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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS Chapter I COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING Introduction What are the components of effective teaching? Befor...

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS Chapter I COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING Introduction What are the components of effective teaching? Before one can really answer this, it is important that the term teaching be defined. Many authors view teaching as organized, purposeful, and deliberate efforts designed to bring about certain specifically desirable ends in an individual. Garcia quotes Ronald Hyman (1970) and states that a teacher must know what teaching is because his concept of teaching guides his behavior and his own interpretation of teaching becomes essential to his performance as a teacher. It serves as his guide as well as direction in every classroom work he conducts for his students. According to Navarro, et al., teaching is an activity that, is not really new to the education students as they have been exposed to it since they first enrolled in Grade I. Teaching and learning are two aspects of the process called Education. Learning is the expected end of teaching in a school setting. Hence, teaching has always been directed at learning. Aquino (1974:27) identified six important elements or factors of the teaching-learning process: teacher; learner; classroom; curriculum; materials of instruction; and administration. A. The Teacher "Teachers, like leaves, everywhere abound Effective teachers, like fruits, are rarely found." An effective teacher is one who has honed his skills in the art of teaching. He demonstrates proficiency in the use of language, adopts varied teaching strategies, recognizes change, applies innovations, revises techniques for optimum results, and allows himself to be guided by acknowledged principles and theories in education. More than knowledge and skills, an effective teacher is compassionate and understanding. He gives allowance for personal limitations. He looks at every learner as a unique individual with peculiar needs and interests. Above all, an effective teacher is one who allows himself to grow professionally. His efficient performance is always a result of his educational preparation including attendance at seminars and workshops. Under the close supervision of an effective teacher, the individual gradually, slowly, and cumulatively learns things appropriate to his age and grade level. To become an effective teacher is the aspiration of every mentor whether new or has been in it for years. 1  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS What then constitutes an effective teacher? A great, deal has been said of teaching as one of the important professions from the standpoint of human welfare. It is also one of the most technical, difficult, and challenging professions. A teacher can be effective if he has mastery of the subject matter, in which case, he must be an authority on the subject he is teaching. A teacher can only speak with authority on anything about which he has acquired familiarity. Personal Qualities of an Effective Teacher These personal characteristics are related to the five aspects of personality: intellectual; social; physical; emotional; and moral. Among those rated highly are the following: 1. Pleasing personal appearance, manner, courtesy, pleasant voice; 2. Intelligence, emotional stability, and self-control; 3. Sympathy, kindness, helpfulness, patience; 4. Integrity, trustworthiness, honesty, loyalty; 5. Flexibility, creativity, resourcefulness; 6. Sociability, friendliness, cooperativeness; 7. Fairness, impartiality, tolerance; and 8. Sense of humor, cheerfulness, enthusiasm. Mehl, et aI., pointed out that in analyzing teacher personality, it is necessary to consider the total impact of the total pattern of these qualities upon the pupil. The individual qualities which make for excellence are not identical in all effective teachers. It would be useless to attempt to fit all teachers into a common mold. The individuality and uniqueness of teacher personality is a priceless ingredient of a teaching staff. Teachers are the most important part of the learner's educational environment. Without them, the other elements of the educational environment would be ineffective, for they guide, direct, and stimulate youth in their goal-seeking (Bent, et al., 1970, as cited by Aquino, 1988:5). From day to day, the teacher plays many roles in the classt06In. These roles include the following: 1. Manager. As manager, the teacher is responsible for the effective management of her class from the start to the finish. The teacher carries throughout the day systematic activities to develop the pupils' cognitive, psychomotor, and effective aspects of the teaching-learning process. The pupils' eagerness and interest, therefore, to participate in all the learning activities prepared and conducted by the teachers in the classroom is a manifestation of an orderly classroom management by the teacher-manager. 2. Counselor. Every teacher is a guidance teacher. He acts as counselor to the pupils especially when the pupils are beset by problems. In general, teachers comfort and make the pupils feel they have a ready shoulder to cry on. As counselor, the teacher religiously keeps tab of all the activities of the children under his care, carefully noting important information regarding the children's moods, health, and progress in their studies that will help him assess the over-all performance of the learners. 2  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS 3. Motivator. Encouraging and motivating pupils to study well and behave properly in and outside the classroom is an enormous task. Despite the constraints, however, the teacher should use effective ways to awaken the drives and motives of children as he knows fully well the role played by motivation in the learning of the pupils. Motivation sets the mood for learning. It enlivens the interest of the learners and gets them more involved in the class activities. A dynamic teacher is always good at motivating learners to listen, participate, and eventually get the message. 4. Leader. A leader directs, coaches, supports, and delegates depending on the needs of the situation. A leader is always looked upon as somebody dependable and responsible. A teacher always assumes the position of a leader and he has to be credible in this regard. He should, therefore, manifest the highest leadership potentials demanded of his role as teacher and leader. The teacher should set the example to emphasize his role of being a leader. He should also be aware that to be a good leader, he must first be a good follower. 5. Model. A teacher is an exemplar. He serves as model to his pupils. Pupils idolize teachers; they believe the things the teacher says, especially if the teacher is kind, approachable, and sympathetic to their needs. As a model, the teacher must look his best all the time, master his lessons, show his interest in the children's welfare, show good behavior, and inculcate good work and attitudes, especially during trying moments inside the classroom; be fair in dealing with pupils; and exhibit good judgment when the situation calls for it. 6. Public Relations Specialist. The credibility of the school is attributed most of the time to the ways the teachers deal with people outside the school, like the schools' benefactors, parents of the pupils, church leaders, government employees, and others. The teacher, in his role as a public relations specialist, will be able to solicit important donations in cash or in kind for the development of both the school and the pupils. More than this, the teacher who has good public relations will always make a name for his school. 7. Parent-surrogate. In the school, the teachers are the parents of the pupils/students. Parents have a feeling of security knowing that their children are in good hands. Added to their main function of developing the pupils intellectually, teachers are also expected to train the pupils socially and emotionally and to look after their physical and mental well- being. In school, teachers take over the role of the parents, attending to the needs of the pupils and offering them the comforts away from home. In the process, he guarantees that the individual rights of the pupils to education and safety are respected. 8. Facilitator. The teacher is the facilitator of learning. The pupils must be given the chance to discuss things under the close supervision and monitoring of the teacher. As a facilitator, the teacher prepares guidelines which will serve as the focus of discussion and activities. The teacher oversees the activities inside the classroom. He allows pupils to discuss spontaneously with only his very minimal affirmation and confirmation. In the event, however, that some clarifications are needed, he can clarify vague points and correct wrong notions of the pupils. 3  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS 9. Instructor. The main function of the teacher is instruction. All the other roles aforementioned are corollary to teaching. To effectively carry out this aspect of teaching, the pre-service education of teachers must be more than adequate to prepare them for a job involving varied responsibilities. B. The Learner The learner is the subject of the schooling process. Without him, the educational system will not exist. The learner is a person who is receiving instruction or lessons from a particular teacher. There are two classifications of the learners, namely: pupil and student. The term pupil is applied to a child in the elementary level and the term student is applied to one attending an educational institution above the elementary level. To make teaching effective and learning productive, the teacher must know the nature of the child to be motivated, directed, guided, and evaluated. To understand the child, the teacher must know: a) the child as a biological organism with needs, abilities, and goals; b) the social and psychological environment; and c) the cultural forces of which he is a part. The learners differ from one another physically, intellectually, socially, and emotionally. Every learner is a unique personality, separate and distinct from the rest. It is from this premise that the teacher defines his role in the classroom to ensure the educational growth and development of the learner. He, therefore, takes into account the learner's varied interests, intellectual preparedness, emotional stability, and task readiness along with his levels of aptitude and degree of maturity. C. The Classroom The classroom is a place where formal learning occurs. This could be a standard classroom with a standard measurement or an outdoor space where both the teacher and the pupils/students are interacting. The important thing is that, it is a place that can offer a wholesome venue for learning activities which can be realized only in an atmosphere conducive to both teaching and learning process. A good classroom is conducive to the teaching-learning process because: a) its activities are well-organized; b) there is mutual sharing of responsibility in establishing and maintaining a state of order and democratic living; and c) pleasant and hygienic conditions prevail. 