Structural Conceptualization PDF

>>> STRUCTURAL CONCEPTUALIZATION MECHANICS Mechanics Fluid Mechanics The study of objects at rest or in motion that are subje...

>>> STRUCTURAL CONCEPTUALIZATION MECHANICS Mechanics Fluid Mechanics The study of objects at rest or in motion that are subjected to forces Deformed Body Mechanics Rigid Body Mechanics The primary concern of architecture. Can be divided into ‘dynamics’ and ‘statics’ Statics – the study of objects subjected to forces that remain in static equilibrium – buildings fail when there is no static equilibrium Building Configurations – ideally structurally symmetrical, less reentrant angles, near the center of gravity – best geometry: circle (all points equidistant from center of gravity) Strength of Materials Material Properties Specifications The study of the internal effects of external forces Sectional Properties Form Proper Connectors CATEGORIZATION OF STRUCTURES Resisted Forces Type Description Examples Axial Shear Torsion Bending Section Active Dependent on the sectional properties of its rigid components Steel and column frames x x x x Form Active Material naturally deflects and becomes stable upon loading Tensile fabric, arches x Vector Active Transfers load via a series of interlinked components and depended upon Geodesic domes, trusses x geometry and orientation of its components (i.e. vector quality) Surface Active Composed of rigid surfaces; similar to form-active applied loads are Concrete shells x x redirected by the shape of the structure NATURE OF FORCES Concept Sub-types Definition Force Systems 2D or Coplanar Forces that occur on 2 axes. Can be concurrent, parallel, non-concurrent & non-parallel 3D or Spatial Forces that occur on 3 axes. Can be concurrent, parallel, non-concurrent & non-parallel Application of Axial Load Load that is applied parallel to the length of the member/object. Forces It induces compression OR tension. Lateral Load Load that is applied perpendicular or transverse to the length of the member/object. It induces shear, bending, and/or torsion. Static Equilibrium Translational Equilibrium Vector sum of the external forces must be equal to zero. Rotational Equilibrium Total torque or moment acting on then object must be equal to zero. SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 1 of 58  TYPES OF SUPPORTS FOR COPLANAR SYSTEMS TYPES OF LOADS Type Symbol Resisted Movement Category Type Description Horizontal Vertical Rotation Based on Concentrated/Point Load Simple Distribution x Uniformly Distributed Load Roller x Uniformly Varying Load Pin x x Fixed Based on Dead or Static Load weight of the structure itself x x x Source Live or Dynamic Load loads in motion or transient (e.g. people, furniture, wind) TRUSSES Truss – slender members assumed to be connected by “frictionless pins” at its joints, where loads are assumed to be placed – members are allowed to rotate in relation to one another (pin support) – trusses are not capable of resisting bending, moment, and shear KING POST TRUSS FINK TRUSS HOWE TRUSS PRATT TRUSS diagonal in compression, vertical in tension diagonal in tension, vertical in compression WARREN TRUSS (with vertical) K-TRUSS SCISSOR TRUSS BOWSTRING TRUSS STRENGTH OF MATERIALS Strength Stress (σ) – How much atoms and molecules are being pushed/pulled apart in rigid objects – The ability of a material to hold itself together despite – Used to predict when a material will break being subjected to forces – Force over an area (F/A) Strain (ε) – Measures the amount of deformation compared to the original shape of the object or material – The intensity or magnitude of force carried (stress), and – Used to predict allowable deformation or tolerances elasticity without permanent deformation (strain) – Ratio of change in length and original length (ΔL/L) SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 2 of 58  Modulus of Elasticity (E) – describes a material’s stiffness; value is constant for each material – Stress over strain (σ/ε) Proportionality Limit – up to this point, stress is proportional to strain (Hooke’s Law) Elastic Limit – beyond this limit, permanent deformation will occur Yield Point – the point where plastic deformation begins to occur Ultimate Strength – maximum stress a material while being stretched before breaking – ductile materials (e.g. steel) will experience necking before failure – also called Ultimate Tensile Strength Fracture point – the stress at which a material fails via fracture – in ductile materials (e.g. steel), fracture strength is lower than ultimate strength – in brittle materials (e.g. concrete), fracture strength is equivalent to the ultimate strength Stress-Strain Curve of Steel BEAMS Beams Simple Span Beam – Horizontal structural – Supports are located at the ends of its span members designed to resist lateral loads Overhanging Beam – Has overhanging ends from the supports – Beams must produce internal resisting forces to Cantilever Beam balance the internally – Supported only from one end by a rigid developed forces resulting connection from externally applied forces Continuous Beam – Supported by more than 2 points along its span Internal Forces in Beams Vertical Force (v) – Beams undergo simultaneous compression and tension Bending Moment (M) Shear-Moment Diagram SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 3 of 58  ALLOWABLE DEFLECTIONS OF BEAMS BUILDING FRAMES Element Supported Deflection Basic Structural System Non-structural, not likely to be damaged by large