West Visayas State University TM 205: Research in Tourism 1 PDF

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You may also opt to write your comments or question anytime, in the chat box, and shall be read and answered at the end of the presentation. TM 205: Research in Tourism  West Visayas State University  Vision: A research University advancing quality education towards societal transformation and global recognition  Mission: WVSU commits to develop life-long learners empowered to generate knowledge and technology, and transform communities as agents of change  Core Values: Excellence Creativity and Innovation Service  Institutional Outcome  Taga – West … is creative and a critical thinker is an effective and responsible communicator is technologically skilled has the capability to engage in research has teaming and collaborative skills is socially responsible and has strong national identity is globally competitive is self-directed, competent, and accountable professional has uncompromising personal and professional ethical standards  College Outcome  Assured of quality instruction and industry- driven curriculum;  Emphasized the need for research in business and industry and allied disciplines and disseminated products of research in actual instruction;  Innovated, collaborated, and shared expertise; and  Achieved relentless excellence  BSTM Program Outcomes  Planned, implemented and monitored tours and sale activities  Researched, planned and conducted various tour and guiding activities  Developed appropriate marketing programs and arranged the required travel services  Planned/Organized, implemented and evaluated MICE activities  Planned, developed and evaluated tourism sites and attractions  TM 205: Research in Tourism 1 Description and Prerequisites  This course aims to educate the student in the essential research tools and skills that will be needed as to perform as managers in the tourism and hospitality industry. This lecture course will introduce the research process: from design, data collection, hypothesis testing, to reporting; featuring econometrics and other quantitative applications in business research; and research on topic related to tourism and/or hospitality industry.  TM 205: Research in Tourism 1 Description and Prerequisites…  The student shall undertake a study on a topic of his/her own choice through which he/she can develop the necessary skills of planning, researching, reporting as well as the ability for writing a thesis. After successful completion of this course, students will be able to: (1) Developed an understanding and appreciation of research and the need for research, not only in tourism and hospitality, but also applicable to numerous other fields. (2) Developed knowledge and skills in designing and carrying out research projects. (3) Experienced valuable “real-life” lessons. (CMO No. 62, Series of 2017)  Prerequisite: None  Course Outcomes  Demonstrated an understanding of the basic concepts and methodologies in educational research;  Described and applied the research process;  Prepared and submitted a research proposal that meets the guidelines.  Unit 1 Basic Concepts of Research  Expenditure on R&D of Nations Country Most Recent Year R&D Expenditure (% of GDP) World 2021 2.71 European Union 2020 2.32 Cambodia 2015 0.12 China 2021 2.43 India 2020 0.65 Israel 2021 5.56 Japan 2021 3.30 South Korea 2020 4.81 Indonesia 2020 0.28 Malaysia 2020 0.95 PHILIPPINES 2018 0.32 Singapore 2020 2.16 Thailand 2020 1.33 United States 2021 3.46 Vietnam 2021 0.43 Source: data.worldbank.org  Role of Research in Development  Seeks order for clearer direction and guidance in problem solving  Is vital in arriving at intelligent decisions  Measures and appraise present conditions of organizations, communities, and groups  Evaluates the effects of policies, programs, and activities  Predicts future events  Definitions of Research  The systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events (Best & Kahn, 2010)  A systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical evaluation of a hypothetical proposition about the presumed relations among natural phenomena (Kerlinger, 2003)  Definitions of Research…  Careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to discover or establish facts or principles (Simon & Schuster, 1984 in Fraenkel & Wallen, 2012)  The formal, systematic application of scholarship, disciplined inquiry, and most often the scientific method to the study of problems (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2012)  Definitions of Research…  The formal, systematic application of the scientific and disciplined inquiry