Theory of Architecture Module 2 Elements & Principles PDF

TOA Theory of Architecture MODULE 2 Elements of Architecture and Principles of Design PART 2.1 Primary Elements of Design Each element is first considered as a conceptual element, then as a visual element in the vocabulary of architectural design. When made visible to the eye or paper or in three...

TOA Theory of Architecture MODULE 2 Elements of Architecture and Principles of Design PART 2.1 Primary Elements of Design Each element is first considered as a conceptual element, then as a visual element in the vocabulary of architectural design. When made visible to the eye or paper or in three dimensional space, these elements become form with characteristics of substance, shape, size, color, and texture. ▪ Point ▪ Line ▪ Plane ▪ Volume Point It marks a position in space. Conceptually, it has no length, width, or depth, and is therefore static, centralized, and directionless. Point As the prime element in the vocabulary of form, a point can serve to mark: ▪ the two ends of a line; ▪ the intersection of two lines; ▪ meeting of the lines at the corner of a plane or volume; and ▪ the center of a field. Point Elements A point has no dimension. To visibly mark a position in space or on the ground plane, a point must be projected vertically into a linear form, as a column, obelisk, or tower. Any such columnar element is seen in plan as a point and therefore retains the visual characteristics of a point. Piazza del Campidoglio Rome. Michelangelo Buonarroti. The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius marks the center of this urban space. Piazza del Campidoglio Rome. Michelangelo Buonarroti. The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius marks the center of this urban space. Two Points Two points describe a line that connects them. Two points further suggest an axis perpendicular to the line they describe and about which they are symmetrical. Torii, Ise Shrine Mie Prefecture, Japan In plan, two points can denote a gateway signifying passage from one place to another. Extended vertically, the two points define both a plane of entry and an approach perpendicular to it. The National Mall Washington, D.C. This lies along the axis established by the Lincoln Memorial, the Washington Monument, and the United States Capitol Building. The National Mall Washington, D.C. This lies along the axis established by the Lincoln Memorial, the Washington Monument, and the United States Capitol Building. Line An extended point. Conceptually, a line has length, but no width or depth. It is capable of visually expressing direction, movement, and growth. Line A line can serve to: ▪ join, support, surround, or intersect other visual elements; ▪ describe the edges of and give shape to planes; and ▪ articulate the surfaces of planes. Linear elements Vertical linear elements, such as columns, obelisks, and towers, have been used throughout history to commemorate significant events and establish particular points in space. Menhir A prehistoric monument consisting of an upright megalith, usually standing alone but sometimes aligned with others. Column of Marcus Aurelius Piazza Colonna, Rome The cylindrical shaft commemorates the emperor’s victory over Germanic tribes north of the Danube. Obelisk of Luxor Place de la Concorde, Paris The obelisk, which marked the entrance to the Amon Temple at Luxor, was given by the viceroy of Egypt, Mohamed Ali, to Louis Phillipe and was installed in 1836. Selim Mosque Edirne, Turkey Vertical linear elements can also define a transparent volume of space. The four minaret towers outline a spatial field from which the dome of the Selim Mosque rises in splendor. Selim Mosque Edirne, Turkey Vertical linear elements can also define a transparent volume of space. The four minaret towers outline a spatial field from which the dome of the Selim Mosque rises in splendor. Linear Elements Linear members that possess the necessary material strength can perform structural functions. In these examples, linear elements: ▪ express movement across space; ▪ provide support for an overhead plane; and ▪ form a three-dimensional structural frame for architectural space. Salginatobel Bridge Switzerland. Robert Maillart. In this example, linear elements express movement across space. Beams and girders have the bending strength to span the space between their supports and carry transverse loads. Caryatid Porch, The Erechtheion Athens. Mnesicles. An example showing linear elements providing support for an overhead plane. The sculpted female figures stand as columnar