deflection L/240 Bearing Wall Structural system without a vertical load-carrying space Non-structural (2) L/360 System frame ; no beams/columns Flat roofs L/180 Building Frame Complete space frame to support gravity loads Roof or Floor Construction L/480 System Shear walls and brace frames resist lateral loads Moment- Complete space frame to support gravity loads Resisting Frame Flexural action members resist lateral loads TYPES OF BEAMS ACCORDING TO FUNCTION System Type Description Dual System Combination of moment-resisting frames, and shear walls or Purlin Carries the roof load between trusses or rafters braced frames Rafter Usually sloping beam carrying load from purlins Cantilevered Structural system relying on cantilevered column elements to Lintel Carries masonry across openings (i.e. doors and windows) Column Building resist lateral loads Spandrel Spans between columns and supports floors and curtain walls System Girder Large beams carrying floor beams Shear Wall- Combination of shear walls and frames to resist lateral forces Joist Closely spaced beams supporting the floor/ceiling Frame in proportion to their relative rigidities Stringer Carries the flooring of a bridge (e.g. stairs) Interactive Grade Beam Lowermost spandrel of a building without a basement System Shaft Circular beam that transmits power to the machinery, and also Vertical Structural Irregularities carries torsion in addition to shear and flexure Stiff Irregularity Lateral stiffness of a storey is or Soft Storey < 70% of the storey above OR < 80% of the average of the 3 COLUMNS storeys above Type Stresses Failure Short Compression Crushing Weight/Mass The effective mass of any Intermediate Compression and Bending Crushing or Buckling Irregularity storey more than 150% of the Long Compression and Bending Buckling effective mass of an adjacent Effective Length Factor (K) storey In-plane In-plane offset of lateral- Discontinuity resisting structural elements Discontinuity in Storey strength is 2 Moment-resisting reinforcement only along the short side Two-way Slab Ratio of long and short sides is < 2 Non-parallel Vertical lateral-load-resisting Moment in both directions is considered in the design System elements are not parallel or Concrete Protection for Reinforcement (Concrete Cover) symmetric about the major Exposed to earth (e.g. footings) 75mm orthogonal axes Exposed to weather 40 – 50mm Pipes, conduits, or fittings exposed to weather 40mm Beams and Columns not exposed to weather 40mm Slabs, walls, and joists not exposed to weather 20 – 40mm REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Concrete High compressive strength, low tensile strength Reinforcement Usually steel ; supplements tensile strength of concrete Design Methods Working Stress Makes use of the elastic limit of the materials ; this method Design is no longer used Ultimate Stress Makes use of the ultimate strength of materials (material Design failure) ; this is more reflective of materials’ real behaviour SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 5 of 58 >>> PLUMBING PIPING MATERIALS PLASTIC PIPES Common Uses* Type Colors Type Jointing Diameter Length Avail. Notes D W V CW HW F G Acrylonitrile x x x Black, Blue Rigid Solvent Weld 1 ¼“ – 6” 3m and Import Should be coated with latex Butadine Styrene 6m paint if exposed to the sun (ABS) Chlorinated x x x Orange, Rigid Solvent Weld ¼” – 12” 3m Local Can withstand higher Polyvinyl Chloride White, Cream temperatures than other (CPVC) plastic pipes. Unplasticized x x x x x Orange, Blue, Rigid Solvent Weld, ½” – 12” 3m and Local Has removed toxins and Polyvinyl Chloride White, Gray, Rubber Ring 6m does not fade compared to (uPVC) Black PVC ; Coat with latex paint if exposed to the sun Polyethylene (PE), x* x* x x Black, Blue Rigid, Fusion Weld ½” – 12” ; 3m and Local HDPE can also be used for High-density (HDPE), Tubing (Rigid), 2” – 48” 6m ; 30m irrigation ; LDPE for Cross-linked (PEX) (PE/PEX) Compression (for DW) (tubing) landscaping Fittings (Tubing) *For HDPE only Polypropylene (PP), x x Variable Rigid Fusion Weld ½” – 12” 4m and Local PP-R can accommodate PP Random (PP-R), (Rigid), Special 6m higher temperature & PP-R Fittings (Tubing) pressure; most practical Co-polymer (PP-RC) Polybutylene (PB) x Black, Grey Tubing Special Fittings ½”- 2” 30 - 150m Local (t) Releases a chemical in very Import(r) cold weather METAL PIPES Cast Iron (CIP) x x x Black Rigid Caulking or 1 ½” – 15” 1.5m, 3m, Local Commercial Types: Hubless 6m SV – general use XV – extra duty Copper x x x x x x Reddish Rigid, Solder (Sweat), ¼” – 12” Rigid Local Classifications: Brown, Green Tubing Brazed (Sweat & 3.6, 5.4, K – for underground (K), Blue (L), (coils) Wiped), Flared 6m L – general use Red (M), Tubing M – thinnest Yellow 40, 60, ACR – Air conditioning 100m G – Gas application MG – Medical Gas SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 6 of 58  STEEL PIPES Common Uses Type Colors Type Jointing Diameter Length Avail. Notes D W V CW HW F G Black Iron (BI) x x Black Rigid Threaded, 3/8” – 12” 6m Local Also used for water Welded, Flanged aqueducts, and chilled water supply lines Galvanized Steel x x x Silver Gray Rigid Threaded, 1/8” – 4” 6m Local Longer life than BI pipes ; Pipe Welded, Flanged Commonly used for LPG Galvanized Wrought x x x Silver Grey Rigid Threaded, 3/8” – 4” 6m Local More expensive than other Iron Pipe Welded, Flanged steel pipes Brass Pipes x Brass Rigid Threaded, 3m Import Most expensive steel pipe ; Welded, Brazed