approach to the study of problems (Gay & Airasian, 2003)  Research  Systematic – problem solving to conclusions  Controlled – variables are properly labeled and defined  Empirical – statistical analysis will support the data  Critical – present your research to the world  Evaluation of Hypothetical Proposition  Looking at differences  If one will support the other  Intelligent guess Among natural phenomena – happening of events  Characteristics of Research (Best & Kahn, 2010)  Is directed toward the solution of a problem  Emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences  Is based on observable experience or empirical evidence  Demands accurate observation and description  Characteristics of Research…  Involves gathering new data from primary, or firsthand, sources or using existing data for a new purpose  Is more often characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis  Requires expertise  Is carefully recorded and reported Characteristics of Research…  Strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the procedures employed, the data collected, and the conclusions reached  Involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems  Is characterized by patient and unhurried activity  Sometimes requires courage  Types of Research  Fundamental or basic research  Applied research  Evaluation research  Fundamental or Basic Research  Theories, fundamental principles  Usually carried on in a laboratory or some other sterile environment, sometimes with animals  Applied Research  Application of fundamental principles and theories  Improving a product or a process-testing theoretical concepts in actual problem situations  Develop generalizations from data  Evaluation Research  Immediate application, not on the development of theory or on generalization of applications  Action research, focus is on decision- making, a highly applied and practical purpose  To monitor a program, judge an impact or make decisions END  Unit 2 Research Methodologies in Educational Research  Research Methods  Quantitative Research Methods  Qualitative Research Methods  Mixed Methods  Categories of Research Methods Quantitative Research Qualitative Research  Data can be analyzed in terms  Described events & persons of numbers scientifically without the use of  The study is carefully planned numerical data including the tests or other  Planned carefully but open to data collection instruments change of asking different  Each subject is identically questions and of going in studied & there is little room for direction of observation of the human bias to create problems experimenter with data  Based directly on its original plans and results are more readily analyzed  More open & responsive to its subject  Quantitative Research 1. Survey research (formerly descriptive research) 2. Correlational research 3. Causal-comparative research 4. Experimental research  Survey Research  Involves collecting data to test hypotheses or to answer questions about the opinions of people about some topic or issue  High percentage of all research studies are survey in nature  Data are collected thru self-report or observation like questionnaires, telephone surveys, and interviews that requires the collection of standardized, quantifiable information from all members of a population or sample  Categories of Survey Research  Cross-sectional survey research – collects data at one point in time  Longitudinal survey research – collects data at more than one time in order to measure growth or change  Survey Research  Questionnaire study  Interview study  Observational research  Meta-analysis  Questionnaire Study  More efficient than interview that it requires less time, less expensive, and permits collection of data from a much larger sample  Administered to respondents by mail, telephone, or in person Questionnaire Study Research Process  Stating the problem  Selecting participants  Constructing the questionnaire  Preparing cover letter  Presenting the questionnaire  Follow-up activities  Dealing with non-response  Analyzing results  Correlational Research  Relationship between two or more variables expressed as correlation coefficient  Relationships between variables does not imply that one is the cause of the other  High relationships r is near + 1.00  (or – 1.00 is obtained  Types of Correlational Research  Relationship studies  Prediction studies  Causal-Comparative Research (or Ex-Post Facto Research)  Determine the cause or reason for existing differences in the behavior or status of groups  Basic causal-comparative approach starts with an effect and seeks its possible causes or starts with a cause & investigates