4  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS According to Aquino, a good classroom has a stimulating climate - one that results not only from desirable physical surroundings and healthful conditions but also from social relationship and emotional attitudes. Classroom Environment Encompasses Four Factors 1. Physical Environment. This includes the location, size, shape, construction of the room itself; the furniture in the room; instructional supplies or resources for learning; provisions for lighting, heating and ventilating; acoustics of the room; provisions for sanitation, cleanliness, and orderliness. 2. Intellectual Climate. This refers to patterns of behavior, the interaction pattern, qualities of interaction, and attributes that help the learners think clearly, critically, and creatively. The general atmosphere should be characterized by intellectual activities and pursuits for excellence. The teacher should understand that problem-solving develops through several stages, which include: recognizing the problem; collecting all the facts that bear on the problem; and forming tentative solutions and trying out the tentative solutions to see whether they work. In other words, the teacher is creating an intellectual environment in which the learners are free to work out under guidance the solutions to their own problems and thus, grow in the ability to be intelligent, self-directing citizens. 3. Social Climate. There are three types of social climate existing in the classroom: a) autocratic; b) laissez-faire; and c) democratic. In the autocratic climate, the teacher makes all the important decisions, directs all the activities, and evaluates pupil progress in terms of arbitrary standards. There is very little communication between teacher and pupils, hence, the learners find little opportunity in this type of climate for initiative, participation in group planning, or self-evaluation. In the laissez-faire climate, each learner operates as an individual, strives for recognition of his own achievement, and develops little regard for the rights and accomplishments of others. In this climate, the human relationships are in terms of coactions rather than interaction, there is little emphasis in group living. In the democratic climate, the goals are established by group participation and plans are made on the basis of cooperative group planning. There is, therefore, a great deal of cooperative teamwork resulting from a wide circle of communication. The role of the teacher in this kind of climate is neither that of dictator nor of an interested spectator but that of a mature person 5  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS responsible for guiding the performance of the children as they work out goals, plan activities, and evaluate achievements. Leadership, likewise, is not regarded as the exclusive privilege of a few gifted learners. It is a shared role where every individual can contribute to the work of the group as a whole. In this kind of setting, participation affords the long-run potential for the realization of the best learning performance in terms of visible output. 4. Emotional Climate. This pertains to the emotional adjustment and mental health of the children. To foster the right kind of emotional climate, the teacher must see that the personality needs of the learner are met in the classroom. The learner needs to feel secure in his group. He must have opportunities to make decisions and become increasingly self-directing. It is only the effective teacher who can provide these opportunities. D. The Curriculum The term comes from the Latin root currere which means "to run." In educational usage, the "course of the race," became "course of study." The academic curriculum refers to the formal list of courses offered by a school. The extra curriculum refers to those planned but voluntary activities that are sponsored by a school, such as sports, drama, or social clubs. The hidden curriculum refers to those unplanned learning activities (e.g. learning how to cope with school bureaucracy and boredom or learning how to gain popularity with one's peers) that are a natural by-product of school life (Aquino, 1988:48). According to Hessong and Weeks, the hidden curriculum is the informal part of the curriculum that you know is there, but is difficult to see and study. Ballantine (1983) described the hidden curriculum as the part of the curriculum that refers to the three Rs - rules, regulations, and routines, to which the school must adapt. Guthrie and Reed (1991) have this to say about the hidden curriculum: The formal content of courses may not constitute the only knowledge conveyed by schools. Some social scientists contend that the overall school environment presents a powerful instructional message, a message which may not always be consistent with learning outcomes intended by district policy or the content conveyed by instructors in their classes. For example, it is alleged that a rigidly hierarchical school climate, where students are permitted little discretion and are seldom encouraged to make decisions, eviscerates formal course content extolling the virtues of democracy. Similarly, students observing what may be unfair segregation of their 6  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS peers into ability tracks may be "learning more," acquiring a cynicism regarding equal opportunity and social mobility than from the abstract academic ideals they are being taught in history and civic courses. In its broad sense, curriculum is the sum total of all learning content, learning experiences, and resources that are properly selected, organized, and implemented by the school in pursuit of its peculiar mandate as a distinct institution of learning and human development. Curriculum, therefore, can be viewed as having two mutually inclusive components, namely: a) the blueprint or master plan of selected and organized learning content which can be referred to as "curriculum" per se; and b) the actual implementation of this plan through contrived experiences in the classroom which is called instruction (Palma, 1992:78). E. Materials of Instruction Materials of instruction refer to the various resources available to the teachers and learners which help facilitate instruction and learning. These materials represent elements found in the environment and which are meant to help students understand and explain reality. If the school has an Instructional Learning Center, the teacher should pay a visit to the center to find out what materials he can use for his course. The effective use also of non-book materials in the teaching-learning process will capture the students' interest and develop good attitude towards the topic being discussed. The non-book materials refer to the other members of the instructional media family that should be a part of the library collections but somehow are housed in another place called the Instructional Learning Center. Examples of non-book materials are audio-visual materials, audio- visual aids, instructional aids, educational media, etc. The types of audio-visual aids commonly used include the following: 1. Two-dimensional Materials. Any visual appearing to have height and width. a) Flat picture. They are sometimes referred to as a universal language because anybody can read pictures, although people have different ability in reading pictures. Pictures must have emphasis on key idea, must be suitable to the needs of the students, must provide correct and accurate impression or information as to size, color, or movement of unfamiliar objects. 7  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS b) Graphics. Webster defines it as the art or science of drawing, especially mechanical drawing. It includes a variety of visual forms, such as: graphs; diagrams; charts; posters; cartoons; comics; and maps and globes. These materials are very valuable for instruction because of their capacity to attract attention and to convey certain types of information in condensed, summarized form. 2. Three-dimensional Materials. Visual materials appearing to have depth or thickness in addition to height and width. Examples of these are the following: a) Model. It is a representation of a real thing that is infinitely large, like the earth, or a thing that is small, like an atom. A model, therefore, reduces or enlarges objects to sizes we can observe. It provides the interior view of objects like a model of the human heart. b) Realia. It is an inclusive term that covers the tangible or visible things which serve the purpose of teaching. It is classified into objects, specimens, relics, replicas, and exhibits. c) Mock-up. It is a full-size dummy or structural model designed to be worked with directly by the learner for analysis or training. d) Diorama. It is a three-dimensional material scene in depth using a group of modeled objects and figures in a natural setting. e) Puppets. Small, usually jointed figures in the forms of human beings, animals, etc. moved with the hands or by strings, wires, or rods, usually in a puppet show. Puppetry can present ideas with extreme simplicity, without elaborate scenery or costume, yet they are effective. Puppets are classified into: shadow puppet; simple rod puppet; hand puppet; finger puppet; and marionettes or string puppets. 3. Audio-recording Materials. These auditory materials are used to provide learning experiences of a specific type - experiences of pure listening. a) Recordings - This registers sound or visual images in some permanent form as on a phonograph disc, magnetic tape, etc. for reproduction on a playback device. b) Radio - This is an audio device used by teachers in social studies, music, science, etc. The radio is an effective audio-device inasmuch as it can be used anywhere with or without electricity. 4. Projected Materials. They are materials which use a machine for throwing images on the screen as from a transparent slide or motion picture film. The term includes all instructional materials which are enlarged on a viewing screen. a) Still projection. Slides, transparencies, filmstrips, overhead projection, opaque projection, microfilm, microfiche, microprojection. 