corrosion resistant *Common Uses Legend: D = Drain ; W = Waste ; V = Vent ; CW = Cold Water ; HW = Hot Water ; F =Fire Suppression ; G = Gas TYPES OF JOINTING Adapters TYPES OF VALVES 1. Temp. & Pres. Relief Valve Solvent Cemented Bushing – threaded both inside and Gate Valve 2. Pressure Valve Heat Fusion outside 1. Rising Stem-Inside Screw Thermostatic Valve 1. Socket Fusion Wye 2. Rising Stem-Outside Stem and Core Cock 2. Solder Fusion Cross Yoke 1. Corporation Cock 3. Sidewall Fusion 1. Straight Cross 3. Non-Rising Stem – Inside 2. Curb Cock Internal Fusion 2. Sanitary Cross Screw Sensor Valve Caulking (Lead & Oakum Union Patente – uses two end pieces Globe / Compression Valve Metered Valve Connection) attached on the pipe ends, and a Angle Valve Water Meter Hubless Joint Coupling center piece drawing the two pieces 1. Single 1. Disc Flared Joint (with Flaring Tool together as it is rotated 2. Double 2. Turbine Slip Joint Flange Union – alternative to welded 3. Triple 3. Compound Rubber Ring Joint and screwed systems Ball Valves Faucets Threaded Joint Plug Butterfly Valve 1. Compression Soldering Sweat Joint Cap Foot / Retention Valve 2. Key Brazed (Sweat & Wiped) Joint Nipple Check / Water Backflow Valve 3. Ball TYPES OF FITTINGS 1. Open/Shoulder Nipple 1. Gravity Check Valve (Swing 4. Hose Tee 2. Closed Nipple Check) 5. Gooseneck 1. Straight Tee Offset Bend 2. Spring Check Valve 6. Electronic 2. Reducing Tee Return Bend (Lift Check) Shower Valve 3. Sanitary Tee Backwater Valve / Backflow 1. Compression 4. Tapped Tee Preventor (for sewage) 2. Pressure Balancing Coupling Pressure-Reducing/Regulating Valve 3. Thermostatic Reducer / Increaser Relief Valve SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 7 of 58  PLUMBING FIXTURES SCULLERY FIXTURES SOIL FIXTURES Kitchen Sink Materials: Cast iron enamel, formed steel with porcelain Fixture Description enamel coating, stainless steel Water Closet Types According to Form Round Configurations: Elongated 1. Single, double, or triple well Materials: Types According to Flush Tank 2. Shallow, or deep well vitrified china, Method of Flushing Direct Flush Valve Bar Sink Shallow version of kitchen sink stainless steel Types According to Flush Integral Scrub Sink Material: Stainless Steel Tank Type Clouse-coupled Never manually operated (by knee/foot or automatic) Trap Seal: 3 inches Low Medical Sink High Laundry Tub 35-40cm deep sink with single or double-bowl arrangement Types According to Floor-mount BATHING FIXTURES Mounting Wall Hung Bidet Used for genital and perianal cleanliness ; cannot Recessed / Squat accommodate solid waste Types According to Wash Down / Gravity Lavatory Types Wall-hung Flushing Action Flush According to Pedestal Reverse Trap Mounting: Counter (Flush, Self-rimming, Under counter) Siphon Jet Above counter / Vessel Siphon Vortex Through Urinal Types According to Wall Hung Bathtub Typically holds 50-80 gallons Mounting Stall Whirlpool Baths Integrated with jet pumps Materials: Pedestal Shower Receptor floor drain shall now be less than 2% slope nor vitrified china, Through Receptors / more than 4% slope enameled iron, Types According to Direct Flush Valve Shower Pan Thresholds shall accommodate a min. 559mm wide door stainless steel, built-up Method of Flushing 1. Lever Shower Materials: Acrylic, glass, fiberglass 2. Push Compartment Minimum interior area: 0.60 sqm and capable of 3. Sensor encompassing a 762mm diameter circle Waterless Drains for gang shower rooms shall be spaces ≤ 4.90m Types According to Wash Down Floor Drain Sum of areas of holes of floor strainer shall be equal to the Flushing Action Siphon Jet cross-sectional area of floor drain tailpiece Blowout Sitz/Foot Bath Slop Sink Used by janitors to clean & leave their mops OTHER FIXTURES Food Waste An electric appliance for garbage disposal Materials: vitrified china, enameled cast iron Disposer Dishwasher Drinking Fountain Delivers water thru a nozzle at an upward angle Water Cooler Incorporates electrical cooling into a drinking fountain SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 8 of 58  SOURCES OF WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE Source Collection Advantages Disadvantages Rain Water From roofs of buildings and special water 1. Soft and pure 1. Only a source during wet season sheds ; stored in cisterns or ponds 2. Suitable for hot water supply 2. Storage can be a breeding place for mosquitoes 3. Roofs may not be clean Natural Surface Water From ponds, lakes, and rivers 1. Easy to acquire; usually in large quantities 1. Contains large amounts of bacteria, 2. Can be used for irrigation and industrial organic, and inorganic substances surfaces 2. Purification and treatment are necessary 3. Suitable for community water supply when treated Ground Water From underground, springs, and wells 1. Usually in abundant supply 1. Contains organic matter and chemical 2. Requires less treatment due to natural elements; treatment suggested filtering 2. Hardness of water depends on the condition of soil and rock WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS Problem Cause Effect Correction Acidity Entrance of oxygen and carbon dioxide 1. Corrosion of non-ferrous pipes Raising alkaline content by introduction of a neutralizer 2. Rusting and clogging of steel pipes (sodium silicate) 3. Green stains on fixtures Hardness Presence of magnesium and calcium salts 1. Clogging and scaling of pipes Boiling, use of water softener, use of an iron exchanger 2. Impaired laundry