its effect on some variable  Causal-Comparative Research…  Causal-comparative studies involve two or more groups and one independent variable while correlational studies involve two or more variables and one group  In experimental research the independent variable, the alleged cause, is manipulated in causal comparative it is not because it has already occurred Causal-Comparative Research…  Independent variables in causal- comparative studies are variables that cannot/should not/or are not manipulated (such as economic status, no. of cigarettes smoked per day, or method of reading instruction; respectively)  Causal-Comparative Research…  Causal comparative studies may lead to experimental studies to establish a relationship but only experimental research can establish cause-effect relationships  The alleged cause of an observed causal- comparative effect may in fact be the effect, the supposed cause, or a third variable that has caused both the identified cause and effect  Experimental Research  Researcher manipulates at least one independent variable, control other relevant variables, and observes the effect on one or more dependent variable  The independent or experimental variable, the cause, or treatment is that process or activity believed to make a difference in performance  Experimental Research  The dependent or criterion variable, effect, or posttest is the outcome of the study – the measure of the change or difference resulting from the manipulation of the independent variable  Experimental studies produce the soundest evidence concerning cause-effect relationships when conducted well  Qualitative Research 1. Action research* 2. Historical research 3. Ethnography* 4. Grounded theory* 5. Phenomenology* 6. Ethology 7. Ethnomethodology 8. Case study 9. Symbolic interaction 10. Narrative research*  Action Research  Systematic inquiry done by teachers and other educational personnel to collect and study data that can help them to both understand and improve their practice  Historical Research  Systematic collection and evaluation of data related to past occurrences for the purpose of describing causes, effects, or trends of those events  Ethnography  Seeks to describe and analyze all or part of the culture of a community by identifying and describing the participants’ practices and beliefs  Grounded Theory  Systematic qualitative method that aims at generating a theory that explains, at the conceptual level, a process, an action, or a concept  Phenomenology  Describes the experience of an activity or concept from the particular participants’ perspective  Ethology  Describesthe cultural patterns and perspectives of the group in its natural setting  Ethnomethodology  Describes how the origins, characteristics, and culture of different societies compare with one another  Describes how people make sense of their everyday activities in order to behave in socially accepted ways  Case Study  Describes the characteristics of a particular entity, phenomenon, or person  Symbolic Interaction  Describes how people construct meanings and shared perspectives by interacting with others  Narrative Research  Researchers examine how stories are told to understand how participants perceive and make sense of their experiences END  Qualitative Research Format  Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study  Chapter 2:Review of Related Literature  Chapter 3: Research Design and Methodology  Chapter 4: Research Findings and Discussion  Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study  Background and Rationale of the Study  Epistemological and Theoretical Perspective of the Study  Additional Micro theory/ies  Purpose of the Study  Statement of the Problem  Significance of the Study  Researchers’ Subjectivity  Delimitation of the Study  Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature  Categorize your literature and related studies for relevancy and coherence  Chapter 3: Research Design and Methodology  Research Design  Methodology  Participants of the Study  Research Setting  Data Collection Procedures and Strategy  Ethical Issues  Analysis of the Study  Validity and Reliability of the Study  Chapter 4: Research Findings and Discussion  Part One: Profile of Participants  Part Two: Live Experiences of the Participants  Part Three: Issues and Challenges  Part Four: Coping Mechanisms  Part Five: Insights from the Experiences  Study topics/themes  Organize results in the way that makes sense to you and the reader (objectives/research questions)  Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations  Part One: Summary of the Findings  Part Two: Implications for Theory and Practice  Part Three: Conclusions  Part Four: Recommendations  Data Collection Methods  Observation – recording what the researcher have seen, heard or encountered in detailed field notes  Interviews – personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversation  Focus groups – asking questions & generating discussion among a group of people  Surveys – distributing questionnaires with open- ended questions  Secondary research – collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.  