8  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS b) Motion pictures. Motion picture is an edited version of reality. This editing, which may involve manipulation of time, space, objects that can heighten reality by eliminating distractions and by pointing up relationships that might well be overlooked. Motion picture can bring the distant past and the present into the classroom. c) Educational television. TV can provide enrichment and meaning, teach skills, perform drills, encourage research work and other projects, and stimulate students to new insights, perceptions, and discoveries. F. Administration Administration is defined as the organization, direction, coordination, and control of human and material resources to achieve desired ends. According to Moehlman, administration is exercised in a series of closely related and complementary specializations or activities. He calls this phase of administration the executive activity which he defines as all the acts or processes required to make policies and procedures effective. The principal function of administration is to provide optimum educational opportunities for all children in school. Among these are the school plant, equipment and supplies, finance, curriculum, faculty, and other support personnel. The administration, therefore, is a means toward the achievement of instructional objectives. What are the functions of school administration? According to Aquino (1974), one commonly accepted view is that school administration has the following functions: a) Seeing that all school money is economically expanded and accounted for; b) Preparing the school budget; c) Selecting and purchasing school sites; d) Planning, erecting, and equipping the school buildings; e) Operating the school plant and keeping it in an excellent state of repair; a) D Selecting, training, and supervising teachers; f) Providing supplies; g) Providing textbooks; h) Assisting in curriculum construction; i) Organizing an instructional program; j) Keeping the public informed of the aims, accomplishments, and needs of the schools; and k) Keeping school records and accounts. 9  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS Chapter II VARIOUS CONCEPTS OF TEACHING TEACHING CONCEPTS A. Teaching Is a Complex Human Activity It is so because teaching involves a wide range of human interactions, organizational arrangements, and material resources that converge on the teaching-learning process. Varied activities inherent in teaching are identified in this definition by Garcia (1989:15- 16): 1. Human Interactions. Teaching is considered a system of actions varied in form and content but directed toward learning. It is in the performance of these actions and in the interactions of the teacher with his students that learning takes place. These actions and interactions are personal but they are also logical in that they have a certain structure, a certain order, such that no matter, where in the world teaching takes place, it does so in accordance with operations that reflect the very nature of a teaching-learning situation. The logical operations involve three variables such as: a) the teacher's behavior (IV); b) the learner's behavior (DV); and c) various postulated entities such as memories, beliefs, needs, interferences, which are intervening variables. The independent variables in the teacher's behavior consist of linguistic behavior, expressive behavior, and performatory behavior. Linguistic behavior - otherwise known as verbal communication whereby teachers verbalize their thoughts through language that is characterized by spontaneity, precision, and naturalness. Expressive behavior - patterns of communication achieved through changes in the tone of voice, facial expressions, and kinesis - motions of the hands, arms, eyes, head, or other parts of the body. Expressive behavior is intended to emphasize ideas to inject humor, to indicate seriousness, irritation as well as approval and disapproval. Performatory behavior includes all physical activities such as: a) writing on the blackboard; b) operating projectors and record players; 10  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS c) manipulating models; and d) using laboratory equipment, tools, machines, computers, and other instructional materials. 2. Organizational Arrangements. Teaching is an activity with four phases: a) curriculum planning phase; b) an instructing phase; c) a measuring phase; and e) an evaluating phase. Such phases are spelled out more specifically, respectively, as: a) Helping to formulate the goals of education, selecting content and stating objectives; b) Creating intentions regarding instructional strategies and tactics, interacting and acting on situational feedback about instruction; c) Selecting or creating measurement devices: measuring, learning, organizing, and analyzing measurement data; and d) Evaluating the appropriateness of objectives of instruction and the validity and reliability o the devices used to measure learning (John Hough, 1970). 3. Material Resources. The process of teaching includes: a) the selection and development of instructional units; b) planning individual lessons; c) organizing material for instructional purposes; d) designing the methods to be used; e) classroom management; f) evaluation of pupils' achievements; and g) reporting of pupils' grades (B.J. Chandler and Daniel Powell, 1970). B. Teaching Is Both a Science and an Art Teaching involves imparting a body of systematized knowledge. It affords the development of a level of consciousness of everything about the world and the totality of facts about life. But more than the knowledge about realities, teaching also taps the performance skills of the learners to make them physically, intellectually, and socially equipped despite varied interventions. More than a science, teaching is also an art. It must provide avenues for achieving pleasure and delight in learning. Every learning experience, therefore, must find its way to the learners' heart. Anything that is satisfying is readily appreciated because it meets the needs and interests of the individual learners. As an art, teaching is a continuous process responding to the demands of the time and the changes in the learners' perspective. It is never static, it adheres to novelty. 11  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS Garcia (1989) quoted Eisher (1983) when he pointed out a couple of distinguishing marks between these two facets of teaching. Science Art 1. Teaching as a science is primarily 1. Teaching as an art is more suited to directed to inform the head. satisfy the soul. Therefore, teaching as a science Therefore, teaching as an art emphasizes the cognitive and psychomotor presupposes the need for the learner to aspects of learning or simply the subject matter appreciate and improve on whatever that must be put across into the learners' level knowledge he has gained and skills he has of awareness as well as the skillful acquired. Hence, this facet tends to give more performance that they should be able to credence to the affective aspects of learning. develop in and by themselves. The knowledge and skill they will acquire are indispensable to their everyday living especially in decision-making and in solving crucial problems. Which of the two is more important? Both are equally important as far as the total personality development of the learner is concerned. It follows then that the learner must know something before he can appreciate it. He can never appreciate something that he does not know of or something that does not exist in him. Something is derived from something, nothing can be taken from nothing. 2. The second difference presents a more in-depth perspective. Teaching as a science views the teacher Teaching as an art goes beyond the as an academician as well as a craftsman. prescribed level of instruction. This facet views the teacher as an innovator, one who is willing As an academician, he is pictured to be to modify and to create new forms of teaching. disciplined, organized, systematic in his teaching. As such he is expected to: The teachers' artistry comes in when they consider the varying mixture of these a) have a mastery of the subject matter; young people and through processes that are and basically intuitive build up meaningful programs of study for them. These teachers b) organize it well in a form that is believe teaching requires an ability to see comprehensible to his learners. through and respond to individual differences' among the learners. As a craftsman, he has a repertoire of teaching methods and is quite skillful in their use. 12  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS Teaching as a science regards teaching Teaching as an art looks at teaching as as mechanical and routinized in order to make a dynamic and imaginative process. it more systematic and more efficient. Teaching as a science calls for skillful Teaching as an art makes teaching more teaching. relevant and' responsive to the learner's needs, interests, and abilities. Teaching as a science aims at optimum Teaching as an art is destined to come out with efficiency devoid of creating something new. something novel or innovative. C. Teaching as a System According to Navarro, et al. (1988), teaching as a system requires an understanding of the role of the more mature, experienced members of society in stimulating, directing, managing, and guiding the immature and inexperienced members in their adjustments to life. With the young and immature students as inputs into the system, the processing takes place in the school setting with the teacher playing a major role in instructing the inexperienced so that they can develop into upright and useful members of society and well-adjusted citizens with wholesome personalities imbued with: a) love of country; b) duties of citizenship; c) moral character; d) personal discipline; and e) scientific, technological, and vocational efficiency. A schematic presentation of this concept is shown in Figure 1 on the next page. D. Teaching Is One of the Most Exalted Forms of Social Service Gregorio (1976) states that the classroom is a society made up of teachers and learners working together for the purpose of human growth and betterment. The opportunities of the teachers and the learners for good or evil are boundless. For this reason, society has insisted that teachers should be known for their high character, honesty, integrity, and skill. Teaching is guided by the spirit of service. Service may be defined as the performance of a task for the benefit of others given voluntarily, by request, or by fulfilling a social need. People look at it as the beginning and end of the teaching profession. It is the beginning because service is the guiding, stabilizing, and directing factor of the teaching profession. Service can build the organization or destroy it. Service can give life, honor, and beauty or it can bring disappointments and dishonor to each member in the profession. Teaching in a democracy is rich in opportunities for service. 