and cooking (zeolite process) 3. Rough skin after washing Turbidity Silt or mud in surface or ground 1. Discoloration Filtration 2. Bad Taste Color Presence of iron and manganese 3. Discoloration of fixtures and Oxidizing Filter laundry Iron Dissolved Iron 1. Red staining of fixtures Softener 2. Pipe clogging due to iron bacteria Sulfur High sulfur concentration, hydrogen sulfide 1. Bad taste Chlorination gas, and iron particles 2. Corrosion of plumbing 3. Stains laundry Pathogenic Germs Bacteria 1. Disease Disinfection 2. Poliomyelitis Pollution Contamination by organic matter or sewage 1. Disease Chlorination SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 9 of 58  METHODS OF WATER PURIFICATION Well Pumps Shallow Well Jet Pump Up to 25 ft Aeration – spraying water into the atmosphere to remove entrained noxious gases Deep Well Jet Pump Up to 125 ft Coagulation & Precipitation – addition of coagulants to form a gelatinous mass Submersible Well Pump At least 75 ft ; submerged 20 ft from Flocculation bottom of the well Filtration – using layers of sand and gravel to remove finer suspended particles Locating a 1. At least 50 ft or 15 m away from pollution sources 1. Sediment Filter Well 2. Ideally on higher ground for gravity distribution 2. Activated Carbon Filter 3. Deeper wells allow for natural filtration 3. Ultra Filtration Membrane Filter 4. Activated Granular Carbon Filter Sedimentation – “settling process” CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS 1. Intermittent Piston Pump Positive Single Action – water is drawn in with 2. Continuous Displacement only one motion Chlorination – injection of hypochlorite or chlorine gas to kill bacteria Water is sucked into Pump Double Action – water is drawn in Reverse Osmosis – use of a special filter membrane that permits water to pass, but a sealed vacuum by a with either stroke not larger matters piston Duplex or Twin Uses two cylinders and two rods. Two UV Radiation – killing organisms via UV exposure Piston Pump openings for suction and discharge Ozone – gas used to kill organisms similar to chlorination allow for a greater flow of water Neutralizing Tank – marble or limestone filtration Centrifugal Pump Single Stage Pump – one impeller and is better for low head service Water is drawn into Two Stage Pump – two impellers mounted in series for WELL SYSTEM the pump and medium head service Classifications Shallow: Construction: discharged with Multi Stage Pump – three or more impellers mounted in < 25 feet Dug, driven, bored centrifugal force series for high head service Deep: Construction: > 25 feet Bored, drilled Methods of Dug Well 3-6 feet in diameter ; COMMERCIAL TYPES OF PUMPS Construction Vulnerable to surface pollution Reciprocating Pump Jet Pump Driven Well Pipe with a well point is driven into - piston pump operating at controlled - centrifugal pump for drawing up the ground with a pile driver ; speed ; pulsating discharge water from a well Also known as sand point wells Rotary Pump Turbine Pump Bored Well Uses a well auger and casing (4-6”) to - more efficient for viscous fluids - centrifugal pump for large create a well hole - more discharge, slower suction applications ; multiple impellers Drilled Well-drilling rig to create well hole Jack Pump Submersible Pump – fully immersible - exposed lift and push rod to activate a Sump Pump Jetted Use of extreme water pressure ; submerged piston - used to pump away excess fluid Used only where ground is soft Methods 1. Non-corrosive brass screens of Well 2. Brass well screens wrapped with rocks and stones Screening 3. Rocks and stones with non-corrosive metal casing SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 10 of 58  MINIMUM SIZE OF FIXTURE SUPPLY PIPE WSFU OF COMMON FIXTURES Type Pipe Size (inches) Pipe Size (mm) 1 Water Supply Fixture Unit (WFSU) = 7.5 gallons of water per minute Drinking Fountain 3/8 10 Fixture Private Public Lavatory 3/8 10 Dental Lavatory 1 1 Water Closet (Flush Tank) 3/8 10 Lawn Sprinkler 1 1 Bathtub ½ 13 Drinking Fountain 1 2 Bidet ½ 13 Bar Sink 1 2 Combination Sink & Tray ½ 13 Lavatory 1 2 Dental Lavatory ½ 13 Bathtub 2 4 Kitchen Sink ½ 13 Bidet 2 4 Laundry Tray ½ 13 Laundry Tub 2 4 Shower ½ 13 Clothes Washer 2 4 Service Sink ½ 13 Shower 2 4 Urinal (Lip Type) ½ 13 Sink or Dishwasher 2 4 Wash Sink ½ 13 Water Closet (Economical) 2.5 4 Fixture Branch Pipe ½ 13 Hose Bibb or Sill Cock 3 5 Urinal (Flush Tank) ¾ 19 Water Closet (Flush Tank) 3 5 Urinal (Stall) ¾ 19 Water Closet (Flushometer Tank) 3 5 Building Supply Pipe ¾ 19 Mobile Home 6 6 Water Service ¾ 19 Urinal (Flush Tank) 3 Sill Cock ¾ 19 Urinal (Stall/Wall) 5 Bedpan Washer 1 25 Urinal (Pedestal 10 Urinal (Pedestal) 1 25 Water Closet (Flushometer Valve) 1 25 PROBABILITY OF SIMULTANEOUS USE OF FIXTURES Number of Fixture Units Probability of Simultaneous Use MINIMUM SIZE OF AIRGAPS (WATER DISTRIBUTION) 1 to 5 50 – 100% Fixture Not Affected by Affected by 6 to 50 25 – 50% Sidewalls (mm) Sidewalls (mm) 50 or more 10 - 25 Lavatories 25 38 (Opening: 13mm dia.) Sinks, Laundry Trays, Gooseneck Bath 38 57 Faucets (Opening: 19mm dia.) Over Rim Bath Fillers 51 76 (Opening: 25mm dia.) Others 2x dia. of opening 3x dia. of opening SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 11 of 58  COLD WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS WITHIN BUILDINGS Type Advantage Disadvantage Upfeed / Direct Feed System 1. Eliminates extra cost of pumps & tanks 1. Pressure from water main is inadequate for tall Water is provided by