take care of their eggs in a special way. The female produces one egg. As soon as she lays her egg, the male penguin rolls it on top of his feet. A special fold of skin on the bottom of his stomach comes down over the egg to protect it from the cold. For two months the male penguins stand _together to protect themselves from the cold with their eggs on their feet. They cannot move or eat. The female goes to fmd food as soon as she lays her egg. Finally, after two months she returns and takes the egg from the male. The male penguin, which now has had no food for two months, returns to the sea. After the egg is hatched, the female and the male take turns carrying the baby penguin on their feet. When the weather gets cold, the baby is covered by the fold of skin, which keeps it warm. 11 12 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH ExERCISE 1 Pronouns are tested on the TOEfL® Test. Answer the following questions using a pronoun. 1. Where do the emperor penguins live? 2. How many eggs does the female emperor produce at a time? 3. What does the male emperor penguin use to protect the egg from the cold? 4. Why do the male emperor penguins stand together? 5. Where do the males put their eggs when they stand together? 6. Where does the female go? 7. When does she return' 8. What does the male penguin do after she returns?  CHAPTER 2 PRONOUNS 13 ExERCISE 2 From the reading, work out whether these statements are true or false. Check T for true and F for false. 1. There are no penguins on the North Pole. T F 2. All penguins live south of the equator. T F 3. All penguins are the same. T F 4. All penguins have folds under their abdomen. T F s. The fold of skin is used only to keep the egg warm. T F 6. Only the female takes care of the penguin chick. T F 7. Emperor penguins do not make nests. T F 8. Emperor penguins lay their eggs very near the sea. T F Grammar: Pronouns There are five forms of pronouns in English: subject pronouns, object pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and relative pronouns. Possessive adjectives will also be included in this chapter, although they are not pronouns. Strategy It is important to know the fi e forms of pronouns and the possessive adjectives that are often confused with them. Errors may include the use of one type or form of pronoun in place of another. I SUBJECT PRONOUNS we you you he/she/it they The subject pronoun is used 1. When it is the subject of a verb. They live south of the equator. 2. When the subjects of the two clauses are compared. They are more protected against the cold than we (are). 3. After the verb to be. It is be with the egg. 4. After as and than. She is not as tired as be (is). 14 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH EXERCISE 3 Circle the correct pronoun. 1. It is she/her who goes to find food. 2. He/Him has the responsibility of incubating the egg. 3. She/Her lays one egg. 4. John is stronger than 1/me. 5. He/Him and his father are both great explorers. 6. Are you sure that they/them are here? OBJECT PRONOUNS me us you you him/her/it them The object pronoun is used 1. When it is the direct object of a verb. She gives him the egg. 2. After prepositions. When she returns, she takes over the egg from him. But when the preposition introduces a new clause, the subject pronoun must be used because the pronoun is now the subject of the new clause. He leaves after she returns. 3. When the objects of two clauses are compared. It is easier for them than us.  CHAPTER 2 PRONOUNS 15 EXERCISE 4 Conoect the errors in the lowing sentences where necessary. 1. He helps she take care of the baby penguin. 2. She lays her egg and then leaves. 3. They feed them until they can swim. 4. It is not easy for they to survive under such conditions. 5. It is harder for him than for she. 6. He goes to the sea after she returns. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES my our your your his/her/its their The possessive adjective is used. 1. To modify a noun and show ownership. They lay their eggs about fifty miles from the coast. 2. To refer to parts of the body. The male penguin rolls the egg on top of his feet. 3. To modify a gerund. We are surprised by their nesting in such harsh conditions. 16 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH ExERCISE 5 Complete the sentences with the cot:DCt pronoun. 1. She lays ____ egg. 2. He has a special fold of skin on the bottom of ____ stomach. 3. They take care of ____ young in a special way. 4. It is protected from the cold by ____ father. 5. They keep the eggs on feet. 6. The male penguin looks forward to ____ coming back from the sea. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS mine ours yours yours his/hers/its theirs The possessive pronoun is used 1. To replace a possessive adjective and a noun. She takes her turn, and he takes his (his turn). 2. After the verb to be. The egg is hers. 3. After the preposition of when it means "one of many." It is a habit of theirs. 4. To replace the second possessive adjective and noun when they are being compared. Their life seems more difficult than ours.  CHAPTER 2 PRONOUNS 17 ExERCISE 6 Circle the correct pronoun. 1. It is an experiment of his/him. 2. The Adelie penguins live in a cold climate, but the emperor penguins live in a harsher climate than them/theirs. 3. Seven nations claim that Antarctica is their/theirs. 4. The researcher in the picture is a friend of ours/us. 5. His research was good but her/hers is better. 6. Studying penguins is a hobby of mine/my. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS myself ourselves yourself yourselves himself/herself/itself themselves The reflexive pronoun is used 1. To emphasize the subject noun or pronoun it refers to and to emphasize the fact that the subject did the action alone. He takes care of the egg himself Or: He himself takes care of the egg. 2. As the object of a verb when the subject and object are the same. They stand together to protect themselves from the cold. 3. As the object of the preposition by when the subject did the action alone. The penguin chick is unable to get food by itself. 18 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH EXERCISE 7 Complete the sentences with the correct reflexive pronoun. 1. Penguins push ____ along the ice using their flippers. 2. To protect from the cold, the penguin has a layer of fat under its feathers. 3. The female lays her egg and walks back to the sea by ____ 4. During the two months the male penguin cannot feed ____ 5. The male penguin incubates the egg. 6. Since humans do not have the insulation that penguins do, we cannot protect from such temperatures without special clothing. RELATIVE PRONOUNS The relative pronouns in English are who, whom, whose, which, and that. Strategy It is important to make sure that the relative pronoun agrees with the subject. Who refers to people and household animals. Whom refers to people and household animals. It is used in the object position in formal written English or with who plus a preposition in spoken English. Whose refers to people, animals, and things. It shows possession. Which refers to things, collective nouns, and animals. That refers to people, animals, and things.  CHAPTER 2 PRONOUNS 19 ExERCISE 8 Correct relative pronoun errors where necessary in the following sentences. 1. There are eighteen different kinds of penguins whom live south of the equator. 2. The biologist which went to the South Pole is studying emperor penguins. 3. Emperor penguins survive winds who blow at speeds of up to ninety­ five rrtiles an hour in winter. 4. Emperor penguins, whose nesting ground is fifty miles inland from the coast, have a special way of incubating their eggs. 5. Emperor penguins, who are the largest among penguins, do not make nests. 6. The United States has sent researchers to Antarctica which are making experiments to measure the energy expended by emperor penguins. On the TOEfL® Test Pronouns are tested in the Written Expression section of the exam. Check for the following types of errors with pronouns. 1. The incorrect pronoun form or type may be used. The possessive pronoun (hers) may be used instead of the possessive adjective (her). Example: The young emperor chick stands in front of one of !! parents A B C to be protected from the cold. D The best answer is (C); the possessive form its must be used, not the object form. Example: Some penguins they live in warmer places like to make A B their nests in holes in the ground. C D The correct answer is (A); the relative pronoun which or that must be used instead of the subject they. 20 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH 2. The pronoun may not agree with the noun it refers to. Example: Sometimes penguins slide on their stomachs, pushing itself A B C with their flippers. 0 The correct answer is (C); The noun penguins is plural; therefore, the reflexive pronoun referring to penguins must also be plural. The correct answer is themselves. Example: Penguins have special glands who remove salt from the A B water they drink and the food they eat. c 0 The best answer is (B); the relative pronoun who refers to people. In this sentence, the referent is glands; therefore, either that or which should be used. 3. Pronouns that are not necessary may be included. Example: The male Adelle penguin which may not leave the nest until A B C his mate returns. 0 The correct answer is (B); the relative pronoun which is not necessary in this sentence because there is only one verb, leave. Example: Under the feathers is a layer of fat that it protects A B C the penguin from the cold. 0 The best answer is (C); the pronoun it is not necessary.  CHAPTER 2 PRONOUNS 21 Exercises on Pronouns From the four underlined words or phrases (A), (8), (C), o r '(D), ic*ltify the one that is not corTeCt. 1. The penguin chicks cannot go into the water to get themselves own A B food until they have waterproof coats of feathers like their parents. C D 2. Balloons rise into the air because they contain a gas who is less dense, A B C or lighter, than air. D 3. The narwhal is the only animal in the world that has a tusk on A B only one side of it body. C D 4. Silver is too soft to use by itself, so it is mixed with another metal to A B C make themselves harder. D 5. Most slugs and snails breathe using a lung which opens through a small A B hole in the side of its bodies. C D 6. Every fuel has their own p articular temperature at which it begins to A B C D bum. 7. Harriet Tubman, she an escaped slave, led more than A three hundred slaves to freedom on the Underground Railroad. B C D 8. Dreaming, like all other mental processes, it is a product of the brain A B C and its activity. D 9. Snails produce a colorless, sticky discharge that forms a protective A B carpet under them as their travel along. C D 22 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH 10. George Washington Carver won international fame for A his agricultural research, who involved extensive work with peanuts. B C D 11. Enzymes enable the smallest virus to enter cells in