13  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS It is an end because service is the ultimate goal of the teaching profession. The success of any professional organization in a civilized world is measured not by the size of the members of the profession, but by the services they have rendered in the community and to the nation. 14 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS 15  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS The true measure of service is not what the teaching organization has planned but what the members have done to improve the living conditions in the community and to save humanity. E. Teaching Is the Responsibility of the Teacher While Learning Is the Responsibility of the Learner Teaching is always a two-way track. The stimulus is teaching and the response is learning. It involves a process intended to bring about a desired result. 16  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS According to Palma (1992), learning involves a process and brings about an outcome. Figure 2 illustrates in simplified form the process and product of learning as gleaned from the psychology of learning. All learning begins with things around us. They may be objects, persons, or phenomena that we "experience" or that we become aware of through any of our five senses. The S- R bond as explained in behavioristic psychology holds that every stimulus elicits an automatic response. Such behavior is not only true of human beings where the animalistic nature is concerned but animals as well, as they operate on the instinctive or sensitive level. However, such reaction may not always be true in situations where human beings behave on a higher or rational-moral level. According to humanistic psychology, learning on the human level becomes a more intricate process, primarily because it takes a different, more circuitous route that involves the mind, the intellect, and the will. The conscious mind receives the stimulus and passes it on to the subconscious until a connection is established between the stimulus and the previous learning and experiences. In the process, the intellect analyzes, discerns the new experience, and attaches a new meaning until the will accepts it as part of a new experience. The individual then makes a conscious attempt to respond to it. he conscious, willful repetition of the response will then result in a modified behavior that may be expressed in the form of a new knowledge gained, a new skill acquired, or a new attitude or value imbibed. The new behavior is characterized as permanent or lasting, purposeful or willful, and progressive. Such changes in the behavioral pattern will contribute to the total transformation of the individual which is the outcome of learning and the byproduct of education. It is to be noted that the learning process is a joint endeavor between the teacher who provides the adult help and supervision and the learner who recognizes his personal responsibility to make the most of the learning situations. Figure 3 presents the intervention points in relation to the learning process. There are five such intervention or helping points in the continuum: A, B, C, D, and E. These points encompass the key elements or the so-called 8 Ms of teaching. The 8 Ms of Teaching (as conceptualized by Palma (1992)) 1. Milieu. The Learning Environment. Milieu is the physical environment, the place of work, the classroom, the laboratory, workshop, or even the school campus where learning activities can be done. Learning starts from reacting to stimuli in the environment, for 17  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS that matter the environment assumes an important role in the teaching and learning process. 18 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS 19  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS 2. Matter. Matter refers to the content. It embraces everything there is that has to be covered and, therefore, learned. A basic tenet in organizing matter is mastery of the subject matter. The role of the teacher is to see to it that the subject matter is not only covered but mastered as well. It is mastery that will add to the pupil's level of proficiency and understanding of the content. A little of every lesson works to the disadvantage of the learners. 3. Method. They are the purposeful, planned activities and tasks that are undertaken by the teacher and the students in the classroom to bring about the intended instructional objective. An effective teacher employs a variety of teaching strategies that will set the mood for classroom work-activities. The teacher must not limit his strategies to chalktalk or lectures. He should devise a way where students can engage in wholesome activities that will not only arouse their interests but tap whatever potentials they have. When activities are varied, pupils/students are challenged, participation is encouraged, and thinking is enhanced. 4. Materials. Materials are the resources, both human or physical object, made available for use by the teachers and learners. These materials serve as stimuli in the teaching-learning situation. These materials are meant for the learners to understand the world they live in and, therefore, the basic realities each learner has to contend himself with. Figure 4 shows several ways of portraying reality. One closest to reality, the direct, purposeful experience where the learner makes use of practically all the five senses in establishing contact with true-to-life objects, artifacts, views, sounds, etc. This is sometimes referred to as experiential learning where learners acquire knowledge about particular situations, events, through experiences. An educational field trip provides a type of learning obtained from real-life situations. Figure 4: Ways of Portraying Reality Source: Palma's Curriculum Development System Another way of showing reality is through a reproduction, where one creates a vivid- like impression of the real thing. However, such approach makes use of one or both of 20  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS two senses, seeing and hearing. Included in this classification are the so-called audio- visual materials used by teachers such as films and video cassette tapes. Still another way of portraying reality is through a representation of reality. While it may not be too successful in re-creating the original, it is the idea conveyed that will help understand that of reality which is under study. This approach is limited to only one sense, the sense of sight. Examples of representation are materials such as illustrations, dioramas, mock-ups, puppets and moppets, maps and globes, and graphs. Considered as the least effective of all the ways of portraying reality is the abstraction of reality. This is done through lecture or teacher talk. Abstract explanations do not at all contribute to the learner's ability to concretize. There is nothing in the mind that was not first in the senses. Learning, therefore, is better achieved by allowing learners to touch, taste, hear, smell, and see objects being studied. 5. Media. It is the system of communication in the teaching-learning process aimed at promoting common understanding in instruction and setting and maintaining a healthy climate in the classroom conducive to learning. Since oral communication is inevitable and necessary in teaching, the teacher should keep certain helpful tips in mind. First, he should make an effort to use language efficiently and effectively. He is supposed to serve as a model of a good language user, regardless of the language used. Every lesson in any subject becomes a lesson in communication. This is particularly true of pupils who are highly impressionable and that they learn much through plain imitation. Second, the teacher should keep in mind the principle of parsimony in the use of language. He should strive to keep his communication clear, concise, and comprehensible at all times. Language should, therefore, be simple and familiar to the learners. 6. Motivation. Motivation is a cardinal principle in learning. A learner will learn only those things he wants to learn. If a student is not interested in what he is learning, he will simply "go through the motions," or worse, he will not engage himself in the learning act at all. The teacher should, therefore, usher in every lesson or unit with some form of motivation. A good teacher is a good motivator. He starts every lesson about something that will call the attention and will evoke the interest of the listeners. Effective teachers are good at motivating learners because they know how to hold captive the learner's attention. When a learner feels disinterested in the lesson, there is no chance at all for learning to take place. Motivation is always associated with the learner's understanding of a value in the learning act based on a "felt need" (present gratification) or a "reward" as the case may be. In other words, every learning situation must be a gratifying experience to the learner. 21  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS 7. Mastery: The Be-all and End-all of Learning. Mastery means habitual or automatic change in behavior brought about by the learners having internalized what they have acquired through repetition and application. Mastery denotes ability to put to constant use what' has been fixed in the mind and to apply such in future situations and where need arises. Mastery is the last stage in the learning circle illustrated in Figure 5. The circle of learning is a graphic presentation of the four stages involved in the acquisition of knowledge which starts with the state of unconscious incompetence till the stage of unconscious competence or mastery. Stages in the Circle of Learning Stage 1: Stage of Unconscious Incompetence. The state of not desiring to know because he does not know what is there to know (blissful ignorance). Stage 2: Stage of Conscious Incompetence. A situation referred to as the "teachable moment" when, by accident the learner realizes there is a need to know about things around him. He consciously develops a desire to know the need to develop personal interests. He now has a "motive" for and consequently an "interest" in learning (motivation). Stage 3: Stage of Conscious Competence. The learner is helped by a teacher who starts coaching after telling him what to know. He is, therefore, guided into gathering information, aided and corrected when need be, and made to engage in constant independent applications over a period of time. This stage includes content, coaching, guided practice, feedback, and application. Figure 5: The Circle of Learning Source: Palma's Curriculum Development System 22  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS Stage 4: Stage of Unconscious Competence. The point where a learner achieves a degree of competence in a particular area, exhibiting skills honed through constant practice. The learner, therefore, becomes knowledgeable because he has acquired mastery of the subject matter: conscious effort. 