city water companies using normal buildings pressure from the public water main. 2. Water supply is affected during peak load hours Air Pressure System (Pneumatic) 1. Compact pumping unit 1. Water supply is affected by loss of pressure inside Compressed air is used to raise and push water into the 2. Sanitary due to air tight water chamber the tank in case of power interruption system. Normally used when pressure from public water 3. Oxygen in the compressed air serves as a purifying 2. Maximum zoning for each system is 10 floors main is insufficient for the building. agent 4. Less initial construction & maintenance cost 5. Adaptable air pressure Downfeed System (Gravity) 1. Water is not affected by peak load hours 1. Water is subject to contamination Water is pumped into a large tank on top of the building 2. Not affected by power interruptions 2. High maintenance cost and distributed to the fixture via gravity, 3. Time needed to replace broken parts does not affect 3. Occupies valuable space water supply 4. Requires stronger foundation or another structure to carry the load of the water tank METHODS OF WATER HEATING PARTS OF SANITARY DRAINAGE SYSTEM INSTALLATION OF BUILDING SEWER Electric Part Description Minimum Slope 2% Gas-Fired or Fuel-Fired Building Extends from building drain to the Minimum Slope 1% if 4-6” dia. Solar / Solar Tubes Sewer street sewer. (if 2% is impractical) 0.5% if ≥ 8” dia. Min dia.: 150mm or 6” Minimum Distance from 0.6 meters Building Part of the lowest horizontal Any Building/Structure TYPES OF HOT WATER TANKS Drain piping of a plumbing system Minimum Distance Below 0.3 meters Range Boiler Soil Pipe Conveys waste water with fecal Finish Surface Storage Tank matter Minimum Distance from 15.2 meters Tankless or Instantaneous Waste Pipe Conveys liquid waste, free of fecal Wells & Bodies of Water 1. Single Point matter Minimum Distance from 0.3 meters 2. Multi-Point Vent Pipe Ensures the circulation of air in a Domestic Supply Pipes plumbing system and relieves Minimum Distance from 0.3 meters negative pressure on trap seals Public Water Main HOT WATER DIST. SYSTEMS IN BUILDINGS Stack Vertical main of the plumbing Upfeed and Gravity Return System systems (soil, waste, vent) Downfeed and Gravity Return System Branch Any part of the piping system Pump Circuit System other than a main, riser, or stack SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 12 of 58  VENTING SYSTEM Unit or Common Vent Relief Vent Main Soil and Waste Vent Also: DUAL VENT Pipe that provides additional Also: STACK VENT One vent pipe serving two traps circulation of air between Connected to the main soil and drainage and vent system waste stack Circuit Vent Backbone of the entire sanitary Also: LOOP VENT system Vent serving a battery of fixtures Main Vent Extends from furthest horizontal Also: COLLECTING VENT LINE fixture connection and connects to Principal artery of the venting vent stack system Serves as support to the main soil and waste vent All vent branches are attached to it Looped Vent Also: UTILITY VENT A vent arrangement used in spaces away from partitions (e.g. island sink counters) Yoke Vent Also: BYPASS VENT A type of relief vent A pipe connecting upward from a soil/waste stack to a vent stack Prevents pressure changes in the stack Installed every at 3 to 5 storey Wet Vent Dry Vent intervals Point of a vent pipe where waste A vent that does not carry liquid Individual Vent water also flows thru waste Pipe to vent a fixture trap Local Vent Vent Stack Connects with the vent system Pipe to convey foul air from a Vertical vent pipe installed above the fixture or terminates to plumbing fixture or room to the primarily for providing open air outside circulation of air to and from any 1 fixture : 1 vent Commonly used in bathrooms part of the soil/waste of the Most efficient, but expensive without windows drainage system SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 13 of 58  INSTALLATION OF VENTS MINIMUM TRAP DIAMETER OF FIXTURES DFU OF COMMON FIXTURES Minimum Diameter 32mm or not less than ½ Fixture Diameter (mm) 1 Drainage Fixture Unit (DFU) = 7.5 gal/min of connected drain dia. Drinking Fountain 31 Fixture DFU Min. Rise from Fixture 6” or 152 mm Dental Units 32 Dental Units / Cuspidors 1 Min. Height of VSTR 150 mm Bathtub 36 Drinking Fountain 1 Above the Roof Bidet 36 Floor Sinks (Receptors) 1 Min. Distance of VSTR 300 mm Laundry Tub 36 Sink (Private Bar, 38 mm dia.) 1 from any Vertical Floor Sinks 36 Wash Basin (Single) 1 Surface Nearby Sink (Residential) 36 Bathtub 2 Min. Distance of VSTR 3000 mm Sink (Commercial) 36 Bidet 2 from an Opening Sink (Industrial, Schools) 36 Floor Drain 2 Min. Height of VSTR 900 mm Urinal (Wash Out) 36 Laundry Tub 2 Above an Opening Wash Basin (In Sets) 36 Shower Stall (Single) 2 Min. Distance from 900 mm Clothes Washer 51 Sink (Residential, 51 mm dia.) 2 Any Lot Line Floor Drains 51 Sink (Commercial Bar, 51 mm dia.) 2 Min. Distance of VSTR 3000 mm Receptors (Commercial) 51 Urinal (Stall) 2 from Area of Roof for Shower 51 Urinal (Washout & Siphon Jet) 2 Human Activity Sink (Service) 51 Wash Basin (In set) 2 Min. Height of VSTR 2100 mm Urinal (Stall, Wall-mounted, 51 Grease Interceptor 3 from Area of Roof for Integral Trap, Siphon jet) Receptor (Commercial Sink) 3 Human Activity Interceptor (Sand, Auto Wash) 75 Sink (Commercial, Industrial, Service) 3 Mobile Home 75 Urinal (Wall, Integral Trap) 3 TRAPS AND INTERCEPTORS Sink (Clinic, Flushing Rim) 75 Water Closet (Private) 4 Common