Summary

This is a textbook on social psychology, 10th edition, by Elliot Aronson, Timothy D. Wilson, and Samuel R. Sommers. The book explores social behaviour, cognition and perception. The global edition discusses various aspects of social issues.

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GLOBAL EDITION Social Psychology TENTH EDITION Elliot Aronson Timothy D. Wilson Samuel R. Sommers Social Psychology Tenth Edition Global Edition Elliot Aronson Timothy D. Wilson Samuel R. Sommers Harlow, England London New Y...

GLOBAL EDITION Social Psychology TENTH EDITION Elliot Aronson Timothy D. Wilson Samuel R. Sommers Social Psychology Tenth Edition Global Edition Elliot Aronson Timothy D. Wilson Samuel R. Sommers Harlow, England London New York Boston San Francisco Toronto Sydney Dubai Singapore Hong Kong Tokyo Seoul Taipei New Delhi Cape Town São Paulo Mexico City Madrid Amsterdam Munich Paris Milan Portfolio Manager: Kelli Strieby Senior Field Marketing Manager: Debi Doyle Content Producer: Cecilia Turner/Lisa Mafrici Content Producer Manager: Amber Mackey Content Developer: Thomas Finn Content Development Manager: Sharon Geary Content Producer, Global Edition: Sudipto Roy Media Production Manager, Global Edition: Vikram Kumar Manufacturing Controller, Global Edition: Caterina ­Pellegrino Art/Designer: Blair Brown Project Editor, Global Edition: Punita Kaur Mann Digital Studio Course Producer: Lindsay Verge Assistant Project Editor, Global Edition: Jyotis Elizabeth Jacob Full-Service Project Manager: Angel Chavez Portfolio Manager Assistant: Louis Fierro Cover Design: SPi Global Executive Product Marketing Manager: Christopher Brown Cover Credit: Jess Rodrigues/Shutterstock Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text or on pages 567–570. Please contact https://support.pearson.com/getsupport/s/contactsupport with any queries on this content. Pearson Education Limited KAO Two KAO Park Hockham Way Harlow Essex CM17 9SR United Kingdom and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsonglobaleditions.com © Pearson Education Limited 2021 The rights of Elliot Aronson, Timothy D. Wilson, and Samuel R. Sommers to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Social Psychology, 10th Edition, ISBN 978-0-13-464128-7 by Elliot Aronson, Timothy D. Wilson, and Samuel R. Sommers, published by Pearson Education © 2021. All rights reserved. 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PEARSON, ALWAYS LEARNING, and Revel are exclusive trademarks owned by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates in the U.S. and/or other countries. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners. This eBook is a standalone product and may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. It also does not provide access to other Pearson digital products like MyLab and Mastering. The publisher reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time. ISBN 10: 1-292-34147-5 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-34147-7 eBook ISBN 13: 978-1-292-34151-4 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Typeset in Palatino LT Pro 9.5/13 by SPi Global To my grandchildren: Jacob, Jason, Ruth, Eliana, Natalie, Rachel, and Leo. My hope is that your capacity for empathy and compassion will help make the world a better place. —E.A. To my family, Deirdre Smith, Christopher Wilson, and Leigh Wilson —T.D.W. To my students—past, present, and future—for making coming to work each morning fun, educational, and unpredictable. —S.R.S. This page intentionally left blank Brief Contents 1 Introducing Social Psychology 23 10 Attraction and Relationships: From Initial Impressions to 2 Methodology: How Social Long-Term Intimacy 318 Psychologists Do Research 45 11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do 3 Social Cognition: How We Think People Help? 355 About the Social World 73 12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt 4 Social Perception: How We Come Other People? Can We Prevent It? 387 to Understand Other People 105 13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, 5 The Self: Understanding and Cures 424 Ourselves in a Social Context 141 Social Psychology in 6 Cognitive Dissonance and the Action 1 Using Social Psychology Need to Protect Our Self-Esteem 171 to Achieve a ­Sustainable and Happy Future 462 7 Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings 203 Social Psychology in Action 2 Social