supports for the entablature. Katsura Imperial Villa Kyoto, Japan In this example, linear elements form a three-dimensional structural frame for architectural space. Linear columns and beams together form a three-dimensional framework for architectural space. Plane An extended line in a direction other than its intrinsic direction. Conceptually, a plane has length and width, but no depth. Plane Shape is the preliminary identifying characteristic of a plane. It is determined by the contour of the line forming the edges of a plane. The supplementary properties of a plane - its surface, color, pattern, and texture - affect its visual weight and stability. Planar Elements In architectural design, we manipulate three generic types of planes: ▪ Overhead plane, which can be either the roof or the ceiling plane; ▪ Wall plane; and the ▪ Base plane, which can be either the ground or floor plane. Scala de Spagna (Spanish Steps) Rome. Alessandro Specchi. Along with climate and other environmental conditions of a site, the topographical character of the ground plane influences the form of the building that rises from it. Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut Der el-Bahari, Thebes. Senmut. Three terraces approached by ramps rise toward the base of the cliffs where the chief sanctuary is cut deep into the rock. S. Maria Novella Florence, Italy. Alberti. As a design element, the plane of an exterior wall can be articulated as the front or primary facade of a building. Piazza San Marco Venice In urban situations, these facades serve as walls that define courtyards, streets, and such public gathering places as squares and marketplaces. Robie House Chicago. Frank Lloyd Wright. The roof plane is the essential sheltering element that protects the interior of a building from the climatic elements. Fallingwater (Kaufmann House) Pennsylvania. Frank Lloyd Wright. Reinforced concrete slabs express the horizontality of the floor and roof planes as they cantilever outward from a central vertical core. Volume A plane extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction. Conceptually, a volume has three dimensions: length, width, and depth. Volume All volumes can be analyzed and understood to consist of: points or vertices where several planes come together; lines or edges where two planes meet; and planes or surfaces that define the limits or boundaries of a volume. Volume Form is the primary identifying characteristic of a volume. It is established by shapes and interrelationships of the planes that describe the boundaries of the volume. Volumetric Elements Building forms that stand as objects in the landscape can be read as occupying volumes in space. Notre Dame du Haut Ronchamp, France. Le Corbusier. Palazzo Thiene Vicenza, Italy. Andrea Palladio. Building forms that serve as containers can be read as masses that define volumes of space. In this structure, the interior rooms surround a cortile - the principal courtyard of an Italian palazzo. Palazzo Thiene Vicenza, Italy. Andrea Palladio. Building forms that serve as containers can be read as masses that define volumes of space. In this structure, the interior rooms surround a cortile - the principal courtyard of an Italian palazzo. Part 2.2 Form Articulation Form The formal structure of a work—the manner of arranging and coordinating the elements and parts of a composition so as to produce a coherent image. Articulation A method or manner of jointing that makes the united parts clear, distinct, and precise in relation to each other. Visual Properties of Form ▪ Shape ▪ Size ▪ Texture ▪ Color SHAPE The characteristic outline or surface configuration of a particular form. SHAPE In architecture, we are concerned with the shapes of: ▪ floor, wall, and ceiling planes that enclose space; ▪ door and window openings within a spatial enclosure; and ▪ silhouettes and contours of building forms. Villa Garches Vaucresson, France. Le Corbusier. This architectural composition illustrates the interplay between the shapes of planar solids and voids. Villa Garches Vaucresson, France. Le Corbusier. This architectural composition illustrates the interplay between the shapes of planar solids and voids. SIZE The physical dimensions of length, width, and depth of a form. While these dimensions determine the proportions of a form, its scale is determined by its size relative to other forms in its context. TEXTURE The visual and especially tactile quality given to a surface by the size, shape, arrangement, and proportions of the parts. Texture also determines the degree to which the surfaces of a