P-Trap Urinal (Blowout) 75 Sand Interceptor 6 Deep Seal P-Trap Urinal (Pedestal) 75 Sink (Flushing Rim, Clinic) 6 Stand Strap Water Closets 75 Urinal (Pedestal) 6 For fixtures that are built low in thr ground (e.g. Urinal (Wall, Blow-out) 6 slop sink) ; serves as a water seal and structural Water Closet (Public) 6 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE OF TRAP ARMS support for the fixture Trap Arm Diameter Distance to Vent Drum Trap 32 mm 760 mm Used for fixtures that discharge large amounts of water (e.g. bathtub, shower) 38 mm 1070 mm Running Trap / House Trap 51 mm 1520 mm Used within the line of a house drain 76 mm 1830 mm S-Trap 102 mm 3050 mm Predecessor of the P-Trap Bottle Trap SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 14 of 58  SANITARY SYSTEM DEFECTS SIZES OF CLEAN OUTS Defect Cause Size of Pipe (mm) Size of Clean Out (mm) Threads per 25.4mm Trap Seal Loss Inadequate ventilation and the ff. conditions: 38 38 11 ½ 1. Siphonage – creates a vacuum that 51 38 11 ½ breaks the trap seal 64 64 8 2. Back Pressure – excessive pressure causes 76 64 8 trap seal to look for an opening >102 89 8 3. Evaporation 4. Capillary Action 5. Wind Effects HOUSE DRAIN ACCESSORIES Retardation of Flow Inefficient ventilation Garage Trap / Oil Trap / Oil Interceptor Deterioration of Materials Acids created by excessive Hydrogen Also: GARBAGE CATCH BASIN Trap filled with water and located at the lowest point of a garage Collects and separates all wastes (e.g. grease, gas, oil, etc.) CLEAN OUTS Grease Traps Types According to Mounting Floor Mount Used for fixtures where grease may be introduced into the drainage or sewer Wall Mount system Ceiling Mount For establishments like restaurants, cafeteria, etc. Types According to Material Plastic Separation of grease from liquid by contact with colder temperature Cast Iron Water seal of not less than 2” in depth or the diameter of its outlet Galvanized Steel No food waste disposal unit shall discharge into a grease trap Brass Types: Earth-Cooled Grease Trap, Mechanical Grease Trap Types According to Form Plug Countersunk Plain PRIVATE SEWAGE DISPOSAL SYSTEM Requirements / Regulations: Septic Tank / Septic Vault Cesspool At every upper terminal of every horizontal sewer/waste line An underground holding tank for temporary collection of sewage Each run of piping more than 15m and every fraction thereof Capacity: based on quantity of liquid waste and on porosity of soil On a horizontal line with an aggregate offset angle ≥ 135° Min. Compressive Strength: 17,225 kPa Inside the building near the connection between building drain and Seepage Pit building sewer, or Circular pit where effluent from a septic tank is collected for gradual seepage Outside the building at the lower end of the building drain and extended into the ground to grade Min. Diameter: 2.2 meters Not required on horizontal drain > 1.5m in length except when serving Absorption Field / Disposal Field sinks or urinals System of absorption trenches where effluent from a septic tank may seep into the surrounding soil SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 15 of 58  SEPTIC TANK DESIGN STREET SEWERS Septic Tank – Watertight receptacle designed to receive the discharge of sewage Classifications Combination Public Sewer (obsolete) from a building sewer, separate solids from the liquid, and digest organic matter Storm Sewer Common Materials Reinforced Concrete Carries only rainwater from storm drain or streets Concrete Masonry Terminates at natural drainage areas (e.g. lakes) Prefabricated Cast Iron Manhole: 0.6 – 1.2m diameter, 2 – 3m depth Prefabricated Fiber Glass Sanitary Sewer High Density Polyethylene Carries regular sanitary wastes only Structure Strength Earth Load not less than 14.4 kPa Terminates in sewage disposal plants Number of Compartments ≥ 3 compartments Types Tributary Sewer Chambers Digestion Chamber Termination points of individual structures Min. Bottom Slope: 1:10 Diameter: 0.6 – 1.2 meters Leaching Chamber Intercepting Sewer Manholes Minimum: 2 manholes Also: COLLECTING SEWER Min. Dimension: 508mm Termination points of tributary sewer Inlet & Outlet Pipe Size Not less than diameter of sewer pipe Diameter: 0.6 – 3.0 meters Location Not underneath the house Depth: 4 – 30 meters At least 15m from water distribution Materials Reinforced / Non-reinforced Concrete Pipe Cast Iron Reinforced Concrete (box culvert) MINIMUM HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM SEWAGE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS Building Septic Tank Disposal Cesspool Sewer (m) (m) Field (m) (m) TYPES OF COMMUNITY SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT (STP) Buildings or Structures 0.6 1.5 2.4 2.4 Activated Sludge First Phase: removes heavy materials Property Line ** 1.5 1.5 2.4 Process Second Phase: clarifies effluent Water Supply Well 15.2 15.2 30.5 45.7 Third Phase hardens sludge and converts it to fertilizer Streams 15.2 15.2 15.2 30.5 Water Purity: 99 - 99.5% Trees - 3 - 3 Trickling Filter Also: Percolating or Sprinkling Filter System Seepage Pit / Cesspool - 1.5 1.2 1.5 Process Requires less mechanical elements On-site Water Line 0.3 1.5 1.5 1.5 Requires large ground area Public Water Main 3 3 3 3 Water Purity: 95% Combination Uses several chambers and a trickling filter tank SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 16 of 58  COMPONENTS OF STORM WATER DRAINAGE SYSTEM Wet Standpipe Connected directly to the main water line and connects to Downspouts, Sizes