Quantitative and Qualitative Research (Mixed Method)  QUAN-QUAL = equal treatment of both  QUAN-Qual = qualitative just support  the quantitative  QUAL-Quan = quantitative support the qualitative Stages in the Research Process  Unit 3 The Research Problem  Sources of Research Topics  Observations/Personal experiences  Experts  Technological and scientific advancements  Offshoots of other researches  Research Problem (Title of the Thesis)  Thesis – my point of view  Is a perceived difficulty  Feeling of discomfort with the way things are  A discrepancy between what someone believes “what is” and “should be”  Absence of information Criteria for a Researchable Problem  Researchers area of interest  Availability of materials & manpower needs  Feasibility  Not answerable by a “yes” or “no” – getting the right answer Criteria for a Researchable Problem…  At least 2 or more plausible & possible answers are expected to the problem question  Serendipity – develop answers by chance in a beneficial way  Generalizability of research findings  Critical mass  Variables Acharacteristics that has two or more mutually exclusive properties or values Examples of Variables Related to Academic Performance  Student-teacher ratio  Educational attainment of teachers  Entrance exam score  Teaching style  No. of students in class  Distance of school from home  No. of hours devoted to studying  Types of Variables  Dependent variable – a factor of a presumed outcome/effect/consequence of an independent variable. Also called as criterion variable.  Independent variable – presumed cause of dependent variable or antecedent of dependent variable. Also called as process variable.  Types of Variables…  Moderator or Intervening variable – secondary variable that helps explain the dependent variable and independent variable.  Extraneous variable – variables that cannot be observed or measured. These effects can be deduced from the interplay of independent variable and dependent variable  Types of Relationships  Symmetrical relationship  Asymmetrical relationship  Reciprocal relationship  Symmetrical Relationship  Variable A causes the occurrence of Variable B. Every time Variable A occurs, B will also occur but B is not really due to A but on the third factor  Example: Prior knowledge; studying & exam (cause is stock knowledge) C A B  Asymmetrical Relationship  Every time A occurs, B occurs but the occurrence of B will not cause A to occur  Example: Eating will increase weight A one-way B  Reciprocal Relationships  VariableA causes Variable B. Every time A occurs, B will occur and vice versa  Example: Satisfaction and motivation A B  Two-way process  Unit 4 to 7 Parts of a Research Paper (Preliminary pages to Chapter 5 and References)  Parts of a Research Paper A. Preliminary Pages I. Title Page (10-12 words, all caps, max. of 3 lines, double space, no by)  Target population  Variables  Relationships among the variables  II. APPROVAL SHEET  All caps  Adviser, Division Chair, Research Coordinator (center - left), Dean (lower right)  Names – all caps  Date (month & year at lower left)  III. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS  People who immensely contributed to your research  IV. ABSTRACT  Maximum of 100-120 words  Contents - Problem - Research method - Time of study - Data gathering instrument - Place of study - Statistics - Participants - Results - Sampling technique  V. TABLE OF CONTENTS  Start with the first page  Chapters/References/Appendices – all caps  Main and subtopics – caps & lower case  All double spaced except if the text of the chapter is two or more lines which is single spaced  VI. LIST OF TABLES  Caps and lower case  All double spaced except if the text of the table is two or more lines which is single spaced  VII. LIST OF FIGURES  If only one figure – may be disregarded  VIII. LIST OF APPENDICES  All caps and lower case END  B. Body of the Report  Chapter 1 – Introduction to the Study  Chapter 2 – Review of Related Literature  Chapter 3 – Research Design and Methodology  Chapter 4 – Results  Chapter 5 – Summary, Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations  Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study 1. Background and Theoretical Framework of the Study 2. Statement of the Problem and the Hypotheses 3. Significance of the Study 4. Definition of Terms 5. Delimitation of the Study  Bold, caps & lower case Title of the Study (caps & lower case, double spaced) 2 double spaces Name of Researchers (double space) 2 double spaces Chapter 1 double space Introduction to the Study 2 double spaces  Background and Theoretical Framework of the Study  Total of two and a half pages only  Reasons for choosing the problem (1 &1/2 pages) - observations - expert opinions - readings - current situation - current statistics about the problem  Background and Theoretical Framework of the Study…  Justifythe need for the study - seriousness - distribution in the population - novelty  Anchor your study to a theory - Hedonism and similar theories  Conceptual Framework ANTECEDENT INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT VARIABLE VARIABLE VARIABLE Personal factor: Entrepreneurial Como skills  Sex  Year level quotient  Monthly family income Leadership skills Figure 1. Students’ communication skills and leadership skills as influenced by their entrepreneurial quotient and certain identified personal factors. Statement of the Problem and the Hypotheses This study aim to determine the entrepreneurial quotient of Bachelor of Science in Tourism Management students of West Visayas State University Main Campus. Specifically, this study sought to answer the following questions:  Statement of the Problem and the Hypotheses Specifically, this study sought to answer the following questions: 1. What is the level of communication skills of tourism management students when they are taken as an entire group and when they are classified according to sex, year level, and monthly family income? 2. What is the level of leadership skills of tourism management students when they are taken as an entire group and when they are classified according to sex, year level, and monthly family income? 3. What is the level of entrepreneurial skills of tourism management students when they are taken as an entire group and when they are classified according to sex, year level and monthly family income?   Statement of the Problem and the Hypotheses… 4. Are there significant differences in the level of communication skills of tourism management students when they are classified according to sex, year level and monthly family income? 5. Are there significant differences in the level of leadership skills of tourism management students when they are classified according to sex, year level and monthly family income? 6. Are there significant differences in the level of entrepreneurial skills of tourism management students when they are classified according to sex, year level and monthly family income?   Hypotheses  A statement stating the relationship or no relationship between or among the variables  Types 1. Null hypothesis – non-directional Example: There are no significant differences 2. Alternative - directional Example: There are significant differences  Hypotheses In view of the preceding problems, the following hypotheses are advanced: 1. There are no significant differences in the level of communication skills of tourism management students when they are classified according to sex, to year level and monthly family income. 2. There are no significant differences in the level of leadership skills of tourism management students when they are classified according to sex, year level and monthly family income. 3. There are no significant differences in the level of entrepreneurial skills of tourism management students when they are classified according to sex, year level and monthly family income.  Significance of the Study  Importance  Relations to other studies  Use/application of the study  Benefits from the findings of the study (who & what)  Definition of Terms  From the title of the study  In alphabetical order  DO NOT use the dictionary as source  Conceptual meaning (documentation)  Operational meaning (how the term is used in the study)  Definition of Terms  If there is no source 1. By genus or differentia (class or category) 2. By stipulation – inventing meaning to the term 3. By using an example  Delimitation of the Study  Within our domain (sphere of knowledge)  Within the scope of the study END  Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature  Discussion is from dependent to antecedent variable  Main topics and subtopics 1. Conceptual literature – books, references, internet, magazines (present tense) 2. Research literature - related studies (past tense)  Review of Related Literature  Reminders 1. Paraphrase 2. Documentation 3. Studies that are tangentially related or has relation to your study 4. About 10 -15 research literature  Review of Related Literature 5. Common & competing views 6. Very important is citation (source – author/s and year of publication) 7. Use connective words 8. Use a variety of sentences 9. Reflect in the list of references (alphabetical order)  Documentation (Chapter 2)  One author…..