order to A B C rep roduce themselves. D 12. Jack London, whom was known for his stories of Alaska, lived there A B C during the Klondike gold rush. D... 13 PA RTS O F A S ENT ENC E u Introduction: Phyllis Wheatley Phyllis Wheatley was kidnapped from Africa at the age of eight. She was brought to Boston in 1 76 1 , a sickly child only able to speak Senegalese. At the age of thirteen she wrote her first poem. In 1773 her first book of poems was published, the second volume of poetry published by a woman in America. At the Boston slave market, Phyllis was purchased by John Wheatley, a tailor whose wife, impressed by the child's aptitude, taught her to speak, read, and write English. In a few years Phyllis had also learned geography, history, and Latin and had developed a liking for classical poets such as Horace and Virgil. Her first poem, a translation from the Latin of Ovid, so amazed the literary circles in Boston that they had it published. In 1 768 she wrote "To the King's Most Excellent Health," and in 1772 she composed a poem to her mistress, who was so moved that she freed Phyllis and sent her to England to regain her health. With the London publication of her book, Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, her fame spread on both sides of the Atlantic, and she became a celebrity. EXERCISE 1 The various parts that make up a sentence are tested on the TOEFL Test. Underline the subiect and circle the verb in the following sentences. 1. At the Boston slave market, Phyllis was purchased by John Wheatley. 2. In a few years, Phyllis had learned geography, history, and Latin. 3. Her mistress, Mrs. Wheatley, was impressed by the child's aptitude. 4. At the age of thirteen, she wrote her first poem. 5. In 1773 her fust book of poems was published. 6. With the London publication of her book, her fame spread on both sides of the Atlantic. 23 24 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH ExERCISE 2 In some sentences the verb agrees with the subject; in some sentences=the verb does not agree with the subject. Write C for correct and NC for not correctA 1. Phyllis Wheatley was kidnapped from Africa. 2. History, geography, and Latin was the subjects she learned. 3. Classical poets such as Horace and Virgil were Phillis's favorites. 4. Phillis was purchased by Mr. Wheatley, whose wife were impressed by her and taught her to speak English. 5. The literary circles in Boston were impressed by her poem. 6. On both sides of the Atlantic her poetry was famous. Grammar: Parts of a Sentence The clause has a subject and a verb. It can stand independently or alone. 1. A simple sentence contains a single clause. She wrote a book subject verb object 2. A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a conjunction (such as and or but). At age thirteen she wrote her first poem independent clause and conjunction in 1 773 she wrote her first book. independent clause { 3. A complex sentence contains an independent (main) clause and a dependent (subordinate) clause. The subordinate clause may be a noun clause, an adverb clause, or an adjective clause. Noun clause (that, what, how... ) Main clause Subordinate clause Adverb clause (because, although, if... ) Adjective clause (who, which, where... )  CHAPTER 3 PARTS OF A SENTENCE 25 Her mistress realized that Phyllis was talented. noun clause She wrote a poem for her mistress, who was very impressed. adjective clause She went to England because she had health problems. adverb clause The three types of subordinate clauses are dealt with in Chapters 7, 8, and 9. SUBJECT AND VERB A clause has a subject and a verb. Some verbs (action verbs) take an object. She wrote a book. subject verb object The Verb The verb may be a single word (wrote in the previous example) or a verb phrase with one or more auxiliary verbs and a main verb (would have written). The verb may be in active form (wrote) or passive form (was written). See Chapter 4, on verbs. The Subject A subject may consist of one or more nouns or a phrase: Noun: Phyllis wrote her first poem at the age of thirteen. Phrase: The first black woman poet in America produced her first book in 1773. The subject may take various forms: 1. A noun: The woman wrote a book. 2. A pronoun: She wrote a book. 3. A clause: What she wrote amazed everyone. 4. A gerund: Writing was her talent. 5. A gerund phrase: Writing poetry was her talent. 6. An infinitive: To write requires special talent. 7. An infinitive phrase: To write poetry in Latin requires special talent. 26 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH -- Strategy. There is only one subject in a douse. Be aware that on the test, the subject may be repeated. This is on error. C rrect: Phyllis- Wheo ey wrote poetry books. Error: Phyllis Wheo ey she wrote poetry books. SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT The subject and verb must agree in person and number. Strategy j Sub"ect and verb agreement often presents difficulty to some learners of Eng ish since there ore some subjects that take singular verbs and others that take plural verbs. Subjects Taking a Singular Verb 1. Subjects with the following prepositional phrases take a singular verb: as well as together with along with in addition to accompanied by among Among her works is To the King's Most Excellent Health. 2. When the words below are used. as subjects they take a singular verb: one each any some every plus singular plus singular noun noun nobody either anybody somebody everybody no one neither anyone someone everyone nothing anything something everything Everyone was amazed by her poems. 