Psychology 8 Conformity and Obedience: and Health 483 Influencing Behavior 238 Social Psychology in 9 Group Processes: Influence in Action 3 Social Psychology Social Groups 284 and the Law 503 5 This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface13 New Frontiers in Social Psychological Research 65 About the Authors 19 Culture and Social Psychology 65 Special Tips for Students 21 Social Neuroscience 66 Ethical Issues in Social Psychology 67 1 Introducing Social Psychology 23 Summary 70 Test Yourself 71 Defining Social Psychology  25 TRY IT! Conflicting Social Influences 26 3 Social Cognition: How We Think Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, About the Social World 73 and Common Sense 26 On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking 75 How Social Psychology Differs From Its People as Everyday Theorists: Automatic Closest Cousins 27 Thinking With Schemas 75 TRY IT! Social Situations and Shyness 29 Which Schemas Do We Use? Accessibility The Power of the Situation 31 and Priming 77 Underestimating the Power of the Situation 32 Making Our Schemas Come True: The The Importance of Construal 33 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 79 #trending Medals for Sustainability! 36 #trending Do You Believe in Astrology? 81 Where Construals Come From: Basic Human Motives 37 Types of Automatic Thinking 83 The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good Automatic Goal Pursuit 83 About Ourselves 38 Automatic Thinking and Metaphors About the SUFFERING AND SELF-JUSTIFICATION Body and the Mind 84 The Social Cognition Motive: The Need Mental Strategies and Shortcuts: Judgmental to Be Accurate 39 Heuristics85 HOW EASILY DOES IT COME TO MIND? THE AVAILABILITY Why Study Social Psychology? 41 HEURISTIC HOW SIMILAR IS A TO B? THE Summary 42 Test Yourself 43 REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC   PERSONALITY TESTS AND THE REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC 2 Methodology: How Social TRY IT! Reasoning Quiz 90 Psychologists Do Research 45 Cultural Differences in Social Cognition 91 Cultural Determinants of Schemas 92 Social Psychology: An Empirical Science 46 Holistic Versus Analytic Thinking 92 TRY IT! Social Psychology Quiz: What’s Your Prediction? 47 Controlled Social Cognition: High-Effort Thinking 94 Formulating Hypotheses and Theories 48 Controlled Thinking and Free Will 95 INSPIRATION FROM PREVIOUS THEORIES AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESES BASED ON PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS TRY IT! Can You Predict Your (or Your Friend’s) Future? 96 Mentally Undoing the Past: Counterfactual Reasoning 97 Research Designs 49 Improving Human Thinking 98 The Observational Method: Describing Social Behavior 50 ETHNOGRAPHY ARCHIVAL ANALYSIS LIMITS OF TRY IT! How Well Do You Reason? 99 THE OBSERVATIONAL METHOD Watson Revisited 100 The Correlational Method: Predicting Social Behavior 51 Summary 102 Test Yourself 103 SURVEYS LIMITS OF THE CORRELATIONAL METHOD: CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION TRY IT! Correlation and Causation: Knowing the 4 Social Perception: How We Come to Difference55 ­Understand Other People 105 The Experimental Method: Answering Nonverbal Communication 107 Causal Questions 56 INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES TRY IT! Using Your Voice as a Nonverbal Cue 108 INTERNAL VALIDITY IN EXPERIMENTS EXTERNAL VALIDITY Facial Expressions of Emotion 108 IN EXPERIMENTS FIELD EXPERIMENTS REPLICATIONS EVOLUTION AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS WHY IS AND META-ANALYSIS DECODING SOMETIMES DIFFICULT? #trending Correlation Does Not Equal Causation 63 Culture and the Channels of Nonverbal BASIC VERSUS APPLIED RESEARCH Communication111 7 8 Contents First Impressions: Quick But Long-Lasting 113 6 Cognitive Dissonance and the #trending First Impressions Formed Online 114 Need to Protect Our Self-Esteem 171 The Lingering Influence of Initial Impressions115 The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: Protecting Causal Attribution: Answering the “Why” Question 118 Our Self-Esteem 172 The Nature of the Attribution Process 119 Decisions, Decisions, Decisions 175 The Covariation Model: Internal Versus External DISTORTING OUR LIKES AND DISLIKES THE Attributions120 PERMANENCE OF THE DECISION CREATING THE ILLUSION OF IRREVOCABILITY The Fundamental Attribution Error: People as Personality