8. Measurement: Getting Evidence of Learning. It is the final measure of how much a learner has acquired and mastered as revealed by an instrument "test" in the form of a "test score." The score has to be referenced to the stated criterion or norm so a judgment can be rendered as to the acceptability or non-acceptability of the performance. Measurement then is but one aspect of a process called evaluation. Benjamin Bloom defines evaluation as "the systematic collection of evidence to determine whether in fact certain changes are taking place in the learner as well as to determine the amount or degree of change in the individual students." Two aspects of evaluation can be gleaned from this definition. The first, which is quantitative: the gathering of data on student learning in terms of scores in a test. The second, qualitative: the judgment as to the acceptability or non-acceptability of the learning level based on present standards. The first is referred to as measurement, the second, valuation. Thus, the term evaluation consists of a measurement aspect and a valuation aspect (Palma, 1992:114). F. Teaching Is Providing the Teachers with Opportunities to Make Desirable Changes in the Thinking, Attitudes, and Behavior of their Pupils In a child's development, three important factors should be given utmost consideration, namely: a) objectives; b) learning activities; and c) evaluation. The interrelationships between these three factors show that the focus of the teacher's effort is the child. The child is the core of the teaching-learning process that is aimed at the development of a mature individual. To guide the development and learning systematically and effectively, schools are established and maintained by society. The school has an instructional program that accomplishes these objectives and evaluation determines if these objectives are being attained and if the learning activities (or learning experiences) contribute toward the attainment of such objectives (Aquino, et al. 1988:18). 23  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS Figure 6: Interrelationships among Objectives, Learning Activities, and Evaluation 1. Objectives. Educational objectives, specific or otherwise, serve a valuable function in the educational process. Effective instruction occurs when learners are provided with instructional experiences that are designed to help them achieve goals stated in instructional objectives. They require specification of student learning in terms of observable and measurable behavior. Statement of educational objectives in behavioral terms facilitates the evaluation of educational programs and improves the validity of the measures and scales used in the evaluation process. Basic Concepts in Writing Educational Objectives Instructional objectives should contain the following five elements: a) Who is to perform the desired behavior (e.g. the pupil, the student, or the learner). b) The actual behavior to be employed in demonstrating mastery of the objective (e.g. to write, to identify, or to distinguish). c) The result (i.e., the product or performance) of the behavior which will be evaluated to determine whether the objective is mastered (e.g. an essay or a speech). d) The relevant conditions under which the behavior is to be performed (e.g. in a one- hour quiz or at the end of a forty-minute period). e) The standard that will be used to evaluate the success of the product or performance (e.g. 90 percent correct or eight out often correct) (Lardizabal, et at., 1991:42-43). 2. Learning Activities. These refer to certain activities that the learner undergoes in reaction to the environment with which he has an opportunity to interact. An experience is personal to the learner and what he gets out of it depends a lot on his total personal life space. 24  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS Since learning results directly from personal experiences, its selection becomes a vital concern in the classroom. The central problem of schooling, then, is that of determining the kinds of experiences likely to produce the given objectives. The main concern of the teacher is how to set up situations and conditions in the classroom which will stimulate the students to pursue the objectives laid out before them (Palma, 1992:77-78). The teacher should provide students the opportunities to engage in a variety of experiences to increase the depth of meaning of important concepts. Likewise, the teacher should be able to devise many activities which will give students concrete experiences instead of verbal abstractions. Learning activity to be effective must be properly distributed. The following are some suggestions for making material meaningful by gearing it to the learner's experiences: a) evaluate the learner's experience; b) provide variety of experiences; c) use pictorial illustrations, objects or models, or examples frequently; and d) create situations for applications of concepts or skills learned (Gregorio, 1976:167- 168). 3. Evaluation. Evaluation validates the objectives and points out the affectivity and propriety of the learning experiences. Therefore, evaluation cannot be taken apart from teaching. It is not to be considered even as a mere adjunct of instruction. It is de facto an integral part, that is, part and parcel of the teaching- learning process. A teacher who teaches without testing for results is in much the same situation as a person who prepares a meal and serves it without benefit of tasting it beforehand. A popular saying goes, "the test of the pudding is in the eating." By the same token, the proof of learning is seen in the testing. (Palma, 1992:113-114). 25  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS Chapter III PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING A. Principles Defined The term principle has been adopted from the Latin word princeps which means the beginning or the end of all things. The early Greeks used the term principles not only to express the origin of things but als1> to express their fundamental laws and to bring out the ultimate objectives. Principles are used in many different senses. According to Webster, a principle is a comprehensible law or doctrine from which others are derived or on which others are founded. In the language of Hopkins, a principle is a rule for guiding the ship of education so that it will reach the port designated by the philosophy of education; it is a compass by which the path of education is directed. Principles are the chief guides to make teaching and learning effective and productive. They are the fundamentals through which we proceed from one situation to another. Principles are important for the governing of actions and the operation of techniques in any field of education. True principles explain educational processes. They show how things are done and how educational results are achieved. For the individual, a principle, when understood and accepted, serves in important ways to guide his reflective thinking and his choice of activities or actions. In the field of education, an accepted principle becomes part of one's philosophy which serves to determine and evaluate his educational aims, activities, practices, and outcomes. B. How Principles of Teaching Are Derived Sound principles of teaching are formulated from carefully observed facts or objectively measured results which are common to a series of similar experiences, as such, they must be carefully distinguished from the assumptions of so-called arm-chair philosophy which are made up largely of purely theoretical principles not based on experience, reality, investigation, or experimentation. It can be said that principles of teaching are derived: a) through the pooling of the opinions of experts; b) through comparative studies of the teaching performance of capable and incapable teachers; c) through experimental studies of teaching and learning in the classroom; d) from the results of experiments which are the universal methods of deducing principles; and 26  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS e) from critically analyzed experience or from systematic investigations. C. Function and Scope of Principles When general principles are used to stimulate, direct, guide, and evaluate the conduct of life, they are translated into means and measures of actions. Only actions can change things in the direction of unity and stability. Organized principles of teaching should serve at least two general purposes: a) Principles should serve as the bases of intelligent and profitable practice. The nature of principles is constant and universal but their application varies from one generation to another or from one situation to another within the same generation, owing to changing conditions. b) Principles should serve not only to stimulate, direct, and guide, but also to interpret school practices. Principles depend upon how well they are founded upon scientific experimentation, expert opinion, or classroom experience. The function of teaching is to provide the stimuli so that the best learning may take place. Principles of teaching are guides so that teachers may better adopt their instruction to the learner's individual capabilities. They are not rigid, unequivocal laws that apply in all teaching- learning situations. As such, teaching must always be considered as a complex process that may be better understood by making a broad and discerning application of its various principles. D. Types of Teaching Principles 1. Starting Principles. These involve the nature of the learner and his psychologi.cal and physiological endowments which make education possible. The hereditary endowments are the preliminary concern in all educational endeavor. It is, therefore, the function of education to make the best use of these hereditary tendencies to meet human needs, growth, and development. The primary concern of the teacher is not the subject, but the learner, not knowledge of specialty, but knowledge oft he laws and principles of human growth and development, which, like all other natural processes, involve laws and principles. 2. Guiding Principles. These refer to the procedure, methods of instruction, or agglomerations of techniques by which the learner and the teacher may work together towards the accomplishment of the goals or objectives of education. 