based on max. depth of rainfall per hour System all levels of a building Conductor Pipes, (102mm/hour for Metro Manila) All parts of a building to be 6.00m of a nozzle attached to a Gutters Downspouts of high-rise structures must also resist 23-meter long hose hydrostatic pressure Usable by building occupants, unlike the dry standpipe that Roof Drains Equipped with dome-type strainers extending 102mm is for the fire department above the surface of the roof Wet Standpipe A Siamese connection is located outside the building for Minimum net total area of 1 ½ of the area of the with Siamese additional water supply connected outlet pipe Connection Min. Diameter: 51mm if < 15m from Fire Service Connection Roof deck strainers shall have a total net inlet area not 64mm if > 15m from Fire Service Connection less than twice the area of the connected outlet pipe Combination SP Min. Diameter: 150mm Catch Basin Termination point of downspouts ; can serve multiple Made of concrete masonry and connected via the AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER SYSTEM storm line Types of Sprinkler Automatic Wet – lines are constantly filled with water Area Drain Designed to collect surface water from an open area Systems Automatic Dry – valves and sensors act as a trigger to fill the Trench drain: long span drain lines with water at the hint of fire Types of Sprinkler Upright – used above piping when piping is exposed MAJOR SYSTEMS OF COLLECTING STORM WATER Heads – safer against damage Independent Also: SEPARATE SYSTEM Pendent – used when piping Is concealed System Brings collected water directly to water reservoirs Side Throw / Side Wall Combined System Combines storm water with sanitary wastes Max. Spacing of From Branch: 15 feet / 4.5 m Natural System Does not use roof gutters or downspouts Sprinkler Heads Between Heads: 4 – 10 feet / 1.2 – 3.0 m Rainwater can be collected in cisterns From Wall: 4 inches / 100mm Coverage of One Light Hazard Occupancy: 20 sqm. Sprinkler Head Extra Hazard Occupancy: 10 sqm STANDPIPE FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM Type Description Dry Standpipe Standpipe connected to the exterior of the building for use ALTERNATIVE FIRE SUPPRESSION SYSTEM System of fire department Clean Agent Gas Discharges inert gas (Halon) onto combusting materials Max. Height: 1220 mm Alternatives to Halon: FM-200, FE-13, Inergen Min. Diameter: 110 mm if < 23m from Fire Department Carbon Dioxide CO2 displaces oxygen from the fire 153 mm if > 23m from Fire Department Cannot be used when humans are present Types: Foam High volume of gas-filled bubbles rapidly fills space 1. With Automatic Dry Pipe Valve Bubbles float on the surface of burning liquids 2. With Manual Control Valve 3. Without Permanent Water Supply (most common) SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 17 of 58  TYPES OF LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG) SERVICE INSTALLATION Pressure Equipment connected to the cylinder (e.g. pigtails, Type Description Regulators and valves, etc.) should be rigidly supported Cylinder Where gas is stored Other Service The vent in the regulator should be facing downward to Pigtail Where high pressure vapor flows thru when the cylinder Equipment prevent entry of rain valve is opened All safety valve outlets should be vented to the open air Regulator Reduces pressure of gas to the proper operating gas Gas Piping and Piping should be adequately supported to the wall pressure of the appliance Shut-off Valves Piping should be beyond the reach of people passing by No joints should be allowed at points where the pipe passes thru floors walls, partitions Piping should not be run in elevator shafts, ventilation ducts, chimneys, or flues Use the correct terminal fitting Suitable gas line shut-off valve should be fitted for every appliance Both ends of connection to portable devices should be securely attached by clips Location of Appliances should have sufficient ventilation Appliance Location should allow for the easy repair and adjustment of appliance burners and parts Testing for Leaks Ensure that the system is gas tight Sources of ignition should not be used to check for gas leakage ; use a soap solution Defective pipes and fittings should be replaced SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR INSTALLATION OF GAS SYSTEMS Criteria Precaution TYPES OF SYSTEM TESTS Location of Install outdoors or in a section of a building with good Type Description Cylinder floor and ceiling level ventilation Hydrostatic Water Test for water supply by closing all outlets with a test plug There should be no combustible materials within 19 ft Test and filling the system with water from the main to locate or 5.7 m of a cylinder leaks and potential problems. Install on firm, dry, and level foundation Building Sewer Plugging the end of the building sewer at points of Do not place on ground level Test / Gravity Test connection with the public sewer or private waste disposal Maintain at least a 3 ft or 0.9m distance from drains, system to conduct air or water tests. Should be at least 15 culverts, or entrances minutes long, 1 hour is recommended. Use in an upright position Air Pressure Test Piping system is filled with compressed air, and bubbling Do not place close to steam pipes or any source of heat soap suds are used in locating escaping air. When cylinders are being connected/disconnected, there should be no open flame or similar in the area SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 