3. When it introduces a sentence, it takes a singular verb. It was her poems that amazed everyone.  C HAPTER 3 PARTS OF A SENTENCE 27 Subjects Taking a Plural Verb 1. When subj ects at:e joined by and or both... and, the verb is plural. Both her mother and father were proud. 2. The words several, both, many, and few always take a plural verb. Many were amazed by her talent. Subjects Taking Either a Singular or a Plural Verb 1. A number of takes a plural verb, but the number of takes a singular verb. A number ofpeople were at the reading. The number ofpeople at the banquet was amazing. 2. The words below take a singular or plural verb depending on the noun that follows them: none no all some most half any majority All of her poems were good. All of her work was good. 3. When subjects are j oined by either... or, neither... nor, or not only... but also, the verb is singular or plural depending on the subject nearest to it. Not only her master but also her mistress was proud of her. Not only her mistress but also the literary circles were amazed by her talent. 28 TOEFL GRAMMAR FlASH EXERCISE 3 Choose the option (A), (B), (C), or (D) that best completes the sentence. 1. During the war 5. Outstanding for his talent as an wrote a poem for General essayist, inventor, mathemati­ Washington, who compli- cian, and astrologer in the mented her on her "style and I 770s , who also manner. " published a popular almanac. (A) Phyllis Wheatley was (A) were Benjamin Banneker (B) it was Phyllis Wheatley (B) it was Benjamin Banneker (C) Phyllis Wheatley (C) was Benjamin Banneker (D) Phyllis Wheatley she (D) Benjamin Banneker 2. was initially by 6. During the eighteenth century, horse or foot in the colonial communication within and period. between cities at (A) It was land travel first. (B) Land travel (A) were difficult (C) That land travel (B) they were difficult (D) Because land travel (C) difficult (D) was difficult 3. In 1 736, the number of poor people in Boston receiving public assistance about 4,000. (A) was (B) were (C) it was (D) they were 4. , Jupiter Hannon, was the first American black to publish his own verse. (A) He was a poet and Baptist preacher of Long Island (B) The poet and Baptist preacher of Long Island (C) The poet and Baptist preacher of Long Island he was (D) The poet and he was a Baptist preacher of Long Island  CHAPTER 3 PARTS OF A SENTENCE 29 IT AND THERE Some sentences or clauses begin with it or there. Be aware of the construc­ tions that follow these subjects. In the Structure section parts of a sentence including it and there may be omiHed. A sentence or clause may begin with the words it or there. It is used in three ways: 1. It is used as subject followed by the verb to be: It was in 1 761 that she came to Boston. (It + to be + that.... ) 2. It is used as subject when the information is related to an adjective: It was important to be free. (It + to be + adjective + infinitive) 3. It is used as a subject when it is used with a time phrase: It took her a few years to learn English. (It + take + time phrase + infmitive) There shows that something or someone exists at a special time or place. In this use, the word there follows this construction: there + to be + subject There are many books about Phyllis Wheatley today. There were not many famous women poets in the 1770s. EXERCISE 4 Circle the letter of the word that best completes the sentence. 1. not a single 2. in 1 776 that the hard-surfaced road during the Declaration of Independence entire colonial period aside was signed. from city streets. (A) It was (A) It was (B) There was (B) There was (C) There (C) It (D) It (D) There were 30 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH 3. more than 300,000 5. After the Revolution, although people in Philadelphia by the some advances were made in end of the colonial period, education, ____ a slow making it the largest city in the process. colonies. (A) they were (A) There was (B) it (B) It was (C) it was (C) They were (D) there was (D) There were 4. In the eighteenth c entury, ____ not many women who had access to formal education in the colonies. (A) there were (B) it was. (C) were (D) were there On the TOEfL® Test Parts of a sentence are tested in the Structure section, where any part of the sentence may be missing. The sublect, the verb, or may be missing. Example: Postal service ____ almost nonexistent in the colonies. (A) that was (B) was (C) it was (D) being The best answer is (B); (A) is incorrect because that is needed only to connect a relative c lause to an independent clause, and in this case there is only one clause. (C) is incorrect because it repeats the subject. (D) is incorrect because the -ing form cannot be the main verb of a clause. Example: twenty-two colonial newspapers by 1 775. (A) About (B) About were (C) Were about (D) There were about The correct answer is (D); (A) is incorrect because it lacks a verb. (B) is incorrect because there is no subject. (C) is incorrect because it has the wrong word order.  