Theories of Crime: Social Structure Theories

THEORIES OF CRIME UNIT 3 SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES  CONTENTS 1) Social disorganization theories 2) Strain theory 3) Cultural deviance theory  INTRODUCTION Social Structure theories Rejects individua...

THEORIES OF CRIME UNIT 3 SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES  CONTENTS 1) Social disorganization theories 2) Strain theory 3) Cultural deviance theory  INTRODUCTION Social Structure theories Rejects individualist explanations Behaviors defined as criminal behavior are simply those that deviate from the norms acceptable to the consensus of opinion in society Weak and powerless are defined as criminal and targeted by the rich and powerful in an inherently unequal and unfair society Crime is a socially constructed entity and poses a real threat to the continuance of that society and thus needs to be controlled in some way The sociological variant of the predestined actor model involves the ‘scientific’ measurement of indicators of ‘social disorganization’ – such as rates of crime, drunkenness and suicide – in specified urban areas. Proponents recommend that once the whereabouts of existing and potential ‘trouble spots’ are identified, these must be treated, controlled or prevented, if serious social disorder is to be avoided  INTRODUCTION Social Structure theories Social structure theories link crimes to social structures Social structures or social institutions include family, religious, educational, economic and political institutions. These are the five major social institutions Social structure theories are macro theories Macro theories focus on the analysis of social systems/ institutions/ structures, such as the family, educational, religious institution, economic, and political institutions Also, macro theories focus on individuals and their relationships. For example, the relationship between adult children and their parents, or the effect of negative attitudes on older people In addition, macro theories analyses social structure, social processes and social problems, and their inter- relationships  INTRODUCTION Social Structure theories Crime is mainly a problem that people in the lower socio-economic class engage in The root causes of crime is in the structural defects created by poverty, unemployment, poor education and racism – These social problems create socially deprived/ disadvantaged groups who are noted as being responsible for the crime rates Structure theorists are concerned with macro-level sociological analysis, and not a micro-level analysis Social structure theorists seek to identify the defects/ shortcomings in the society and correct them  INTRODUCTION Structure theories are divided into two groups, viz: Social disorganization theory (or ecological theory) Strain theory (or anomie theory)  Social Disorganization Theory/ Ecological theory Emile Durkheim was the founding father of academic sociology in France and a major social theorist working at the turn of the twentieth century People are seen to commit criminal acts not because it is in their material interests to do so, but because there is no strong moral authority influencing them to do otherwise Crime is influenced by the structural and cultural characteristics of a neighborhood or community When a community experiences high levels of poverty, residential mobility, ethnic diversity, and a lack of social cohesion and informal social control, it becomes socially disorganized This disorganization disrupts the ability of the community to effectively regulate and control behavior, leading to higher rates of crime and deviance Crime is not solely a result of individual characteristics but is shaped by the social and physical context in which individuals live Social disorganization and social ecology theories provide valuable frameworks for understanding the influence of neighborhood characteristics and community dynamics on crime rates.  Social Disorganization Theory/ Ecological theory Social disorganization theory is concerned with crime and disorder within neighborhoods Social organization – this is said to occur when societally agreed norms and expectations guide people’s behavior Social organization is important because it helps to regulate human behaviour SOCIAL DISORGANISATION This is defined as the failure of a societal structure to achieve the common goals of its inhabitants and maintain effective social control The concept of social disorganization hinges on three variables – poverty, residential mobility, and racial heterogeneity The consequences of social disorganization are: 1. A breakdown of informal social control in families and communities 2. A weakness in the ability of a community to protect itself from crime  Strain Theory/ Anomie Theory Crime is a result of the strain on and in social structure/ institutions ASSUMPTIONS OF STRAIN THEORY Disorganized urban slums are responsible for crime Crime is perpetuated by the lower class due to the shortcomings that they experience from the social structures Strain, which is experienced from distorted aspirations, unrealistic objectives and materialism influence crime Frustration and anger, which results from the inability to legally meet socially approved means of attaining social and financial success results in crime  Similarities between Social Disorganization theory and Anomie theory Poverty and economic inequality influence crime Disorder and disorganization are a product of the institutional