18 of 58 >>> HEATING, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC) REFRIGERANTS UNITS OF COOLING CAPACITY Picks up heat by evaporating at low temperature and pressure 1 Ton of Refrigerant (TR) = 12,000 British Thermal Units (BTU) = 1.5 Horsepower Gives up heat by condensing at high temperature and pressure Common Refrigerants Hydrochloroflourocarbon (HCFC) HCFC 22 COMPONENTS OF AIR-CONDITIONING HCFC 123 Component Types Hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) Evaporator Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger HFC 134a Direct Expansion Coils Obsolete Refrigerants Dichlorofluoromethane – Freon 12 Condenser Air-cooled (for unit & packaged types) Trichlorofluoromethane – Freon 11 Water-cooled Chloroflourocarbon – CFC 12 Double-piped Shell & Tube Evaporative AIR CONDITIONING STANDARDS Summer Cooling Temperature: 76 - 80°F or 20 - 24°C Compressor Piston-type / Reciprocating Humidity: 50% Centrifugal Winter Cooling (Heating) Temperature: 70 - 75°F Screw-Type Air Motion 15 – 25 ft/min at 36” about the floor Expansion Valve Air Supply (Smoking Room) 25 – 40 cu.ft/min/person Refrigeration Cycle Air Supply (Non-smoking Room) 5 – 7.5 cu.ft/min/person Expansion Valve > Evaporator > Compressor > Condenser AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS Type Description Direct Expansion Individual Installed thru walls or windows and exposed to the outside air (Window-Type) Min. Distance from Bottom of Unit to Floor: 2.13 m Min. Distance from Bottom of Drain to Floor: 2.10 m Packaged Self-contained unit with integral compressor, condenser, and evaporator Terminal Split An air conditioning condensing unit (ACCU) and a fan coil unit (FCU) connected by two copper pipes/tubings Small diameter pipe: Liquid line Large diameter pipe: Insulated gas line Condensing Unit (Outdoor): Compressor, Condensing Coil, Expansion Valve Fan Coil Unit (Indoor): Evaporator Multi-Split A large central ACCU connected to several FCUs SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 19 of 58 Central Chilled Water Uses a central chill to cool water. Chilled water is then used by air handling units (AHU) and FCU to cool air Air Handling Unit – used to condition and circulate air Cooling Tower – expels heat from chilled water system Common Components Chiller – produces chilled water that is used to remove heat from the building – located indoors if system uses a cooling tower, outside if without Ducting Other Components Pre-cooled Air Handling Unit Fresh Air Handling Unit Energy Recovery Ventilation Pumps and Controls Cool Thermal Storage Produces and stores chilled water or generates a phase change in water Stores the ice during low cooling demand periods then used during peak demand periods AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM Type by Manual Damper – typically set during air balancing Constant Air Volume (CAV) – steady airflow, varying temperature Operation during initial startup of the system Variable Air Volume (VAV) – varying airflow, constant temperature Automatic Damper – responds to temperature or DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS pressure changes, or remotely controlled Duct Section Round, Oval, Rectangular Backdraft Dampers Material Allowable Air Conveyed Smoke Dampers Ducting Material S R E F P Fire Dampers Legend: Rigid Aluminum (ga. 23-26) x x x x x Combination Smoke and Fire Dampers S – Supply Rigid Steel (ga. 26-30) x x x Fans Axial Discharges air in the same axial direction R – Return Rigid uPVC, PP, or ABS x E – Exhaust Types: F – Fresh Fiberglass Composite x x x Propeller – moves high volume of air P - Pressurized Fabric Duct (polyester) x x x against low or no static pressure Flexible Duct x x x x Vaned Axial – most commonly used due to Designation Supply, Return, Exhaust, Fresh, Pressurized, Mixed little change in airflow Installation Fiberglass, Polystyrene, Polyethylene Tube Axial – propelled encased in a duct Air Outlets Types Louvered, Vaned, Grille, Diffuser, Side Throw Centrifugal Air makes a 90° angle turn from inlet to outlet Chilled Water Supply and Return Motors Electric motors known as drives Cold Water Supply and Return Common Names: CONTROL COMPONENTS Variable Frequency Drive Volume Type by Single-blade Variable Frequency Inverter Control Blades Multi-blade (can be opposed or parallel) Variable State Drive Damper Control Sensing Humidistat, Thermostat, Pressure Regulator Equipment Actuating Damper, Control Valves, Relays SNEFERU June 2017 ALE Reviewer | Building Technology, Materials, Utilities, and Structural Conceptualization | Page 20 of 58  AIR CLEANING COMPONENTS Gasoline Dry Filter Viscous Filter Grease Water Spray Eliminator Plates Tar Mechanical Filter Panel (Flat) Filter Oil and Water (for Hydraulic Systems) High-efficiency Particulate Arresting Filter Sound-attenuating Filter Yellow Acid COOLING AND HEATING COMPONENTS Ammonia Cooling Water Sprays High Pressure Air Cooling Coils High Pressure Steam Heating Tempering Coils – contains steam and is used for heating the air Low Pressure Steam Water Heaters – heated water is used in spray chamber that adds Boiler Feed Water heat and humidity in the air Hot Water High Pressure Water (excl. Fire Use) Green Low Pressure Helium TYPES OF HEATING TYPES OF HEATING SYSTEMS YSTEMS Low Pressure Nitrogen Type Medium Device Air Handling Distribution Low Pressure Argon Mechanical Air Furnace Ducts Registers Low Pressure Air Warm Air Cold Water Steam Steam Boiler Pipes Radiators Distilled Water Heating