3. Ending Principles. These refer to the educational aims, goals, objectives, outcomes, purposes, or results of the whole educational scheme to which teaching and learning are directed. 27  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS These educational aims or objectives may be used as definite, intelligible principles or guidance by those who seek to educate effectively. General educational aims may be either philosophical or psychological. Philosophical aims are based on folkways and mores or ideals of the Filipino people. They are otherwise known as the ultimate aims of education outlined in our Constitution. Psychological aims refer to the growth and development of the learner in terms of knowledge, habits, skills, and abilities or integrated personality. They may be expressed in behavioral terms. In other words, psychological aims refer to subject matter aims. They are also known as the immediate aims of education. E. General statements Concerning Principles Principles as used in teaching have broad meanings and extensions: The term principles refer to:  general laws;  doctrines;  rules of actions;  fundamental truths;  general statements;  educational concepts;  accepted tenets; and  the conditions that affect the teaching-learning process. The meaning of the term principles varies considerably in teaching as well as in learning. a) Principles are considered sound when they are formulated from carefully observed facts or objectively measured results which are common to a series of similar experiences. b) Principles are also considered valid when they are the results of scientific experimentations, expert opinions, and classroom observations and experiences. c) Principles, when understood and accepted, serve in important ways to guide the individual's reflective thinking and his choice of activities. Principles are the bases in stimulating, directing, guiding, and encouraging the learners in their learning and the teachers in their teaching. They are used as guides to educational procedure. They are the guides in making teaching and learning activities effective and productive. d) Principles and techniques do not work effectively by themselves. There is constant interplay which gradually improves the selection and functioning of both principles and techniques. 28  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS e) Principles are the criteria to be used by the teachers in the evaluation of their teaching and of the learning of the learners. They also serve to determine and evaluate educational objectives, practices, and outcomes. f) Principles are needed to guide techniques, but in no way do they supplant the fundamental role of techniques in carrying on the process and activities which make up the day-to-day work of teaching and learning. g) Principles, although based on enduring concepts and values, are themselves subject to change. They are dynamic, not static. Principles do change with the discovery of new facts, with new educational philosophy, and with changes in social and moral values. h) Principles are workable only under normal conditions. When the classroom conditions are abnormal, common sense must be the guiding factor in meeting the situation. Common sense is the ability to do and to say the right thing at the right time in the right way to the right person. Common sense is the right kind of personality in action. It is practical intelligence and tact in behavior. It is a product of individual experience gained through contact with practical problems of life and through lessons derived from success and failure. i) Principles are of great value if they are basically true and applied into the learning situations. Thus, the use of the general principles in the field of teaching involves considerably more than a mere statement of sound basic principles. If the principles taught are acquired in the best way, there can be little question of their validity. j) Principles oftentimes overlap or even at times conflict with each other. However, although principles at times overlap, nevertheless, they work out harmoniously in achieving the desired objectives or aims. k) Principles are means to ends and never ends in themselves. When abstract principles are used as guides and evaluate the conduct of life, they must be translated into means and measures of action (Gregorio, 1976:1-14). F. John Dewey's Philosophy Dr. John Dewey (1859-1950) was an outstanding American philosopher and educator. John Dewey was born on October 20, 1859 in Burlington, Vermont. He graduated from the University of Vermont in 1879 and received his Ph.D. degree from John Hopkins University in 1884. He was a professor of Philosophy at the University of Minnesota in 1888 and at the University of Michigan from 1889 to 1894. He served also as head of the Philosophy Department at the University of Chicago in 1894-1904. Up to his retirement, he was a professor of Philosophy at Columbia University. 29  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS As a philosopher, he was an outstanding pragmatist and as an educator, he was known as progressivist or a democratic educator. His philosophical beliefs have been described as: 1) radical empiricism; 2) experimentalism; 3) intrumentalism; and 4) pragmatism. (Gregorio, 1979:42). Actually, John Dewey's philosophy was an outgrowth or product of: a) Rousseau's principles of growth, pupil activity, and individualism; b) Pestalozzi's discipline of sympathy and his principle that learning proceeds from the known to the unknown, and his doctrine of interest; c) Froebel's ideal of learning by doing which depended upon self-principled activities or creative development which is the basic principle of socialization; and d) Findings in the study of G. Stanley Hall which stimulated an interest in child nature. Progressive education owes much to John Dewey's philosophy of instrumentalism, a philosophy which holds that the various forms of human activity are instruments developed by man to solve his problems. It bears a close resemblance to' pragmatism, which states that truth is measured by experimental results and practical outcomes that can be shared and tested by all who investigate. The chief tenets of John Dewey's philosophy are the following: a) We learn by doing; b) Education is life, not a preparation for life; c) Education is growth; d) The school is primarily a social institution; and e) The center of education is the child's own social activities. Out of the foregoing tenets have grown, according to Mills and Douglas, the basic principles of today's learning, which are as follows: a) Children learn by doing; b) Motivation should be intrinsic and natural, not artificial; c) Learning should be gradual and continuous, not discrete; d) Instruction should be adapted to individual needs; e) Natural social settings should constitute learning situations; f) Learning depends upon the child's ability; g) Learning comes through sense impressions; g) The child can best be educated as a whole, as a unit organism; h) Teacher-pupil and, inter-pupil relationships should be cooperative; and i) Education means improving the quality of living. (Aquino, 1988:39-40). G. Principles of Good Teaching Based on the Educational Philosophy of John Dewey 30  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS a) Teaching is good when it is based on the psychology of learning. This is based on the concept that the child is made the center of the educative process. The nature of the child and the nature of the learning process and the laws that govern its operation determine the type of teaching to be done by the teacher. b) Teaching is good when it is well-planned such that the activities and experiences of the learner are continuously related and interrelated into larger, more meaningful, more inclusive, relation patterns. c) Teaching is good when the learner is made conscious of the goals or aims to be accomplished. This concept calls for proper motivation. d) Learning is good when it provides learning experiences or situations that will insure understanding. Good teaching requires a rich environment of instructional materials and devices. Instructional materials and devices will challenge the attention of the learner, stimulate thinking, and facilitate understanding which make learning more meaningful. e) Teaching is good when there is provision to meet individual differences. This is based on the psychological principle tl:1at individuals differ from each other in their learning potential. To be effective, teaching must treat the learner as he is, but at the same time with reference to what he might become. f) Teaching is good when it utilizes the past experiences of the learner. This concept is based on the principle of apperception. This means that learning is easier when you start from what the pupils already know. g) Teaching is good when the learner is stimulated to think and to reason. The best teaching method is that which liberates and encourages thinking. Effective teaching involves differentiation and integration or analysis and synthesis. Generalization of facts learned is important in teaching for transfer. h) Teaching is good when it is governed by democratic principles. In democratic teaching, social relationship is placed on a plane of natural respect, cooperation, tolerance, and fair play. Teaching to be effective must be governed by love and understanding. In other words, the learners are free from emotional tension. i) Teaching is good when the method used is supplemented by another method and instructional devices. It is an accepted fact that good method is a synthesis of many methods. This is based on the principles that the best learning takes place when a greater number of senses are stimulated and utilized in the process. j) Teaching is good when evaluation is made an integral part of the teaching process. Evaluation is part and parcel of teaching. Evaluation measures the effectiveness of teaching and learning and completes the function which is essential in teaching. Teaching is meaningful only when the results of teaching are achieved. 