Psychologists 122 The Justification of Effort 177 THE ROLE OF PERCEPTUAL SALIENCE IN THE Counterattitudinal Behavior 179 FUNDAMENTAL ­ATTRIBUTION ERROR THE TWO-STEP COUNTERATTITUDINAL BEHAVIOR TOWARD CONSEQUENTIAL ATTRIBUTION PROCESS ­ISSUES THE BEN FRANKLIN EFFECT: JUSTIFYING ACTS OF KINDNESS DEHUMANIZING THE ENEMY: JUSTIFYING Self-Serving Attributions 128 ­CRUELTY The “Bias Blind Spot” 129 TRY IT! The Internal Consequences of Doing Good 183 Culture and Social Perception 132 JUSTIFYING OUR OWN IMMORAL ACTS Holistic Versus Analytic Thinking 132 Avoiding Temptations 185 SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE EVIDENCE The Hypocrisy Paradigm 187 Cultural Differences in the Fundamental Dissonance Across Cultures 188 Attribution Error 134 Culture and Other Attributional Biases 135 Advances and Extensions of Cognitive Dissonance Theory189 Summary 137 Test Yourself 139 Self-Affirmation Theory 189 5 The Self: Understanding Ourselves TRY IT! Values Affirmation Writing Exercise 191 in a Social Context 141 Dissonance in Close Relationships: Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory 191 The Origins and Nature of the Self-Concept 142 Some Concluding Thoughts on Dissonance and Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept 144 Self-Esteem194 TRY IT! A Measure of Independence and #trending Law and Cognitive Dissonance 194 Interdependence145 Overcoming Dissonance 196 Functions of the Self 146 Narcissism and the Dangers of Too Much Self-Knowledge147 Self-Esteem196 Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection 147 TRY IT! Measuring Your Narcissism 197 FOCUSING ON THE SELF: SELF-AWARENESS THEORY Summary 200 Test Yourself 201 TRY IT! Measure Your Private Self-Consciousness149 JUDGING WHY WE FEEL THE WAY WE DO: TELLING 7 Attitudes and Attitude Change: MORE THAN WE CAN KNOW Influencing Thoughts and Feelings 203 Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our The Nature and Origin of Attitudes 205 Own Behavior 150 Where Do Attitudes Come From? 205 SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY UNDERSTANDING OUR COGNITIVELY BASED ATTITUDES AFFECTIVELY BASED ­ EMOTIONS: THE TWO-FACTOR THEORY OF EMOTION ATTITUDES FINDING THE WRONG CAUSE: MISATTRIBUTION OF AROUSAL INTRINSIC VERSUS EXTRINSIC TRY IT! Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes 208 MOTIVATION MIND-SETS AND MOTIVATION BEHAVIORALLY BASED ATTITUDES #trending Growth Mindset in the Classroom 159 Explicit Versus Implicit Attitudes 209 Using Other People to Know Ourselves 159 When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? 210 KNOWING OURSELVES BY COMPARING OURSELVES Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors 211 TO OTHERS KNOWING OURSELVES BY ADOPTING Predicting Deliberative Behaviors 211 OTHER PEOPLE’S VIEWS SPECIFIC ATTITUDES SUBJECTIVE NORMS Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self 163 PERCEIVED BEHAVIORAL CONTROL Impression Management: All the World’s #trending Predicting Environmentally Friendly Action 213 a Stage 165 How Do Attitudes Change? 214 Ingratiation and Self-Handicapping 166 Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior: Culture, Impression Management, and Cognitive Dissonance Theory Revisited 215 Self-Enhancement167 Persuasive Communications and Attitude Summary 168 Test Yourself 169 Change215 Contents 9 THE CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL ROUTES TO Other Tactics of Social Influence 267 PERSUASION THE MOTIVATION TO PAY ATTENTION TO THE ARGUMENTS THE ABILITY TO PAY ATTENTION Obedience to Authority 270 TO THE ARGUMENTS HOW TO ACHIEVE LONG-LASTING The Milgram Study 271 ­ATTITUDE CHANGE The Role of Normative Social Influence 274 Emotion and Attitude Change 221 The Role of Informational Social Influence 275 FEAR-AROUSING COMMUNICATIONS EMOTIONS AS Other Reasons Why We Obey 276 A HEURISTIC EMOTION AND DIFFERENT TYPES ADHERING TO THE WRONG NORM SELF- OF ATTITUDES JUSTIFICATION THE LOSS OF PERSONAL Attitude Change and the Body 223 RESPONSIBILITY The Power of Advertising 225 The Obedience Studies, Then and Now 278 How Advertising Works 226 Summary 280 Test Yourself 282 Subliminal Advertising: A Form of Mind Control? 226 DEBUNKING THE CLAIMS ABOUT SUBLIMINAL ­ADVERTISING LABORATORY EVIDENCE FOR 9 Group Processes: Influence in Social SUBLIMINAL I­ NFLUENCE Groups284 TRY IT! Consumer Brand Attitudes 228 What Is a Group? 286 Advertising and Culture 229 Why Do People Join Groups? 