form reflect or absorb incident light. COLOR A phenomenon of light and visual perception that may be described in terms of an individual’s perception of hue, saturation, and tonal value. Color is the attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its environment. It also affects the visual weight of a form. Parts of Color ▪ Hue: another word for color; ▪ Value: describes how light or dark the color is; ▪ Temperature: relates to the feeling of warmth or coolness the color evokes; and ▪ Intensity: measures the range of a color from dull to vivid. Also called chroma and saturation. Color Wheel ▪ Primary: red, blue, and yellow ▪ Secondary: violet, green, and orange. ▪ Tertiary: red-violet, blue-violet, yellow-green, blue-green, red-orange, and yellow-orange. Color Wheel Colors used to convey emotions: ▪ Warm colors: exhibit energy and joy (best for personal messages). They have a tendency to appear larger. ▪ Cool colors: convey calmness and peace (best for office use). They have a tendency to appear smaller next to a warm color. They often work well as a background color. Basic color schemes ▪ Complementary ▪ Analogous ▪ Triadic ▪ Split complementary ▪ Tetradic, or double complementary Basic color schemes Complementary Any two colors opposite each other on the wheel. For example, blue and orange, or red and green. Basic color schemes Split complementary Use three colors. The scheme takes one color and matches it with the two colors adjacent to its complementary color. For example, blue, yellow-orange and red- orange. Basic color schemes Analogous Any three colors next to each other on the wheel. For example, orange, yellow- orange, and yellow. Basic solor schemes Triadic Any three colors that are equally apart on the color wheel. For example, red, yellow and blue. Basic color schemes Tetradic or Double complementary Uses four colors together, in the form of two sets of complementary colors. For example, blue and orange is paired with yellow and violet. Basic color schemes ▪ Tints: come from adding white to hues; ▪ Shades: come from adding black to hues; ▪ Tones: mixing the hue with grey. ▪ Achromatic: use no color, just shades of grey, black and white. Also known as greyscale. Relational properties of form ▪ Position ▪ Orientation ▪ Visual Inertia POSITION The location of a form relative to its environment or the visual field within which it is seen. ORIENTATION The direction of a form relative to the ground plane, the compass points, other forms, or to the person viewing the form. VISUAL INERTIA The degree of concentration and stability of a form. The visual inertia of a form depends on its geometry as well as its orientation relative to the ground plane, the pull of gravity, and our line of sight. VISUAL INERTIA Milwaukee Art Museum, USA. Santiago Calatrava. VISUAL INERTIA Proposed library in Kazakhstan. BIG Architects. VISUAL INERTIA Ningbo Museum, China. Wang Shu. Form articulation A form can be articulated by: ▪ Change in material, color, texture, or pattern; ▪ Developing corners as distinct linear elements; ▪ Removing corners; and ▪ Lighting the form. Hoffman House New York. Richard Meier. The color, texture, and pattern of surfaces articulate the existence of planes and influence the visual weight of a form. Palazzo Medici- Ricardo Florence, Italy. Michelozzi. John Deere & Company Building Moline, Illinois. Eero Saarinen. Linear patterns have the ability to emphasize the height or length of form, unify its surfaces, and define its textural quality. The linear sun-shading devices accentuate the horizontality of the building form. CBS Building New York. Eero Saarinen. Linear columnar elements emphasize the verticality of this high-rise structure. IBM Research Center La Guade, Var, France. Marcel Breuer. The three-dimensional form of the openings creates a texture of light, shade, and shadows. IBM Research Center La Guade, Var, France. Marcel Breuer. The three-dimensional form of the openings creates a texture of light, shade, and shadows. First Unitarian Church Rochester New York. Louis Kahn. The pattern of openings and cavities interrupts the continuity of the exterior wall planes. First Unitarian Church Rochester New York. Louis Kahn. The pattern of openings and cavities interrupts the continuity of the exterior wall planes. Everson Museum Syracuse, New York. I.M. Pei. The unadorned corners of the forms emphasize the volume of their mass. Einstein Tower Potsdam, Germany. Eric Mendelsohn. Rounded corners express continuity of surface, compactness of volume, and softness of form. Laboratory Tower Johnson Wax