31  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS k) Teaching is good when drill or review is made an integral part of teaching and learning. The teacher must bear in mind that drill and review have different meanings and functions. The purpose of review is to bring out relationships of facts learned to give new view or new meaning. (Gregorio & Gregorio, 1979: 63-65). A Synthesis of John Dewey's Thoughts on Education I Dewey's Education Theories Education as a Necessity of Life - Education makes possible continuance/renewal of social life. - Education is a communication-making experience. - Education is a shared possession. - Education is a self-renewing instrument of a complex society. Education as a Social Function - Education provides the social environment that leads to the development of attitudes necessary for a continuous and progressive life. - As an educative environment, the school performs three social functions: a) simplifying/ordering the factor it wishes to develop; b) purifying and idealizing the existing social function; and c) creating a wider and better balanced environment. Education as Direction - Education directs the natural impulses of the young to agree with the life customs of the group through commands, prohibitions, approvals, and disapprovals. - The business of education is to make the young understand the internal controls. Education as Growth - Education is all one with life; life is growth and, therefore, education has no end beyond growth. - Growth in education is not physical but growth in insight and understanding of relationship between various experiences and learning episodes. Education as Preparation - Education is preparation when it: a) progressively realizes present possibilities, thus, making the individual better fitted to cope with later requirements; and b) makes the present rich and significant, thus, merging into the future. 32  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS Education as Unfolding - Education is unfolding when it draws out from the learner what is desired through suggestive questioning or other pedagogical device. - Education is unfolding from within. Education as Training of Faculties - Education as training of original impulsive activity is selecting those responses that can be utilized by the individual. - Education is not mere "exercise" of the faculties of the mind but the development of initiative, inventiveness, and adaptability. Education as Formation - Education is formation when it consists of the selection and coordination of native activities so that the subject matter of the social environment is utilized. Education as Recapitulation and Retrospection - Education is not "repeating" the past but utilizing it as a resource in developing the future. Education as Reconstruction - Education is the reorganization of experience which adds to its meaning, increasing its ability to direct the course of subsequent experience. - In education as reconstruction, increment of meaning corresponds to increased perceptions of connections and continuities of experiences. - Education is the fundamental method of social reform. Education as a Democratic Social Function - Education gives the individuals a personal interest in social relationship and controls the habits of the mind which secure social changes without introducing disorder. - Education emphasizes the cooperative nature of shared human experience which embraces three key elements: a) common - represents shared objects, ideas; b) communication - occurs when people share their experiences; and c) community - results when individuals discuss common experiences through shared communication. 33  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS II. Dewey's Thoughts on Education Aims A. Natural Development Aim. Spontaneous development not only of the bodily organs but their capacities as well. B. Social Efficiency Aim. Cultivation of power to join freely and fully in shared/common activities. C. Cultural Aim. Expansion of one's range and accuracy of one's perception of meanings. III. Dewey's Thoughts on the Correlative Aspects of Education A. Interest and Discipline - Interest and discipline are correlative aspects of activity. - Interest means one is identified with the objects and activity up to its realization. - Interest is entering into a situation, continuity of attention, and endurance. - Interest represents the moving force of education. - Discipline is the development of the power of continuous attention. B. Experience and Thinking - Experience involves a connection of doing or trying with something undergone in consequence. - Experience has two elements: Active - Experience is trying. Passive - Experience is undergoing. - Education is an active-passive affair, a separation destroys the vital meaning of an experience. - Thinking is the accurate and deliberate instituting of connections between what is done and its consequences. - Thinking includes these steps:  sense of a problem;  observation of the condition;  formation and rational elaboration of a suggested conclusion; and  active experimental testing. - All thinking results in knowledge, ultimately the value of knowledge is subordinate to its use in thinking. - Experience provides solidity, security, and fertility to education. - Thinking unifies all processes of instruction. 34  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS C. The Nature of Method - Method is the way the subject matter of an experience develops most effectively and fruitfully. - Method is embedded in the child's' own nature which is active rather than passive. - Good methods are straightforward and promote flexible intellectual intere'st, open- minded will to learn, integrity of purpose, and acceptance of responsibility for the consequences of one's activity. - "Project" or "Problem" or situation methods shall replace formalized operation. - Projects and problems should come within the scope and capacities of the experience of the learner. - Methods must raise new questions, introduce new undertakings, and create fresh knowledge. D. The Nature of Subject Matter - Subject matter consists of facts observed, recalled, read, and talked about and ideas suggested in the course of a development of a situation having a purpose. - The subject matter of education consists primarily of the meanings which supply content to existing social life. - Transmission of subject matter needs special selection, formulation, and organization. - Most subject matters are derived from past col, lective experience, - The educator's task is to develop the pupil's ability to appropriate and reproduce the subject matter into his activities. - The young begins with social activities and proceed to a scientific insight in the materials by assimilating into their direct experience the ideas of those who have had a larger experience. IV. Dewey's Thoughts on the Curriculum A. Play and Work in the Curriculum - Both play and work involve ends free and intrinsically motivated but differ in time span. - Play and work have means and ends connection. - Play passes gradually into work when it grows more complicated and gains added meaning by greater attention to specific results. - Work is psychologically an activity which includes regard for consequences as a part of itself. B. Geography and the Curriculum - The function is to enrich and liberate the more direct and personal contacts of life by furnishing the context, background" and outlook 35  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS - Geography emphasizes the physical and natural side; and history, the social and the human. - Geography must coordinate the mathematical, astronomical, physiographic, topographic, political, and commercial phases. - History includes primitive, economic, industrial, and intellectual history. - Geography provides the material and medium of development for mankind. C. Science - It represents the fruition of the cognitive factors in experience. - It aims to reveal the sources, grounds, and consequences of a belief. - Its function:  emancipation from local and temporary incidents of experience; and  opening of intellectual vistas through destruction, generalization, and formulation. H. Basic Principles of Successful Teaching at Any Academic Level by Olsen, et al. Edward G. Olsen and his associates have formulated a summary of basic principles of successful teaching applicable to any academic level. They ate as follows: 1. Educate the whole child. The child is not just a mind to be instructed: he is a physically, socially, emotionally, ethically, and intellectually growing person. If his powers are to develop in proper harmony, he needs learning activities which challenge his emerging interests and abilities in all the areas of growth. 2. Keep the program informal, flexible, and democratic. Children are restless and need confidence in their own power and achievements. They, therefore, need every chance to ask questions freely, confer with other children informally, share in planning their individual and group activities, carry personal responsibility for group projects, and help to judge critically the results of their efforts. This requires that the entire classroom atmosphere is friendly and democratic as well as informal and flexible and that children are not held in unfair competition with standards of performance beyond their possible ability to achieve. 3. Capitalize upon present pupil interests. It is of utmost importance that the teacher first discovers what interests and purposes his students already have and then use these drives as springboards to further desirable learning. Thus, limited interests may develop into wider interests, undesirable purposes into praiseworthy purposes as to how the child's educational growth can be best promoted. 4. Let motivation be intrinsic. Most learners find few desirable incentives in the traditional system of school marks, honors, and penalties. Their most moving incentives are those of real life itself: 36  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS a) to explore the new and the interesting; b) to associate actively with other people; c) to manipulate and construct things; d) to compare opinions about matters which seem important; and e) to express one's self artistically. 5. Make learning experiences vivid and direct. Generalizations will be mere verbalisms unless they are based upon meaningful personal experiences. That is why children need constant opportunity for motion pictures, radio programs, excursions, interviews, service projects, work experience, and the like. Through such media, the children receive more concrete, interesting, and meaningful experiences than they are likely to receive through the printed page alone. 6. Stress problem-solving, the basis of functional learning. Real education comes about when children intelligently attack real problems, think them through, and then do something to solve them. Every chance should, therefore, be given for pupils to discover, define, attack, solve, and interpret both personal and social problems within the limitations of their own present abilities, interests, and needs. 7. Provide for the achievement of lasting pupil satisfactions. Students who dislike their work learn little from it and retain that little briefly. Every effort should, therefore, be made to maintain learning situations wherein children will achieve genuine success, find personal satisfaction therein, and, thus grow, intellectually, emotionally, and socially. 