286 Resisting Persuasive Messages 230 The Composition and Functions of Groups 287 Attitude Inoculation 231 SOCIAL NORMS SOCIAL ROLES GROUP Being Alert to Product Placement 231 ­COHESIVENESS GROUP DIVERSITY Resisting Peer Pressure 232 #trending Cooperative and Corruptive Tendencies 290 When Persuasion Attempts Backfire: Individual Behavior in a Group Setting 291 Reactance Theory 233 Social Facilitation: When the Presence of Others Summary 235 Test Yourself 236 Energizes Us 291 SIMPLE VERSUS DIFFICULT TASKS AROUSAL AND THE 8 Conformity and Obedience: ­DOMINANT RESPONSE WHY THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS CAUSES AROUSAL Influencing Behavior 238 Social Loafing: When the Presence of Others Conformity: When and Why 240 Relaxes Us 294 Informational Social Influence: The Need to Know Gender and Cultural Differences in Social Loafing: What’s “Right” 243 Who Slacks Off the Most? 295 The Importance of Being Accurate 245 Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Crowd 296 DEINDIVIDUATION MAKES PEOPLE FEEL LESS When Informational Conformity Backfires 246 ACCOUNTABLE DEINDIVIDUATION INCREASES When Will People Conform to Informational OBEDIENCE TO GROUP NORMS DEINDIVIDUATION Social Influence? 248 ONLINE WHEN THE SITUATION IS AMBIGUOUS WHEN THE SITUATION IS A CRISIS WHEN OTHER PEOPLE ARE EXPERTS Group Decisions: Are Two (or More) Heads Better Than One? 299 Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted 250 Process Loss: When Group Interactions Inhibit Conformity and Social Approval: The Asch Good Problem Solving 299 Line-Judgment Studies 252 FAILURE TO SHARE UNIQUE INFORMATION The Importance of Being Accurate, Revisited 255 GROUPTHINK: MANY HEADS, ONE MIND The Consequences of Resisting Normative Group Polarization: Going to Extremes 303 Social Influence 257 Leadership in Groups 304 TRY IT! Unveiling Normative Social Influence LEADERSHIP AND PERSONALITY LEADERSHIP STYLES by Breaking the Rules 258 THE RIGHT PERSON IN THE RIGHT SITUATION GENDER AND LEADERSHIP CULTURE AND LEADERSHIP When Will People Conform to Normative Social Influence? 258 Conflict and Cooperation 308 WHEN THE GROUP IS IMPORTANT WHEN ONE HAS Social Dilemmas 309 NO ALLIES IN THE GROUP WHEN THE GROUP’S TRY IT! Beyond the two-person Prisoner’s CULTURE IS COLLECTIVISTIC Dilemma: The Public Goods Game310 #trending Social Norms and Bigotry 261 INCREASING COOPERATION IN THE PRISONER’S Minority Influence: When the Few Influence the Many 262 DILEMMA Conformity Tactics 263 Using Threats to Resolve Conflict 311 The Role of Injunctive and Descriptive Norms 263 EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION Using Norms to Change Behavior: Beware the Negotiation and Bargaining 313 “Boomerang Effect” 266 Summary 315 Test Yourself 316 10 Contents 10 Attraction and Relationships: From Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior: When Will People Help? 371 Initial Impressions to Long-Term Environment: Rural Versus Urban 371 Intimacy318 Residential Mobility 372 What Predicts Attraction? 320 The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect 373 The Person Next Door: The Propinquity Effect 320 NOTICING AN EVENT INTERPRETING THE EVENT Similarity322 AS AN ­EMERGENCY ASSUMING RESPONSIBILITY KNOWING HOW TO HELP DECIDING TO IMPLEMENT OPINIONS AND PERSONALITY INTERESTS AND THE HELP EXPERIENCES APPEARANCE GENETICS SOME FINAL COMMENTS ABOUT SIMILARITY Diffusion of Responsibility in Cyberspace 378 #trending “Hook-Up Culture” and Today’s Youth 324 Effects of the Media: Video Games and Music Lyrics 379 Reciprocal Liking 324 How Can Helping Be Increased? 380 Physical Attractiveness 325 Increasing the Likelihood That Bystanders WHAT IS ATTRACTIVE? CULTURAL STANDARDS Will Intervene 380 OF BEAUTY THE POWER OF FAMILIARITY Increasing Volunteerism 382 ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT ATTRACTIVE PEOPLE Summary 383 Test Yourself 385 Evolution and Mate Selection 329 EVOLUTION AND SEX DIFFERENCES ALTERNATE PERSPECTIVES ON SEX DIFFERENCES 12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent It? 387 Making Connections in the Digital World 333 Attraction 2.0: Mate Preference in an Online Era 333 Is Aggression Innate, Learned, or Optional? 