Building, Wisconsin. Frank Lloyd Wright. Kaufmann Desert House California. Richard Neutra. Openings at corners emphasize the definition of planes over volume. Part 2.3 Circulation Circulation The passage of persons or things from one place to another or through an area. Since we move in time through a sequence of spaces, we experience a space in relation to where we’ve been and where we anticipate going. Circulation Elements ▪ Approach ▪ Entrance ▪ Configuration of the path ▪ Path-space relationships Approach ▪ The distant view. ▪ Prior to actually passing into the interior of a building, we approach its entrance along a path. This is the first phase of the circulation system, during which we are prepared to see, experience, and use the spaces within a building. Kinds of approach ▪ Frontal ▪ Oblique ▪ Spiral FRONTAL Leads directly to the entrance of a building along a straight, axial path. The visual goal that terminates the approach is clear. Villa Barbaro Maser, Italy. Andrea Palladio. Villa Barbaro Maser, Italy. Andrea Palladio. Qian Men Beijing, China. Link between the Forbidden City to the north and the Outer City to the South. Portals and gateways have traditionally served as means of orienting us to the path beyond and welcoming or guarding against our entry. OBLIQUE Enhances the effect of perspective on the front facade and form of a building. Buseoksa Temple Gyeongsangdo, Korea. Glass House New Canaan, Connecticut. Philip Johnson. SPIRAL Prolongs the sequence of the approach and emphasizes the three-dimensional form of a building as we move around its perimeter. Acropolis Athens, Greece. Dotted line indicates the path through the Propylaea to the east end of the Parthenon. Fallingwater Pennsylvania. Frank Lloyd Wright. Entrance ▪ From outside to inside. ▪ Entering a building, a room within a building, or a defined field of exterior space, involves the act of penetrating a vertical plane that distinguishes one space from another and separates “here” from “there.” Entrances may be grouped formally into the following categories: ▪ flush; ▪ projected; and ▪ recessed. FLUSH Maintains the continuity of the surface of a wall and can be deliberately obscured. Morris Gift Shop California. Frank Lloyd Wright. Elaborated openings within vertical planes mark the entrance to this building. PROJECTED Forms a transitional space, announces its function to the approach, and provides overhead shelter. Basilica di Sant'Andrea Mantua, Italy. Leon Battista Alberti. RECESSED Also provides shelter and receives a portion of exterior space into the realm of the building. Dr. Currutchet’s House La Plata, Argentina. Le Corbusier. A portal marks the entrance for pedestrians within a larger opening that includes space for a carport. The notion of an entrance can be visually reinforced by: ▪ making the opening lower, wider, or narrower than anticipated; ▪ making the entrance deep or circuitous; or ▪ articulating the opening with ornamentation or decorative embellishment. JFK Memorial Dallas, Texas. Philip Johnson. Vanna Venturi House Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania. Robert Venturi. A vertical break or separation in the facade defines the entrances to these buildings. Piazza San Marco Venice. View of the sea framed by the Doge’s Palace on the left and Scamozzi’s Library on the right. The entrance to the piazza from the sea is marked by two granite columns, the Lion’s Column and the Column of St. Theodore. Configuration of path ▪ The sequence of spaces. ▪ All paths of movement are linear in nature. And all paths have a starting point, from which we are taken through a sequence of spaces to our destination. Kinds of Configuration ▪ Linear ▪ Radial ▪ Spiral ▪ Grid ▪ Network ▪ Composite LINEAR All paths are linear. A straight path, however, can be the primary organizing element for a series of spaces. In addition, it can be curvilinear or segmented, intersect other paths, have branches, or form a loop. Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut Der-el Bahari, Thebes. Senmut. Toshogu Shrine Tochigi Prefecture, Japan. Toshogu Shrine Tochigi Prefecture, Japan. RADIAL A radial configuration has linear paths extending from r terminating at a central, common point. Eastern State Penitentiary Philadelphia. John Haviland. University Art Museum University of California-Berkeley. Mario J. Ciampi and Associates. University Art Museum University of California-Berkeley. Mario J. Ciampi and Associates. SPIRAL A spiral configuration is a single, continuous path that originates from a central point, revolves around it, and becomes increasingly distant from it. Museum of Western Art Tokyo, Japan. Le Corbusier. Museum of Western Art Tokyo, Japan. Le Corbusier. Borobudur Java, Indonesia. A Buddhist stupa monument. In circumambulating the monument, pilgrims passed walls ornamented with reliefs illustrating the life of buddha and the principles of his teaching. Borobudur Java, Indonesia. A Buddhist stupa monument. In circumambulating the monument, pilgrims passed walls ornamented with reliefs illustrating the life of buddha and the principles of his teaching. Guggenheim Museum New York City. Frank Lloyd Wright. Guggenheim Museum New York City. Frank Lloyd Wright. GRID A grid configuration consists of two sets of parallel paths that intersect at regular intervals and create square or rectangular fields of space. Manhattan, NYC Intramuros Manila. The cuadricula, a system of streets and blocks laid out in gridiron form. This method was efficient in maximizing space and in the supervision of colonial subjects. Intramuros Manila. The cuadricula, a system of streets and blocks laid out in gridiron form. This method was efficient in maximizing space and in the supervision of colonial subjects. NETWORK A network configuration consists of paths that connect established points in space. Washington, D.C. Plan by Pierre L’Enfant. Yi Yuan Garden of Contentment. Suzhou, China. Yi Yuan Garden of Contentment. Suzhou, China. COMPOSITE Employing a combination of the preceding patterns. To avoid the creation of a disorienting maze, a hierarchical order among the paths and nodes of a building should be established by differentiating their scale, form, length, and placement. Path-space relationships Edges, nodes, and terminations of the path. Paths may be related to the spaces they link in the following ways: ▪ Pass by Spaces ▪ Pass through Spaces ▪ Terminate in a Space Pass by Spaces ▪ The integrity of each space is maintained; ▪ The configuration of the path is flexible; ▪ The mediating spaces can be used to link the path with the spaces. Bolssonas House France. Philip Johnson. Pass through Spaces ▪ The path may pass through a space axially, obliquely, or along its edge; ▪ In cutting through a space, the path creates patterns of rest and movement within it. Mortuary Temple of Rameses III Medinet-Habu. Terminate in a Space ▪ The location of the space establishes the path; ▪ This path-space relationhip is used to approach and enter functionally or symbolically important spaces. Neur Vahr Apartment Germany. Alvar Aalto. Form of the circulation space Corridors, halls, galleries, stairways, and rooms. The form of a circulation space varies according to how: ▪ its boundaries are defined; ▪ its form relates to the form of the spaces it links; ▪ its qualities of scale, proportion, light, and view are articulated; ▪ entrances open onto it; and ▪ it handles changes in level with stairs and ramps. A circulation space may be: ▪ Enclosed; ▪ Open on One Side; or ▪ Open on Both Sides. Enclosed Forming a public galleria or private corridor that relates to the spaces it links through entrances in a wall plane. Open on one side Forming a balcony or gallery that provides visual and spatial continuity with the spaces it links. Open on both sides Forming a colonnaded passageway that becomes a physical extension of the space it passes through. Part 2.4 Principles of Design Design is the creation and organization of formal elements in a work of art. Design principle is a fundamental and comprehensive concept of visual perception for structuring and aesthetic composition. Principles of Design ▪ Proportion and Scale ▪ Contrast ▪ Balance ▪ Hierarchy ▪ Rhythm Proportion The proper harmonious relation of one part to another or to the whole. PROPORTIONING SYSTEMS They can visually unify the multiplicity of elements in an architectural design by having all of its parts belong to the same family of proportions. They can provide a sense of order in, and heighten the continuity of, a sequence of spaces. They can establish relationships between the exterior and interior elements of a building. PROPORTIONING SYSTEMS ▪ Golden Section ▪ Regulating Lines ▪ Classical Orders ▪ Renaissance Theories ▪ Modulor ▪ Ken ▪ Anthropometry Golden Section Golden Section The Golden Section can be defined as the ratio between two sections of a line, or the two dimensions of a plane figure, in which the lesser of the two is to the greater as the greater is to the sum of both. Golden Section The Greeks recognized the dominating role the Golden Section played in the proportions of the human body. Renaissance architects also explored