8. Let the curriculum mirror the community. Learning situations must reflect life in the pupil's own community if they are to be most effective. I. Principles of Humanistic Teaching Humanistic teaching involves three conditions. These are emphatic understanding, respect or non-possessive warmth, and genuineness which are necessary for the development of self-actualizing persons. They are necessary for self-initiated, meaningful, experiential learning. They permit the child to actualize his potentialities. 1. Emphatic understanding. By emphatic understanding is meant understanding of another from an internal frame of reference, achieved by putting oneself in the place of another, so that one sees him and the world as closely as possible, as he does. 2. Respect or non-possessive warmth. It is respect which provides for a warm acceptance for another as a person, with all his faults, deficiencies, or undesirable/unacceptable behavior. Respect also means a deep interest and concern for his development and welfare. It involves acceptance of each child as he is, for what he is. 37  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS 3. Genuineness. It is the congruence or integration of the therapist in the relationship. The humanistic teacher is genuine and real. She is not putting an act nor trying to play the role of the mythical teacher. The totality of these conditions can be summarized in two ways: First, they are nonthreatening. The humanistic teacher reduces the tension, fear, and anxiety which are so prevalent in classrooms and which we know inhibit learning. Second, the essence of these conditions is love. It is the love which has been recognized by humanistic teachers as the basic requirement of a good teacher. J. Principles of Good Teaching There are certain principles of good teaching that the teacher should familiarize himself with. These principles are almost important as the stimulation and inspiration of a good teacher. 1. Active Learning. The pupil must be mentally active most of the time and physically active some of the time. Extensive physical and mental activity on the teacher's part will not necessarily guarantee learning on the pupils part. In numerous learning situations, the child learns better if he is engaged in' some physical and mental activities while concentrating upon a mental task. For example, in an arithmetic lesson, a pupil who is able to put a group of three objects with another group of two objects will learn more quickly that 2 + 3 = 5 than if he were merely told the number fact. 2. Many Methods. There is no single correct way to teach a cla.ss. There are many good ways. A method which fails with one child may be very helpful to another. 3. Motivation. Effective motivation arises from children's interests, needs, problems, and expressed purposes. Although we humans learn only what we want to learn, it is nevertheless true that interest in the unfamiliar can be developed by relating the unknown to the known interests. 4. Well-balanced Curriculum. The curriculum should serve two purposes: to provide essential skills for the child to enable him to become a useful member of society; and to satisfy the child's personal and immediate needs. There should be a blend and balance of the two throughout the day's curriculum. 5. Individual Difference. Good teaching recognizes individual differences. The slow- learning child, the average child, and the bright child, the three commonest categories, have to be taught in different ways. In addition to children's intellectual differences, there are differences in emotional, social, physical, spiritual, aesthetic, and moral development. Good teaching will adapt methods, activities, assignments, and advice to each pupil based on an understanding of his unique characteristics. 38  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS 6. Lesson Planning. Units, lessons, activities, and even housekeeping must be well- planned. Daily planning should be detailed and classroom management should be made routine. All planning should be flexible. 7. The Power of Suggestion. Suggestions are more fruitful than dictation. Through the power of positive suggestions, children are willing to undertake tasks and procedure which they may have felt inadequate to tackle before. Suggestions may be given as to which books and materials to use, how to solve problems, and what procedures to follow. 8. Encouragement. Praise, given only when earned, makes pupils aware of their successes. Constructive criticism may be needed where persistent errors are being made. 9. Remedial Teaching. Good teaching is both diagnostic and remedial. 10. Democratic Environment. Children learn democracy by living it. In return for rights and privileges within the classroom, children should be aware of their responsibilities to the group and of group service. 11. Stimulation. Each child can be stimulated within the limits of his abilities to exceed his present efforts. Challenge can be provided through the teacher's expression of confidence in her own pupils' aptitudes and skills, through provoking curiosity, and through encouraging creative endeavor. 12. Integration. By building upon previous knowledge and experience, new learning and new experiences become more meaningful. Learning involves a reorganization of previous experience and an integration of what has been completed into the new learning experience. 13. Life-like Situation. Children should be guided into a realization that their school studies and activities are a part of life. 14. Independence. A child's increasing independence from adults and ever-increasing responsibility are signposts of good teaching. The degrees of independence gained at any given time should measure up with the maturity level of the child. K. Basic Principles of Today's Teaching a) Children learn by doing. b) Motivation should be intrinsic and natural, not artificial. c) Learning should be 'gradual and continuous, not discrete. d) Instruction should be adopted to individual needs. e) Natural social settings should constitute learning situations. f) Learning depends upon the child's ability. g) Learning comes through sense impressions. h) The child can best be educated as a whole, as a unit organism. i) Teacher-pupil and inter-pupil relationships should be cooperative. j) Education means improving the quality of learning. 39  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS L. Instructional Principles and School Applications (Aquino, et al., 1988). The instructional principles presented were based on research and theory. For every principle, Goodwin and Klausmeier derived a parallel classroom application chiefly for use by teachers. According to these two authors, the principles and applications, although based on research and theory, have been tempered and influenced by their own teaching at every school level and by their work with educators in cooperative research and development activities (Goodwin and Klausmeier, 1975:253). A. Factual Information Instructional Principle School Application 1. Organizing material into appropriate 1. Arrange material to appropriate units. learning units facilitates the acquisition knowledge. 2. Help students to perceive meaningful 2. Cognizing meaningful relationships relationships. between new material and what one already knows facilitates the learning of the new information 3. Organizing complex material into 3. Arrange material in an appropriate appropriately arranged sequential parts sequence. facilitates the learning of factual information. 4. Practicing and utilizing information is 4. Provide for appropriate practice. necessary for its mastery and retention 5. Evaluating the accuracy and suitability 5. Invite independent evaluation of information is important for achieving independence in learning factual information. B. Concepts Instructional Principle School Application 1. Discriminating and naming a concept 1. Define the concept and denote a its and its attributes facilitate concept defining attributes. attainment and use. 2. Identifying examples and non-examples 2. Arrange appropriately the difficult and is critical for concept attainment by the sequenced examples and non-examples students at all levels. of the concept. 3. Ascertaining the correctness of one’s 3. Establish procedures for feedback. responses is essential in concept attainment and refinement. 4. Utilizing a concept extends its meaning 4. Arrange for the appropriate use of the for the individual. concept. 40  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS 5. Achieving autonomy in learning 5. Guide the students’ discovery and concepts and principles requires self- invite independent evaluation/ initiated inquiry and evaluation. C. Problem-Solving Instructional Principle School Application 1. Maintaining sensitivity to felt needs 1. Help pupils to detect and state needs and directly analyzing problem and directly analyzing solvable situations are perquisites to operating problems. on the problems. 2. Retrieving stored or securing new 2. Help pupils to find and process information and acting on it is essential information. to successful problem-solving. 3. Generating hypotheses and testing them 3. Help students to generate and test is necessary for successful problem- hypothesis. solving. 4. Invite independent evaluation in 4. Determining the effectiveness of one’s hypothesis and problem-solving own methods and the acceptability of abilities. one’s own solution helps independence in problem-solving. D. Creativity School Application Instructional Principle 1. Encourage divergent production in 1. Producing novel ideas or products is many media. enhanced by practice in expressing one's self in verbal, figural, and 2. Develop strong positive relationships in physical means. and out of class. 2. Being reinforced for one's creative efforts is more effective when 3. Encourage continuing creative originating from a well regarded expression. person. 3. Developing a higher level of creative expression requires a nurturing 4. Promote unique and creative environment and successful experience. personalities. 4. Acting and thinking in divergent ways are essential to reactive production. E. Attitudes and Personality Integration School Application 1. Identify the attributes to be facilitated. Instructional Principle 1. Facilitating the learning and development of attitudes requires 2. Provide exemplary models. careful thought and 'a clear statement of objectives 2. Learning by observation and imitation 3. Provide pleasant emotional and 41  PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 PREPARED BY MPAS takes place often in receptive and information experiences with attitude responding individuals. objectives