…………Clara (2023) ….………...(Clara, 2023)  Two authors....…………Clara and Ibarra (2023) ….…………(Clara & Ibarra, 2023)  Three or more authors…Clara et al. (2023) …(Clara et al., 2023)  Chapter 3: Research Design and Methodology 1. Purpose of the Study and Research Design 2. Method 3. Data Analysis Procedure  Purpose of the Study and Research Design  Copythe statement of the problem in Chapter 1 for purpose of the study  Research Method  Research design 1. True experimental 2. Quasi-experimental 3. Non-experimental  Research Methods 1. Quantitative – report numbers 2. Qualitative – narrative  Method  Permission  Participants  What are the characteristics of participants?  How do you select the participants?  How data will be gathered?  How instruments will be distributed and retrieved?  How data will be prepared for statistical analysis?  Selecting a Sample  Purpose is to identify participants from whom to seek information  Description includes: 1. Definition of the population from which the sample will be drawn 2. Procedure to select the sample 3. Sample sizes 4. Possible sources of sampling bias  Samples and Sampling  Sample – any part of a population of individuals on whom information is obtained  Sampling – refers to the process of selecting the individuals who will participate  Samples and Population  Population – refers to all members of a particular group or the group of interest to the researcher whom he would like to generalize the result of a study  Target population – actual population to whom the researcher would like to generalize  A representative sample must be similar to the population in all characteristics  Sampling Techniques  Random or Non-random  Scientific or Non-scientific  Probability or Non-probability  Sample Size (n)  Yamane’s(1967) Formula: n = N/1+N(e)2 Where; N = total population e = allowable error Determination of Sample Size (n) Given: N = 500 To compute: n = 500/1 + 500 (0.05)2 = 500/1 + 500 (0.0025) = 500/1 + 1.25 = 500/2.25 = 222.2 or 223  Types of Probability or Random Sampling 1. Simple random sampling 2. Stratified random sampling (proportional) 3. Cluster sampling (fishermen in coastal areas) 4. Two-stage sampling 5. Multi-stage sampling  Simple Random Sampling  Sample is selected from a population in such manner that all members of the population have equal chance of being selected  Stratified Random Sampling  Sample is selected so that certain characteristics are represented in the sample in the same proportion as they occur in the population  Stratified Random Sampling 1st Year = 200 = 200/500 x 223 = 89 2nd Year = 150 = 150/500 x 223 = 67 3rd Year = 100 = 100/500 x 223 = 45 4th Year = 50 = 50/500 x 223 = 22 500 223  Cluster Random Sampling  Sampleis obtained by using groups as the sampling unit rather than individuals  Two-Stage Random Sampling  Selectsgroups randomly and then chooses individuals randomly from these groups  Multi-Stage Random Sampling  Seriesof groups are randomly selected and then chooses individuals from these groups END  Non – Probability Sampling 1. Accidental or convenience sampling 2. Quota sampling 3. Snowball sampling (pasa-pasa) 4. Purposive or judgmental sampling 5. Systematic sampling 6. Complete enumeration  Accidental or Convenience Sampling  Group of individuals is conveniently available to be studied are selected  Quota Sampling  Certain number of samples are determined  Snowball Sampling  Research participants recruit other participants for a test or study  Purposive Sampling  Sample is selected because the individual have special qualifications of some sort or because of prior evidence of representative  Systematic Sampling  Sample obtained by selecting every nth name in a population  Example: all with number one at the end  Complete Enumeration  Allindividuals in the population are included in the study  Data-Gathering Instrument  Questionnaire  Interview guide  Tests  Ratingscale  Standardize tests  Rating Scales  Likert-type scale  Semantic differential – near to far, bad to good)  Thurstone scale  Data-Gathering Instrument  Sources of items  Scoring  How to interpret the scores  Validity of the instrument (do not require exact answers)  Establish reliability (require exact answers)  Scoring  