CHAPTER 3 PARTS OF A SENTENCE 31 Exercises on Parts of a Sentence From the four words or phrases (A), (B), (C), or (D), choose the one that best completes the sentence. , ,, 1. in fluorescent 6. today was devel- lamps, television tubes, and oped by the Swiss scientist other devices. Horace de Sassure around 1773. (A) Phosphors are used (A) Mountaineering it as we (B) It is phosphors know (C) To use phosphors (B) Mountaineering as we (D) Using phosphors know it (C) We know mountaineering 2. The tips of some undersea is mountains islands (D) We know there is moun- in the middle of the ocean. taineering (A) to form (B) they form 7. of the surface of (C) form the Earth is covered by water. (D) forming (A) Three-quarters is nearly (B) There is nearly three- 3. of fish: jawless fish, quarters cartilaginous fish, and bony fish. (C) It is nearly three-quarters (A) It is three types (D) Nearly three-quarters (B) There are three types (C) Three types 8. By the mid-eighteenth century (D) Three types are so many new immigrants entering North 4. to stop yourself America from Europe that the from blinking except for a short original colonies in the North- period of time. east were overcrowded. (A) Impossible it (A) it were (B) Impossible (B) were (C) It impossible (C) there (D) It is impossible (D) there were 5. the sitka spruce a hundred years to grow eleven inches. (A) · It takes (B) To take (C) By taking (D) That takes 32 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH 9. · not until the end of 12. in space, a rocket the seventeenth century that has to be powerful enough to scientists began to stress the break out of the pull of the importance of experiment as a Earth's gravity. way of gaining knowledge. (A) To travel (A) There was (B) It is travel (B) It was (C) That travel (C) There (D) Travel (D) It 10. ____ are the most poisonous fish in the world. (A) There are stonefish (B) That the stonefish (C) They are the stonefish (D) Stonefish 11. Seismic prospecting ____ used to map out rock structures below the ground. (A) widely (B) are widely (C) is widely (D) it is widely  V E R BS Introduction: The Olympics The word "olympic" comes from the name of the town Olympia in Greece, where the ancient Olympic Games were always held. The frrst recorded Olympic Games were held in 776 a.c.; the Games took place every fourth year after that date until they were abolished by a Roman emperor in A.D. 394. It was not until 1 875, when archeologists discovered the ruins of the Olympic Stadium in Greece, that interest in the Games was renewed. Baron Pierre de Coubertin, a French scholar and educator, proposed that the Games should be revived as an international competition to encourage both sport and world peace. The first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens in " 1 896. Like their classical predecessors, the athletes were men only; women were admitted to the Games in 1900. Since that time, the Games have been held at four-year intervals as in ancient Greece. However, since de Coubertin's dream of world peace has not been realized, the two World Wars prevented those of 1 9 1 6, 1 940, and 1 944 from being held. The Olympic Games have been confmed to amateur athletes despite a few recent exceptions. There are pressures on the Olympic authorities to admit other professionals to the Games. Such a step would damage the entire concept of the Olympics. The following words appear on the scoreboard at every Olympic opening: "The most important thing is not to win but to take part. " In contrast, the aim of every professional is to win. ExERCISE 1 I Verb forms re tested on the TOEFL® Test. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb in parentheses. 1. The word "olympic" (come) from Olympia in Greece. 2. In A. D. 394, a Roman emperor (abolish) the Olympic Games. 3. In 1875 archeologists (discover) the ruins of the Olympic Stadium in Greece. 33 34 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH 4. The French educator Pierre de Coubertin (propose) that the Games be revived. 5. Since 1 896 the Olympic Games (be held) every four years with some exceptions. 6. In the Olympic Games of 1 896 the athletes (be) men only. 7. Women (be admitted) ____ in 1 900. ExERCISE 2 1_.·.... _ _ "'... ,._.... neceuary... __ 1. The Olympics have taken place every four years between 776 o.c. and A.D. 394. 2. Women started to participate in the Games in 1900. 3. From 1896 to the present, the Olympic Games were held every four years. 4. With a few recent exceptions, professional athletes do not take part in the Olympic Games. 5. With this international competition, Pierre de Coubertin has wanted to encourage both sport and world peace. 6. In 1916, 1940, and 1944 the Olympic Games have not taken place.  CHAPTER 4 VERBS 35 Grammar: Verbs Verbs are tested in both the Structure and the Written Expres· sion sections of the ex-am. Strategy ' It is important to: 1. Recognize the verb in a sentence (the verb is the action). Words that look like verbs such as gerunds, inAnitives, and participles are nat verbs. 2. Check if the verb agrees with the subject ( see Chapter 3). 3. Check if the tense of the verb is correct. The time words and the context will help you do this. TENSES The following tables review verb tenses: Usage Examples Present Continuous Tense 1. An activity that is in progress at Mary is watching TV right now. the moment 2. A general activity that takes place I'm training for the Olympics. this week, this month, or this year 3. Future arrangements I'm going to Sweden next winter. Simple Present Tense 1. A habitual action I run every morning. 