the Golden Section in their work. In more recent times, Le Corbusier based his Modulor system on the Golden Section. Parthenon Athens, Greece. Ictinus and Callicrates. The proportioning begins by fitting the facade into a Golden Rectangle. Each analysis then varies from the other in its approach to proving the existence of the Golden Section and its effect on the dimensions and distribution of elements across the facade. Parthenon Athens, Greece. Ictinus and Callicrates. The proportioning begins by fitting the facade into a Golden Rectangle. Each analysis then varies from the other in its approach to proving the existence of the Golden Section and its effect on the dimensions and distribution of elements across the facade. Tempietto, St. Pietro Montorio, Rome. Donato Bramante. Tempietto, St. Pietro Montorio, Rome. Donato Bramante. Regulating Lines Regulating Lines If the diagonals of two rectangles are either parallel or perpendicular to each other, they indicate that the two rectangles have similar proportions. These diagonals, as well as lines that indicate the common alignment of elements, are called regulating lines. World Museum Geneva. Le Corbusier. Palazzo Farnese Rome. Antonio da Sangallo the Younger. Palazzo Farnese Rome. Antonio da Sangallo the Younger. The Pantheon Rome The Pantheon Rome Villa Garches Vaucresson, France. Le Corbusier. Villa Garches Vaucresson, France. Le Corbusier. Villa Foscari Malcontenta, Italy. Andrea Palladio. Villa Foscari Malcontenta, Italy. Andrea Palladio. Classical Orders Classical Orders To the Greeks and Romans of classical antiquity, the Orders represented in their proportioning of elements the perfect expression of beauty and harmony. The basic unit of dimension was the diameter of the column. Classical Orders ▪ Tuscan ▪ Doric ▪ Ionic ▪ Corinthian ▪ Composite Classical Orders According to Vignola Tuscan Classical Orders According to Vignola Doric Classical Orders According to Vignola Ionic Classical Orders According to Vignola Corinthian Classical Orders Classification of Temples according to their intercolumniation. Vitruvius’ rules for the diameter, height, and spacing of columns. Renaissance Theories Renaissance Theories The architects of the Renaissance, believing that their buildings had to belong to a higher order, returned to the Greek mathematical system of proportions. Renaissance Theories Seven Ideal Plan Shapes for Rooms. Andrea Palladio (1508–1580) was probably the most influential architect of the Italian Renaissance. In The Four Books on Architecture, first published in Venice in 1570, he followed in the footsteps of his predecessors, Alberti and Serlio, and proposed these seven “most beautiful and proportionable manners of rooms.” Renaissance Theories Determining the Heights of Rooms. Palladio also proposed several methods for determining the height of a room so that it would be in proper proportion to the room’s width and length. Renaissance Theories Determining the Heights of Rooms. ▪ The height of rooms with flat ceilings would be equal to their width. ▪ The height of square rooms with vaulted ceilings would be one-third greater than their width. ▪ For other rooms, Palladio used Pythagoras’ theory of means to determine their heights. Villa Capra (The Rotunda) Vicenza, Italy. Andrea Palladio. Room sizes: 12 x 30, 6 x 15, 30 x 30 Villa Capra (The Rotunda) Vicenza, Italy. Andrea Palladio. Room sizes: 12 x 30, 6 x 15, 30 x 30 Palazzo Chiericati Vicenza, Italy. Andrea Palladio. 54 x 16 (18), 18 x 30, 18 x 18, 18 x 12 Palazzo Chiericati Vicenza, Italy. Andrea Palladio. 54 x 16 (18), 18 x 30, 18 x 18, 18 x 12 Villa Thiene Cicogna, Italy. Andrea Palladio. 18 x 36, 36 x 36, 36 x 18, 18 x 18, 18 x 12 Villa Thiene Cicogna, Italy. Andrea Palladio. 18 x 36, 36 x 36, 36 x 18, 18 x 18, 18 x 12 Modulor Modulor Le Corbusier developed this proportioning system to order “the dimensions of that which contains and that which is contained.” He based the Modulor on both mathematics (the aesthetic dimensions of the Golden Section and the Fibonacci Series), and the proportions of the human body (functional dimensions). Modulor The basic grid consists of three measures, 113, 70, and 43 centimeters, proportioned according to the Golden Section. Modulor Le Corbusier saw the Modulor as a system of measurements that could govern lengths, surfaces, and volumes, and “maintain the human scale everywhere.” Unité d’Habitation Marseille, France. Le Corbusier. The principal work of Le Corbusier that exemplified the use of the Modulor. It uses 15 measures of the Modulor to bring human scale to a building. Unité