structure of the society Uncertainty and confusion precipitates instability, which in turn, generates crime Structure theories seek to explain the high level of crime in poor communities Instability is seen mainly in minority groups, the lower socio-economic class and “drop outs”, and these are all defects of the social structure  The Chicago School of Sociology Growing up and living in such negative conditions undoubtedly influenced the outcome of people’s lives Crime and criminal behavior in such an environment could not simply be explained in the individualist terms proposed by the biological and psychological versions of the predestined actor model It made more ‘sense’ when viewed as a social problem and it was argued that the poor are not simply born into a life of crime but are driven by the conditions of their social environment Thus, by changing their surroundings it would be possible to reverse the negative effects of the city and transform these people into law-abiding citizens ASSUMPTIONS OF THE CHICAGO SCHOOL Crime is not a product of individual’s biology or psychology but a social phenomena Crime is a normal reaction by normal people to abnormal social conditions, namely disorganisation High levels of crime is due to the low levels of social integration which occurs due to the social disorganisation that is experienced from weakened familial and societal bonds The intervention of government is required to bring about improvement of the city’s criminal neighbourhoods  The Chicago School of Sociology Robert Park (1921) contributed two central ideas to the work of the Chicago School 1) He proposed that like any ecological system, the development and organization of the city is neither random nor idiosyncratic but patterned, human communities, like plants, live together symbiotically. 2) Different kinds of human beings share the same environment and are mutually dependent on each other. 3) Park observed that the nature of these social processes had their impact on human behaviors like crime, and these could be ascertained only through the careful study of city life 4) It was a research agenda that several researchers were to embrace The Chicago School of Sociology  The Chicago School of Sociology 1) Ernest Burgess (1928) produced a model of the city that provided a framework for understanding the social roots of crime and argued that as cities expand in size, the development is patterned socially 2) They grow radially in a series of concentric zones or rings 3) Burgess outlined five different zones and proposed that a competitive process decided how people were distributed spatially amongst these: 4) Commercial enterprises were located in the central business district (or loop) in close proximity to the transport systems; the most expensive residential areas were in the outer commuter zones or suburbs, away from the bustle of the city centre, the pollution of the factories and the homes of the poor. 5) It was the ‘zone in transition’ – containing rows of deteriorating tenements and often built in the shadow of factories – that was the particular focus of study. 6) The outward expansion of the business district led to the constant displacement of residents. 7) As the least desirable living area, the zone was the focus for the influx of waves of immigrants who were too poor to reside elsewhere. 8) Burgess observed that these social patterns weakened family and communal ties and resulted in ‘social disorganization’. It was this disorganization thesis that was influentially presented as the primary explanation of criminal behavior  The Chicago School of Sociology Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay empirically tested the concentric zone theory. They studied court records over several decades and were able to show that crime levels were highest in slum neighborhoods regardless of which racial or ethnic group resided there As these groups moved to other zones, their offending rates correspondingly decreased. The nature of the neighborhoods and not the nature of the individuals who lived within them regulated involvement in crime Emphasised the importance of neighbourhood organisation in allowing or preventing offending behaviour by children and young people. In more affluent communities, parents fulfilled the needs of their offspring and carefully supervised their activities but in the zone of transition families and other conventional institutions – schools, churches, and voluntary associations – were strained by rapid urban growth, migration and poverty. Young people in the zone of transition were not subject to the social constraints placed on their contemporaries in the more affluent areas and were more likely to seek excitement and friends in the streets of the city.  The Chicago School of Sociology The work of the Chicago School has been criticized for: 1) While the deterministic importance of the transmission of a ‘criminal culture’ is emphasised there is substantially less detail provided on the origins of that culture. 2) There have been criticisms of a tendency to see the spatial distribution of groups in the city as a ‘natural’ social process. 3) The role that power and class domination can play in the creation and perpetuation of slums and the enormous economic inequality that permeates such areas is ignored. 