2. A general fact The sun rises in the east. 3. Future timetables The ticket office opens at 9:00. Simple Past Tense 1. An action that began and ended at We won a gold medal last year. a specific time in the past 2. An action that occurred over a She skated for fifteen years. period of time and was com­ pleted in the past 3. An activity that took place regu­ She trained every morning before larly in the past work. 36 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH Usage Examples Past Continuous Tense 1. An interrupted action I was watching the Olympics on TV, when he walked in. 2. A repeated or continuous state in I was making many new friends at the past the Olympic Village. Future Tense (going to) 1. Expressing a prior plan My brother is going to go with me next week. 2. Predicting something that is likely We are going to win. I know it. to happen in the future Future Tense (will) 1. Predicting something that is likely You will win the race. I know it. to happen in the future 2. Expressing willingness to do some­ I will go with you if you like. thing 3. Making a decision at the time of I will call you in a few minutes speaking then. Future Continuous Tense 1. An action that will be continuing This time next week I will be at a particular time in the future training for the race. Present Perfect Tense 1. An action that happened at an un­ I have seen him on television. specified time in the past 2. An action that has happened re­ She has just gone out. cently 3. An action that began in the past She has been training for two and continues in the present years. (usually with "for" or "since") 4. Repetition of an action before now He has been to the Olympics sev­ eral times. Present Perfect Continuous Tense 1. Expressing the duration o f a n ac­ John has been swimming for two tion that began in the past and hours. continues in the present (with "for, " "since," "all morning," "all day")  CHAPTER 4 VERBS 37 Usage Examples 2. A general action in progress· re­ I have been thinking about com­ cently for which no specific peting next year. time is mentioned 3. An action that began in the past Have you been crying? Your eyes and has just recently ended are red. Past Perfect Tense 1. A past action that occurred before She had just left when I arrived another action in the past there. 2. An action that was expected to I had hoped to get their decision occur in the past before today. Past Perfect Continuous Tense 1. Expressing the duration o f a n ac­ She had been competing for six tivity that occurred before years before she tried out for another action in the past year the Olympics last year. 2. An action occurring recently be­ He looked tired because he had fore another action in the past been running for six hours. Future Perfect Tense 1. An action that will b e completed By next June I will have partici­ before a particular time in the pated in four Olympics. future Future Perfect Continuous Tense 1. Expressing the duration of time By next May I will have been train­ that has occurred before a spe­ ing at this gym for eleven years. cific time in the future MODAL$ A modal is always followed by the base form of a verb. The following is a list of some modals: can may will shall must had better could might would should have to ought to A modal expresses mood or attitude: Ability: She can run in the race. Possibility: She could run in the race. She might run in the race. She may run in the race. Advisability: She had better run in the race. She ought to run in the race. She should run in the race. 38 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH Necessity: She must run in the race. She has to run in the race. Intention: She shall run in the race. She will run in the race. Past Habit: She would run in the race. Remember the correct word order for modals. Correct word order: She would run in the race. Incorrect word order: She run would in the race. ExERCISE 3 Circle 1M letter of 1M word or phrale that correctly completes the sentence; 1. When archeologists discovered 3. The Olympic Games are held the ruins of the Olympic every four years in a selected Stadium, interest in the Games country, and to athletes of all nations. (A) was renewed (A) they are opened (B) were renewed (B) are opened (C) they were renewed (C) they are open (D) renewed (D) it is open 2. The ancient Olympic Games 4. Winning first place in an event as amateur contests, was the only glory in the but in time became profes- ancient Games because second sional. and third places (A) begun (A) did not recognize (B) began (B) are not recognized (C) beginning (C) was not recognized (D) they began (D) were not recognized  CHAPTER 4 VERBS 39 s. The winners received a wreath 7. The marathon, first staged in from the branches 1 896, the legendary of the sacred olive tree. feat of a Greek soldier who (A) made carried news of victory from (B) was made the battlefield at Marathon to (C) making Athens. (D) to make (A) was commemorated (B) commemorated 6. After more than 1 , 500 years, (C) commemorates Athens for the site (D) commemorating of the first modern Olympics. (A) were chosen 8. The Olympic torch (B) was chosen throughout the Games and is (C) is chosen then extinguished at the closing (D) chosen ceremony. (A) burning (B) is burned (C) burned (D) burns PASSIVE VOICE Strategy A frequent error is to use an active verb instead of a pa ssive or a passive instead of an active. Remember that if the subject does the action, the verb is active; if the subject receives the action, the verb is passive. The passive is formed by be + a verb ending in ed (past participle or an irregular past participle). In a passive sentence, the object of an active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb. The passive is used when the person or the thing done is more important, or when the agent who did the action is not known. Active: Archeologists discovered the ruins. Passive: The ruins were discovered by archeologists. The following table shows how to form the passive: Active Voice Passive Voice 1. The flame opens the Games. The Games are opened by the flame. 