d’Habitation Marseille, France. Le Corbusier. Le Corbusier used these diagrams to illustrate the diversity of panel sizes and surfaces that could be obtained with the proportions of the Modulor. Unité d’Habitation Marseille, France. Le Corbusier. Plans and Section of Typical Apartment Unit Ken Ken The ken was introduced in the latter half of Japan’s Middle Ages. Although it was originally used simply to designate the interval between two columns and varied in size, the ken was soon standardized for residential architecture. Ken The ken evolved into an aesthetic module that ordered the structure, materials, and space of Japanese architecture. The tokonoma is a shallow, slightly raised alcove for the display of a kakemono or flower arrangement. As the spiritual center of a traditional Japanese house, the tokonoma is located in its most formal room. Ken The ken evolved into an aesthetic module that ordered the structure, materials, and space of Japanese architecture. The tokonoma is a shallow, slightly raised alcove for the display of a kakemono or flower arrangement. As the spiritual center of a traditional Japanese house, the tokonoma is located in its most formal room. Ken The size of a room is designated by the number of its floor mats. Ken Because of their 1:2 modularity, the floor mats can be arranged in a number of ways for any given room size. And for each room size, a different ceiling height is established according to the following: height of the ceiling (shaku), measured from the top of the frieze board = number of mats x 0.3. Ken In a typical Japanese residence, the ken grid orders the structure as well as the additive, space-to-space sequence of rooms. The relatively small size of the module allows the rectangular spaces to be freely arranged in linear, staggered, or clustered patterns. Anthropometry Anthropometry Anthropometry refers to the measurement of the size and proportions of the human body. It is predicated on the theory that forms and spaces in architecture are either containers or extensions of the human body and should therefore be determined by its dimensions. Anthropometry Average dimensions must always be treated with caution since variations from the norm will always exist due to the difference between men and women, among various age and racial groups, even from one individual to the next. Anthropometry A special field that has developed from a concern with human factors is ergonomics—the applied science that coordinates the design of devices, systems, and environments with our physiological and psychological capacities and requirements. Anthropometry The dimensions of the human body also affect the volume of space we require for movement, activity, and rest. The fit between the form and dimensions of a space and our own body dimensions can be: ▪ Static; ▪ Dynamic; or ▪ Based on social distances and personal space. Scale The size of something compared to a reference standard or to the size of something else. Scale Scale refers to how we perceive or judge the size of something in relation to something else. In dealing with the issue of scale, therefore, we are always comparing one thing to another. Two types: ▪ Visual scale; and ▪ Human scale. Visual Scale It refers to how small or large something appears to be in relation to its normal size or to the size of other things in its context. Reims Cathedral Reims, France. The recessed entry portals of Reims Cathedral are scaled to the dimensions of the facade and can be seen and recognized at a distance. As we get closer, however, we see that the actual entrances are really simple doors within the larger portals and are scaled to our dimensions, to a human scale. Human Scale Human scale in architecture is based on the dimensions and proportions of the human body. Human Scale Of a room’s three dimensions, its height has a greater effect on its scale than either its width or length. Human Scale In addition to the vertical dimension of a space, other factors that affect its scale are: ▪ the shape, color, and pattern of its bounding surfaces; ▪ the shape and disposition of its openings; and ▪ the nature and scale of the elements placed within it. Contrast Opposition or juxtaposition of dissimilar elements in a work of art to intensify each element’s properties and produce a more dynamic expressiveness. A contrast in form, geometry, or orientation can also visually reinforce the identity and independence of the sunken field from its larger spatial context. Contrast create visual variety, excitement and interest to the building and can be achieved by: ▪ using different sizes; ▪ different material, texture, and colors; or ▪ manipulating the light, shade, and shadow of masses. Balance A state of equilibrium between contrasting, opposing, or interacting elements. Also the pleasing or harmonious arrangement or proportion of parts or elements in a design or composition. Symmetry The exact correspondence in size, form, and arrangement of parts on opposite sides of a dividing line or plane, or about a center or axis. Two types of Symmetry ▪ Bilateral ▪ Radial Bilateral Symmetry Refers to the balanced arrangement of similar or equivalent elements on opposite sides of a median axis so that only one plane can divide the whole into essentially identical halves. Monticello Virginia. Thomas Jefferson. Monticello Virginia. Thomas Jefferson. Unity Temple Oak Park, Illinois. Frank Lloyd Wright. Multiple symmetries, both major and minor, can add complexity and hierarchy to a composition as well as accommodate programmatic and contextual requirements. Unity Temple Oak Park, Illinois. Frank Lloyd Wright. Multiple symmetries, both major and minor, can add complexity and hierarchy to a composition as well as accommodate programmatic and contextual requirements. Radial Symmetry The balanced arrangement of similar, radiating elements such that the composition can be divided into similar halves by passing a plane at any angle around a centerpoint or along a central axis. Great Stupa Sanchi, India. Hierarchy The articulation of the importance or significance of a form or space by its size, shape, or placement relative to the other forms and spaces of the organization. Hierarchy For a form or space to be articulated as being important or significant to an organization, it must be made uniquely visible. This visual emphasis can be achieved by endowing a form or shape with: ▪ exceptional size; ▪ a unique shape; or ▪ a strategic location. by Size A form or space may dominate an architectural composition by being significantly different in size from all the other elements in the composition. Normally, this dominance is made visible by the sheer size of an element. Savannah Georgia. James Oglethorpe. by Shape A form or space can be made visually dominant and thus important by clearly differentiating its shape from that of the other elements in the composition. A discernible contrast in shape is critical, whether the differentiation is based on a change in geometry or regularity Plan of Montfazier France. A medieval town founded in 1284. by Placement A form or space may be strategically placed to call attention to itself as being the most important element in a composition. Villa Trissino Vicenza, Italy. Andrea Palladio. Florence Cathedral Florence, Italy. View of Florence illustrating the dominance of the cathedral over the urban landscape. Legislative Assembly Building Chandigarh, India. Le Corbusier. Legislative Assembly Building Chandigarh, India. Le Corbusier. Rhythm Movement characterized by a patterned repetition or alternation of formal elements or motifs in the same or a modified form. Repetition The act or process of repeating formal elements or motifs in a design. REPETITION The simplest form of repetition is a linear pattern of redundant elements. They may be grouped according to: ▪ size; ▪ shape; or ▪ detail characteristics. Classification of Temples From Vitruvius’ Ten Books of Architecture. Temples classified according to arrangements of the colonnades. Salisbury Cathedral England. Structural patterns often incorporate the repetition of vertical supports at regular or harmonious intervals which define modular bays or divisions of space. Salisbury Cathedral England. Structural patterns often incorporate the repetition of vertical supports at regular or harmonious intervals which define modular bays or divisions of space. Katsura Imperial Village Kyoto, Japan. As in music, a rhythmic pattern may be legato, continuous and flowing, or staccato and abrupt in its pace or cadence. Olympic Arena Tokyo, Japan. Kenzo Tange. As in music, a rhythmic pattern may be legato, continuous and flowing, or staccato and abrupt in its pace or cadence. Olympic Arena Tokyo, Japan. Kenzo Tange. As in music, a rhythmic pattern may be legato, continuous and flowing, or staccato and abrupt in its pace or cadence. Residential Care Unit Hokkaido, Japan. Sou Fujimoto. Rhythm is a natural outcome of the way we lay out the repetitive units of housing complexes. Residential Care Unit Hokkaido, Japan. Sou Fujimoto. Rhythm is a natural outcome of the way we lay out the repetitive units of housing complexes. End of Module 2