4) It has been proposed that they provide only a partial explanation of criminality that seems best able to explain involvement in stable criminal roles and in group-based offending behaviour Imagine a family in Jatheri, Haryana, struggling to make ends meet. They have no money for food and their children are hungry. The father, facing immense pressure, decides to steal a few items of food from a local grocery store to feed his family.  Anomie theory Founding fathers in this school of thought are Emile Durkheim and Robert K. Merton Anomie means lawlessness, normlessness or the absence of norms Norms are socially accepted behaviour which regulate human behaviour A weakening of norms results in decreased social control  Anomie theory Emile Durkheim Durkheim described the processes of social change inclusive of organic and mechanical solidarity that accompanies the industrial development of society Earlier forms of society had high levels of mechanical solidarity More developed industrial societies are characterized by an advanced stage of organic solidarity No society is entirely mechanical or organic Societies with high levels of mechanical solidarity are characterized by the conformity of the group. Likeness and a similarity between individuals and they hold common attitudes and beliefs that bind one person to another Societies can be identified by a very intense and rigid collective conscience: members hold shared ideas of what is right and wrong. Individuals within that group might differ from the uniform ideal and in these cases the law is used as an instrument to maintain that uniformity Crime is a normal feature of a society with high levels of mechanical solidarity  Anomie theory Emile Durkheim Punishment performs a necessary function by reinforcing the moral consensus where a reduction in criminal behavior would lead to non-criminal activities becoming criminalized A society with no crime would be abnormal With greater industrialization societies develop greater levels of organic solidarity where there is a more developed division of labor and different groups become dependent on each other In societies dominated by mechanical solidarity the emphasis is on the obligation of the individual to society With organic formations, the focus is on the obligation of society to the individual person Crime is high in societies which display organic solidarity because of the high level of anomie or normlessness that characterizes them The normlessness mentioned above is due to the high incidences of depression and loneliness that results from the emotional disconnect that people in such societies experience  Anomie theory Emile Durkheim Durkheim provided a threefold typology of deviants: 1) Biological deviant: The physiological or psychological malfunctioning who can be present in a normal division of labour. 2) The functional rebel: A ‘normal’ person who is reacting to a pathological society, rebelling against the existing, inappropriate and unfair division of society and indicating the existence of strains in the social system. Such a person expresses the true ‘spontaneous’ or ‘normal’ collective consciousness as opposed to the artificial ‘forced’ or ‘pathological’ one 3) Skewed deviants: Those who have been socialized into a disorganized pathological society and are the usual focus of deviance and criminal behavior  Anomie theory Emile Durkheim Growth of crime and criminal behavior in modern industrial societies occurs due to: 1) Such societies encourage a state of unbridled ‘egoism’, contrary to the maintenance of social solidarity and conformity to the law 2) The likelihood of inefficient regulation is greater at a time of rapid modernization, because new forms of control have not evolved sufficiently to replace the older and now less appropriate means of maintaining solidarity. 3) In such a period, society is in a state of normlessness or ‘anomie’, a condition characterized by a breakdown in norms and common understanding Without external controls, a human being has unlimited needs and thus, the society has a right to regulate these by indicating the appropriate rewards that should accrue to the individual  Anomie theory Emile Durkheim Crime is functional - adaptive function and boundary maintenance function Durkheim notes that crime is functional element of society because it is one of the necessary ingredients for social change That is, crime helps to direct society’s attention to the areas where change is important The two functions of crime: Adaptive function and boundary maintenance function Society is prevented from being stagnant by the introduction of new ideas, and this is the adaptive function of crime Conversations between people in the society and in the media functions to strengthen the line between good and bad behavior, and this is boundary maintenance function  Anomie theory Robert Merton Merton’s theory of anomie was applied to the American society Merton borrowed the term anomie from Emile Durkheim to explain the social upheaval that accompanied the Great Depression of the 1930s and later the social conflicts that occurred in the USA during the 1960s Criminal behavior usually socially learned Focuses upon the position of the individual within the social structure rather than on personality characteristics Society identified goals which are desirable, such as wealth, material things and status Society has acceptable ways of achieving the recognised desirable goals, such as educational qualifications and stable employment More emphasis is placed on the goal to succeed than the accepted ways of achieving success. It is this imbalance between goals and means that creates anomie Merton