2. The flame is opening the Games. The Games are being opened by the flame. 3. The flame has opened the Games. The Games have been opened by the flame. 40 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH Active Voice Passive Voice 4. The flame opened the Games. The Games were opened by the flame. 5. The flame was opening the The Games were being opened by Games. the flame. 6. The flame had opened the Games. The Games had been opened by the flame. 7. The flame will open the Games. The Games will be opened by the flame. 8. The flame is going to open the The Games are going to be Games. opened by the flame. 9. The flame will have opened the The Games will have been opened Games. by the flame. ExERCISE 4..... Place the verbs tft parentheses 1ft passwe vo1ce to complete the following Anlences. · 1. The flrst modem Olympic series (hold) ____ in Athens in 1 896. 2. The flrst Olyll).pic Village (build) ____ for the Games in 1 932. 3. The Olympic flag (fly) for the flrst time in 1 920. 4. In the 1936 Olympics, the orchestra (lead) ____ by the composer Richard Strauss. 5. The Olympic Games (cancel) ____ in 1916 because of World War I. 6. The Summer Games (show) ____ on television for the first time in 1936.  CHAPTER 4 VERBS 41 GERUNDS A gerund, an infinitive, or a participle is a verbal, not a verb. Gerunds or infinitives con never toke the place J a main wrb in a sentence. When there is a verb missing in -one of the 1e1t items, make sure you choose a verb and not a verbal. The gerund is formed by adding -ing to the base form of a verb. The gerund is used as a noun. It can function as a subject, object, or object of a preposition. Running is my favorite sport. (subject) He tried running faster. (object) She was afraid of losing. (object of preposition) When the gerund is the subject of the sentence, the verb is singular. 1. Gerund after Noun + Prepositions. The following are some nouns + prepositions that take gerunds: choice of excuse for intention of possibility of/for reason for method of/for He has no intention of giving up now. Ibere was no reason for canceling the race. 2. Gerund after Adjectives + Prepositions The following are some adjectives + prepositions that take the gerund: accustomed to afraid of capable of fond of good at interested in successful in tired of She is accustomed to training for many hours. He is good at running the 200-meter race. 42 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH · 3. Gerunds after Verbs The following are some verbs that take the gerund: admit deny postpone resume advise discuss practice risk anticipate enjoy quit suggest appreciate excuse recall tolerate avoid finish recommend try can't help keep regret understand consider mind resent imagine delay miss resist He kept nmning until the end. She enjoys running for competition. 4. Gerund after Verb + Preposition (Two-Word Verbs) The following are some two-word verbs that take the gerund: approve of give up rely on be better off insist on succeed in call for keep on think about confess to look forward to think of count on object to worry about depend on put off prevent from He succeeded in winning the race. She did not give up hoping. 5. Gerund or Infinitive Some verbs can take either a gerund or an infinitive, with no difference in meaning. The following are verbs that can take either a gerund or infmitive: advise dread mean remember agree forget neglect start allow hate permit stop attempt intend plan study begin leave prefer try continue like propose dislike love regret I love to watch the track races. I love watching the track races.  CHAPTER 4 VERBS 43 INFINITIVES The infinitive is formed by adding to to the base form of a verb. The infinitive can be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. To train ts bard work. (noun) She always bas energy to spend. (adjective) He ran to win. (adverb) 1. Verbs That Take the l'ffinlttve agree decide hope prepare threaten appear demand intend pretend tend arrange deserve Jearn promise try ask desire manage refuse volunteer attempt expect mean regret wait beg fail need seem want care forget offer struggle wish claim hire order 2. Verb + Noun/Pronoun + l'ffinittve The following verbs can be followed by a noun/pronoun and an infinitive: advise convince force order teach allow challenge hire permit tell ask encourage instruct persuade want cause expect invite remind warn need require He reminded me to keep calm. I taught him to swim 3. Adjective + Inflntttve The following are some adjectives that are followed by the infinitive: anxious easy hard ready boring good pleased strange dangerous prepared usual difficult She was anxious to bear the results. It is hard to lose. 44 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH ExERCISE 5 1. The authorities permitted 4. Women were not allowed women in in more than track and field events in the three events in 1932. 1928 Winter Games. (A) participating (A) to take part (B) to participate (B) taking part 5. The Roman Emperor Theodo- 2. Because of a lack of snow, sius ordered.the Games three thousand Austrian soldiers in A.D. 394. were hired in (A) stopping snow for the ski trails in 1964. (B) to stop (A) bringing 6. The two World Wars prevented (B) to bring the Olympics from 3. In ancient Greece it was agreed place. wars for the (A) taking Olympic Games. (B) to take (A) to stop (B) stopping ON THE TOEFL® TEST In the Structure section, verb errors may involve the following: 1. A verb may not agree with its subject. A singular subject requires a singular verb and a plural subject requires a plural verb. 2. A verb may be in the wrong tense. The time words and the context will indicate the correct tense. 