Strongly agree =5  Agree =4  Somewhat agree = 3  Disagree =2  Strongly disagree = 1  To Find the Interval  Interval = Highest Score – Lowest Score/no. of levels = 5-1/4 = 4/4 = 1 Extremely serious = 4.01 – 5.00 Very serious = 3.01 – 4.00 Serious = 2.01 – 3.00 Not serious = 1.00 – 2.00  Sample Interpretation for Job Performance Mean Scale Description 4.21 – 5.00 Excellent 3.41 – 4.20 Very good 2.61 – 3.40 Good 1.81 – 2.60 Fair 1.00 – 1.80 Poor  Data-Gathering Instrument  Check for validity  Pilot test/Pre-test  Construct validity (factor analysis)  Validity of Instrument  Three persons: 1. Expert in the field 2. Statistician 3. Researcher  For face value and content  Procedure  Discuss on the procedure: 1. how to gather the data 2. how to prepare the data for analysis and interpretation  Data Analysis Procedure  Statistics – methods employed to analyze obtained data 1. Descriptive statistics – statistical tool used to describe obtained data 2. Inferential statistics – used to infer, support, generalize, test hypothesis  Ethics in Research  Ethics - moral behavior; follow the norms  Ethics in research – a framework applying broad ethical principles to the responsible conduct of research to the use of any outcome resulting from research. Simply moral behavior in the performance of research  Importance of Research  Good for human beings  Contributes to the advancement of knowledge/science  Researcher A qualified and responsible scientist (from the conception to publication)  Basic Research Principles  Autonomy – respect for person (society, participants, community)  Beneficence – benefits  Justice – opposite of exploitation  Non-maleficence – no harm/don’t harm  Ethical Considerations (Prior Informed Consent)  Right for confidentiality and anonymity  Right for voluntary participation  Right for self-determination (no coercion)  Right to refuse/withdraw  Right to full disclosure  Risks  Benefits  Benefits and Risks  Under the principle of beneficence and non-maleficence  Maximize benefits and mitigate the risks  Benefits outweigh the risks  Types of Benefits and Harm  Physical  Economic  Legal  Social  Mental or Psychological  Spiritual  Protecting the Vulnerable in Research  Most vulnerable sectors suffer from research but less/not benefitted  Vulnerable participants must get the benefits – Women – Poor  Philippine Health Research Ethics Board  Under DOST  Regional REC – Region 1, Region 6 and Region 11 END  Summarized Data for Statistical Analyses (use Jamovi or SPSS) Respondent or Sex Year Level MFI Mean Participant No. 1 2 3 4 5 Sex Year Level Monthly Family Income 1 = Male 1 = First Year 1 = Low class (Below PhP19,040) 2 = Female 2 = Second Year 2 = Middle Class (PhP19,040- PhP114,240) 3 = Third Year 3 = Upper Class (Above PhP114,240)  Inferential Statistics  Parametric statistics – scientific random, represents samples from normal distribution curve, samples not less than 30  Non-parametric – distribution free samples  Data Measurement Scale  Non-parametric statistics 1. Nominal data – counting data, answer the question how many 2. Ordinal data – data arranged in rank or position (ex. 1st runner-up), distances between numbers are ignored 3. Ratio - take all the characteristics of all the other types of data, zero with value  Data Measurement Scale  Parametric statistics 1. Interval data – arithmetic mean or average, no absolute zero value 2. Ratio data – take all the characteristics of all the other types of data, zero with value  Descriptive Statistics  Raw score – 90  Rank  Frequency  Percentage – 5% or five percent  Mean (M)  Mode (Mo)  Median (Md)  Measures of Central Tendency  Mean  Mode  Median  Measure of Variability  Standard deviation (SD)  Quartile (QD)  Range  Score/datathat the values are far away from each other – use T-scores or standard error  Inferential Statistics  Test of significance or differences  Test of significance of relationship, association, concordance, agreement  Test of the significance of the predictors  Conditions for Use Parametric Non-parametric Statistics Statistics 1. Distribution Normal distribution Distribution-free (Shapiro-Wilk test or Kolmogorov-Smirnov test) 2. Type of data Interval/Ratio data Ordinal/Nominal/Ratio data 3. Sampling Random/Probability/ Non-random/Non-probability/ method Scientific sampling Non-scientific sampling 4. Generalization What is true to the What is true to the sample may sample may also be not be true to the population; if true to the population it happens to be the same or similar this maybe due to something else or by chance  General Decision Rule on Inferential Statistics  If computed probability value based on.05 alpha: Significant value or Asymptotic significant value > = not significant < = significant equal = significant  Test of the Significance or Differences Category Parametric Non-Parametric (Interval or Ratio Nominal or Ordinal or Ratio Data) Data 2- Level t-test for independent Chi-square or X2 test for categories samples (male vs. independence (nominal data) female) t-test for paired Mann-Whitney U test (nominal samples for t-test for data) correlated samples or t-test for non- Wilcoxon rank-sum test (rank independent samples data) Wilcoxon sign-ranks test (rank)  Test of the Significance or Differences Category Parametric Non-Parametric (Interval or Ratio Data) Nominal or Ordinal or Ratio Data 3 or more One-way ANOVA or one Kruskal-Wallis test level factor ANOVA categories X2 test contingency tables If significant: Scheffe test  Test of the Significance or Differences Category Parametric Non-Parametric Test of Pearson Product-Moment X2 test-of-goodness fit or significant coefficient of correlation association (nominal data) relationship, (Pearson’s r) concordance Simple linear regression Spearman rho Cannonical; correlation Spearman rank (sample 30 or less) Kendall’s coefficient (w) – concordance Goodman’s Gamma statistics (agreement) Test of Significance of Predictors Parametric Non-Parametric Multiple Regression Analysis Pearson X2 (Multiple R) Kappa statistics Lambda statistics  Order of Discussion in the Presentation of Test of Significance of Correlation 1. Positive and significant 2. Negative and significant 3. Positive and non-significant 4. Negative and non significant  Inferential Statistics also Determine.00  Alpha level.01  Significance level.025  Probability level.05 (Soc. Sci.).10 END  Chapter 4: Results  Descriptive Data Analysis – Mean (M) & standard deviation (SD)  Inferential Data Analyses – t-test and one-way ANOVA  Data in Table 2 revealed that the communication skills of BSTM students were rated very good as an entire group or as to sex. This was revealed by the mean scores that fell within the 3.50 – 4.49 scale. The obtained standard deviation which ranged from 0.58 - 0.72 showed a narrow dispersion of means indicating the homogeneity of the participants in terms of the level of their communication skills. Table 2 Communication Skills of… Category M Description SD A. Entire group 4.00 Very good 0.72 B. Sex Male 3.89 Very good 0.68 Female 4.12 Very good 0.58 Mean Scale Description 4.50 – 5.00 Excellent 3.50 – 4.49 Very good 2.50 – 3.49 Good 1.50 – 2.49 Fair 1.00 – 1.49 Poor  Inferential Data Analyses  t (29) = 2.92, p <.05 participants = 31 n-2  ANOVA = r – 1 (df) F (2, 29) = 3.93, p <.05 ( r =.85, p <.05 Reminders When Discussing Results  Keep it simple stupid (KISS)  Be brief, clear and concise  Be monotonously repetitive  Table 1 – not Table 1a or Table 1b  Plain results – do not explain Font size is Tahoma 11 but can go down to font size 9 but Title & Table # shall remain at font size 11 Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations  Summary of the Problem (Chapter 1), Method (Chapter 3), and Findings (Chapter 4)  Conclusions – Why? So what?  Implications  For Theory – Chapter 2 (latest findings)  For Practice - supports or contradicts the study (chapter 2) - actual observations and practices  Recommendations  In chapter 1 – significance of the study  For policy return it to the beneficiaries - state the concern then how to address the concern - solutions suggested and how to address - recommend on the use of, i.e., data-gathering instrument - larger or wider scope of the study - include other variables  For decision-making  For future research  References  Author arranged in alphabetical order  Spell out up to 20 authors  References Book Marshall, R. T., Goff, H. D. & Hartel, R. W. (2003). Ice cream. Oxford University Press. Journal Calabio, J. C. (2010). Urban organic gardening. Fertilizer Research, 6(2), 73-84.  References  E Book De Huff, R. C. (2000). Global tourism. (Ebook). http://digital.library.un.edu/tourism dehuff/global/tourism.html  Thesis (Dissertation) de la Cruz, S. T. (2020). Batuan sinigang powder (Unpublished master’s thesis). West Visayas State University.  References  URLs/Internet Canadian Cancer Society. (2013, April 14). Cancer research. http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer- information/cancer-101/cancer- research/?region=on  DOIs  Nguyen, T. T., Gildengorin, G., & Truong, A. (2007). Factors influencing physicians' screening behavior for liver cancer among high-risk patients. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22(4), 523-526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606- 007- 0128-1