contends that the focus on success at any cost creates strain in individuals  Anomie theory Robert Merton Distinguishing between cultural goals and institutionalized means: Cultural goals: Those material possessions, symbols of status, accomplishment and esteem that established norms and values encourage us to aspire to, and are, therefore, socially learned Institutionalized means: Distribution of opportunities to achieve these goals in socially acceptable ways. Merton observes that it is possible to overemphasise either the goals or the means to achieve them and that it is this that leads to social strains, or ‘anomie’ The ideal situation would be where there is a balance between goals and means and in such circumstances individuals who conform will feel that they are justly rewarded  Anomie theory Robert Merton Crime is a lower-class phenomenon The disadvantaged minority or people in the lower socioeconomic class strive to achieve financial success and wealth just as those in the middle and upper classes Unlike people in the middle and upper classes, the people in the lower socioeconomic class do not have access to the legally accepted means of achieving success, such as education and career opportunities Hence, the struggle between the goals and means result in anomie, which leads to strain and forces people in the lower socioeconomic class to use any means to achieve financial success, including committing crimes This is more common in societies where the law is not strongly obeyed Anomie is a function of the structure of the society  Anomie theory Robert Merton Outlined five possible reactions – or adaptations – that can occur when people are not in a position to legitimately attain internalized social goals Merton contends that a society that is in a state of anomie exhibits five modes of adaptation: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion (CIRRR). Innovation, retreatism and rebellion are more applicable to the explanation of crime Culled from https://www.researchgate.net/figure/M ertons-Typology-of-Modes- ofAdaptation_tbl1_240570404  Anomie theory Robert Merton Conformity Most common reaction for most societies. Here, both the cultural goals and the institutionalised means for achieving the goals are accepted by members of the society. Merton argues that most people are able to accept the status quo because most people belong in this category. The general acceptance creates a stable society  Anomie theory Robert Merton Innovation Most deviant reaction in an anomie society. Innovators or deviants exhibit their behaviour Innovators accept the cultural goals and pursue it but they do not accept the means of achieving the goals Innovators practise the saying “the end justifies the means” In order to achieve financial success, which is a societally approved goal, innovators may steal money, rob ATMs, steal jewelleries and other valuables to achieve the goal Merton believes that most criminals fall in this category, hence they are the reason for the high crime statistics  Anomie theory Robert Merton Ritualism Accepting the institutionalised means but rejecting the cultural goals. Ritualists are not regarded as deviants because they adhere strictly to societal rules and norms Ritualists are focused on maintaining what they have and not adding to it Retreatism Rejection of both the goals and approved means of achieving them Example of people who belong in this category are vagrants, drunkards, drug addicts, the mentally ill, and some racial and religious minorities Retreatists may commit crimes to fund their habits (such as drugs or alcohol), or while under the influence of drugs or alcohol Retreatism is regarded as an escape reaction  Anomie theory Robert Merton Rebellion Rejection of the approved goals and means of achieving them, as well as replacing these with new ones Examples of people in this category are those who carry out coups or revolutions to overthrow government, street gang members, terrorists and freedom fighters Rebellion entails destructive crimes, such as damage to property, public disorder, murder, and terrorist offences  Anomie theory Robert Merton Criticisms Anomie theory is not as comprehensive an account of crime and deviance It fails to explain certain behaviours that are commonly labelled ‘deviant’ – such as recreational drug use – and which are often undertaken by people who otherwise accept the standard cultural goals and the institutionalized means of achieving them Predicts both too few deviant activities among the more privileged members of society Merton made no attempt to apply his typology to women and, at first sight it seems totally inapplicable to them  Cultural deviance theory Behaviors are learnt from the society and culture that the individual is living in. These behaviors can be either positive or negative in nature Crime is caused and influenced by some deviant people present in the individual’s surrounding Culture can also be understood in terms of cub-culture groups defined by factors such as age, race, socio- economic status They have beliefs or interests that differ from that of the larger cultural context in which they are placed These cultural or sub-cultural groups have certain norms, which determine how one responds to verbal comments, economic distress etc.  