3. A verb may be in the active form instead of the passive or vice versa. If the subject does the action, the verb must be active; if the subject receives the action, the verb is passive.  CHAPTER 4 VERBS 45 4. A verbal is not a verb. A gerund or participle cannot be a main verb. Example: Electronic timing ____ for the first time in the 1 9 1 2 Olympics in Sweden. (A) were used (B) was used (C) using (D) used The best answer is (B). (A) is incorrect because the subject is in gerund form and therefore requires a singular verb. (C) is incorrect because the -ing form is not a verb and a clause requires a verb. (D) is incorrect because the verb is active and a passive verb is needed. In the Written Expression section, verb errors often involve the following: 1. A main verb may be used instead of a participle or vice versa. The main verb, for example eat or ate, may be used instead of eaten, or the main verb is eating instead of eating. 2. The gerund may be used instead of the infinitive. For example, eating instead of to eat. 3. The wrong infinitive form may be used. For example, make may be used instead of to make. 4. The wrong form of the participle may be used. The present participle may be used instead of the past participle or vice 'versa. Example In the 1931 Winter Olympics many competitors were A prevented from to participate because of the economic B C D depression. The best choice is (C) because an infinitive cannot be used after a preposition. The gerund form participating must be used. 46 TOEFL GRAMMAR FLASH Exercises on Verbs From the four worcb 0.. phi'CIIe$, choo" the one that best complete !" sen-.nce. ' 1. The first systematic chart ever 5. Some fish made of an ocean current distortions of electrical field by Benjamin through spec al receptors. Franklin. (A) sense (A) published (B) are sensing (B) was published (C) are sensed (C) publishing (D) senses (D) has been published 6. The widespread use of oil and 2. Petroleum on gas to make chemicals every continent and beneath during the every ocean. 1 920s. (A) is found (A) has begun (B) found (B) began (C) are found (C) beginning (D) find (D) begun 3. Animals on Earth for at least 700 million years. (A) living (B) lived (C) have lived (D) have been lived 4. During the Ice Age, glaciers ______ and retreated several times over large areas of the earth. (A) had been advanced (B) were advanced (C) have advanced (D) advanced  CHAPTER 4 VERBS 47 I From the r.ur underlined words or phnues, ld1nllfy the one that not correct.. ,.. 7. The American architect, Frank lloyd Wright, developed a theory of A architecture stressed the needs of the people who used it. B C D 8. Pelicans have a long, straight bill with a flexible pouch makes of skin on A B C the underside. D 9. In some countries, octopuses and snails are considered being great A B delicacies to eat. C D 10. Many dyslexics have difficulty to remembering the sequence of letters in A B C a word and in distinguishing right from left. D 11. Men and women in the Peace Corps work with people in developing A B countries to help them improving their living conditions. C D 12. Seahorses spend much of their time clung with their tails to underwater A B C D plants.  15 u PRE POS I T I ONS Introduction: Mount St. Helens Mount St. Helens, a volcano in the state of Washington in the United States, erupted on May 18, 1980. Sixty-two people died due to the eruption. No one was surprised by the eruption on Mount St. Helens. Scientists had been predicting that an eruption was likely for almost two years before it happened. In March 1 980 a small eruption occurred and in April one side of the mountain started to swell and crack. The scientists issued warnings and asked people to clear the area. On May 18 the mountain exploded. Hot gases burst out, followed by hot ash, which ran down the mountain slopes burning everything in its path. Two cubic kilometers of earth was thrown 60,000 feet straight up into the atmosphere. Cities and towns were covered with powder. The ash from the volcano was found as far away as the Atlantic Ocean, on the other side of the continent. The top of the mountain was blown away and about 600 square kilometers (230 miles) of land was destroyed, killing both animals and plants. Many thought it would take decades for the land to recover, but the return of life was remarkable. Today the slopes and valleys of Mount St. Helens once again have abundant wildlife. EXERCISE 1 Prepositions are tested on the TOEFL® Test. Complef!t the sentences with the correct prepositions. ". 1. Mount St. Helens erupted ____ May 1 8, 1980. 2. Scientists had predicted that an eruption was likely, so no one was surprised it. 3. ____ April 1 980 one side ____ the mountain started to swell. 4. The explosion of hot gases was followed ____ hot ash. 5. Cities were covered ____ ash from the mountain. 6. The ash ____ the mountain went as far as the Atlantic Ocean ____ the other side of the continent. 48  CHAPTER 5 PREPOSITIONS 49 ExERCISE 2 Loek at the dtart below lhowint ftaiUral....... Describe lhe dlaaster, incluclhle when.It oceurr.cl, whelw it occumad, ancl wt,at hapfMIMCI clue. to the......,.. · Disaster Where When What Happened Volcanic Krakatoa, Indones