Deviant sub-culture theories Cohen’s Cultural Transmission Theory When the youth socializes into the working-class family, they are unable to sustain themselves in the middle-class set-up, or exercise a forethought, manners or socialize These are structural deficits in the working class which also gets translated into cultural deficits because standards are set to evaluate everyone’s worth Although society is stratified into socio-economic classes it is the norms and values of the middle class that are dominant and employed to judge the success and status of everybody in society The focal concerns of working-class society – toughness, smartness, excitement, fate and autonomy, produce criminality Those who respond to such concerns automatically violate the law through their behaviour Being working class places the individual in a situation that contains a variety of direct incitements towards deviant conduct  Deviant sub-culture theories Cloward and Ohlin: Illegitimate opportunity structure From this theory the existence of three separate delinquent subcultures were predicted: 1) Criminal delinquent subcultures: Available illegitimate opportunities for learning the motivations, attitudes and techniques necessary to commit crimes 2) A conflict subculture: Adolescent males – denied access to the legitimate opportunity structure because of their social class, ethnic origin, etc., have no available criminal opportunity structure, and young males work off their frustrations by attacking people (assault), property (vandalism) and each other (gang fights) 3) Retreatist subcultures: Drugs are freely available and membership is composed of those who have failed to gain access to either the legitimate or criminal subcultures. The conflict or retreatist subcultures would expand, with increased adolescent violence, ‘muggings’, vandalism and drug addiction  Deviant sub-culture theories Criticisms of Cloward and Ohlin’s theory: 1) Their notion of the criminal subculture is modelled on the fairly stable and structured adolescent gangs of the Chicago slum areas of the 1920s and 1930s 2) There is an inherent assumption that the working class is a relatively homogeneous group 3) Simplistic explanation of drug misuse, common among successful middle-class professional people Spergel consequently rejected Cloward and Ohlin’s subculture categories and replaced them with his own three- part typology: A racket subculture: Areas where organised adult criminality is already in existence and highly visible A theft subculture: Involving offences such as burglary, shoplifting, taking things and driving away A conflict subculture: Involving gang fighting and reputation would develop where there is limited or no access to either criminal or conventional activities  Deviant sub-culture theories Walter Miller’s subcultural theory In contrast to other subcultural theories, Miller did not see deviant behavior occurring due to the inability of the lower/working class to achieve success, but in terms of the existence of a distinctive lower-class subculture In comparison to higher social strata, the lower classes are concerned with: Toughness: Hyper masculinity and finding expression and courage in the face of physical threats as well as a rejection of timidity and weakness. This can lead to assault Smartness: The capacity to outwit and deceive others. This can result in crimes such as hustling, conning, pimping, pickpocketing, and petty theft Excitement: The search for emotional stimulus, as sought by practices such as gambling, sex, and drug and alcohol consumption Fate: The belief that little can be done to change social status and one’s way of living Trouble: An acceptance that one’s life will involve violence, and thus involvement in, rather than avoidance of, physical conflict Source: https://www.simplypsychology.org/subcultural-theories-crime-deviance.html  Deviant sub-culture theories David Matza’s anti-determinism Delinquents have similar values to those who are not delinquent, and even voice similar feelings of outrage about crime as those in the rest of society. Behavior is adaptable and flexible, involving dimensions of choice and free will. Delinquents are committed to the same values and norms as the rest of society, and society prevents them from being delinquent most of the time. When delinquents commit crimes, they express regret and remorse, and disapprove of crimes such as mugging, armed robbery, and fighting with weapons. Deviants drift into deviant activities through spontaneity and impulsiveness  Deviant sub-culture theories David Matza’s anti-determinism Everyone has a set of subterranean values — such as greed and aggressiveness, which may appear in particular situations. These subterranean values contrast with traditional values and roles, such as one’s place in one’s family or one’s occupation Drift is a period in adolescence where an adolescent’s bonds with society are loosened, making them more susceptible to suggestions of deviant acts from their peer group Source: https://www.simplypsychology.org/subcultural-theories-crime-deviance.html  Deviant sub-culture theories David Matza’s anti-determinism Young males utilise ‘techniques of neutralisation’ to justify their behaviour Matza identifies five major types of neutralisation: Denial of responsibility (I didn’t mean it) Denial of injury (I didn’t really harm him) Denial of the victim (he deserved it) Condemnation of the condemners (they always pick on us) Appeals to higher loyalties (you’ve got to help your mates)  ACTIVITY Do you think any of the cultural theories can be applied to crimes committed in the Indian context. Justify with some relevant case examples Group discussion