388 The Promise and Pitfalls of Meeting People Online 334 The Evolutionary View 389 AGGRESSION IN OTHER ANIMALS Love and Close Relationships 336 Defining Love: Companionship and Passion 337 Culture and Aggression 391 CHANGES IN AGGRESSION ACROSS TIME AND TRY IT! Passionate Love Scale 338 CULTURES CULTURES OF HONOR Culture and Love 339 Gender and Aggression 393 Attachment Styles in Intimate Relationships 340 PHYSICAL AGGRESSION RELATIONAL AGGRESSION Your Body and Brain in Love 342 Learning to Behave Aggressively 395 Assessing Relationships: Satisfaction and Some Physiological Influences 397 Breaking Up 344 THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL THE EFFECTS OF PAIN AND HEAT Theories of Relationship Satisfaction 344 Social Situations and Aggression 399 SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY EQUITY THEORY Frustration and Aggression 399 The Process and Experience of Breaking Up 349 Provocation and Reciprocation 401 Summary 352 Test Yourself 353 TRY IT! Video Games and Aggression 402 11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do Weapons as Aggressive Cues Putting the Elements Together: The Case of 402 People Help? 355 Sexual Assault 403 Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: MOTIVATIONS FOR RAPE SEXUAL SCRIPTS AND THE PROBLEM OF CONSENT Why Do People Help? 356 Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes 357 Violence and the Media 405 KIN SELECTION THE RECIPROCITY NORM Studying the Effects of Media Violence 406 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES LONGITUDINAL STUDIES TRY IT! The Dictator Game 358 GROUP SELECTION The Problem of Determining Cause and Effect 408 Social Exchange: The Costs and Rewards of Helping 359 How to Decrease Aggression 411 Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping 360 Does Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggression? 411 USING PUNISHMENT ON VIOLENT ADULTS Personal Qualities and Prosocial Behavior: Why Can We Release Anger by Indulging It? 412 Do Some People Help More Than Others? 364 THE EFFECTS OF AGGRESSIVE ACTS ON SUBSEQUENT Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality 364 ­AGGRESSION BLAMING THE VICTIM OF OUR Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior 365 AGGRESSION TRY IT! Empathic Concern 366 What Are We Supposed to Do with Our Anger? 414 Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behavior 367 VENTING VERSUS SELF-AWARENESS Religion and Prosocial Behavior 368 TRAINING IN COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS #trending When Altruistic Behavior Becomes Risky 369 TRY IT! Controlling Your Anger 415 The Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behavior 369 GETTING APOLOGIES RIGHT COUNTERING ­ EFFECTS OF POSITIVE MOODS: FEEL GOOD, DO GOOD DEHUMANIZATION BY BUILDING EMPATHY FEEL BAD, DO GOOD Contents 11 #trending “Re-accommodation”: The United Inducing Hypocrisy 472 Airlines Debacle 417 Removing Small Barriers to Achieve Big Changes 474 Disrupting the Rejection-Rage Cycle 418 Happiness and a Sustainable Lifestyle 476 Summary 420 Test Yourself 423 What Makes People Happy? 476 SATISFYING RELATIONSHIPS FLOW: BECOMING 13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, ENGAGED IN SOMETHING YOU ENJOY ACCUMULATE EXPERIENCES, NOT THINGS HELPING OTHERS and Cures 424 TRY IT! Applying the Research to Your Own Life 478 Defining Prejudice 425 Do People Know What Makes Them Happy? 479 The Cognitive Component: Stereotypes 426 Summary 480 Test Yourself 481 ARE POSITIVE STEREOTYPES GOOD? TRY IT! Stereotypes and Aggression 428 The Affective Component: Emotions 430 Social Psychology in Action 2 The Behavioral Component: Discrimination 431 Social Psychology and Health 483 TRY IT! Identifying and Changing Your Prejudices 431 Stress and Human Health 484 INSTITUTIONALIZED DISCRIMINATION EVERYDAY Resilience485 DISCRIMINATION FROM PREJUDICE TO DISCRIMINATION Effects of Negative Life Events 486 Detecting Hidden Prejudices 436 LIMITS OF STRESS INVENTORIES Ways of Identifying Suppressed Prejudices 436 TRY IT! The College Life Stress Inventory 487 Ways of Identifying Implicit Prejudices 437 Perceived Stress and Health 488 The Effects of Prejudice on the Victim 439 Feeling in Charge: The Importance of Perceived The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 439 Control489 Social Identity Threat 441 INCREASING PERCEIVED CONTROL IN NURSING HOMES Causes of Prejudice 443 DISEASE, CONTROL, AND WELL-BEING Pressures to Conform: Normative Rules 443 Coping with Stress 494 #trending Everyday Discrimination in Professional Gender Differences in Coping with Stress 494 Sports445 Social Support: Getting Help from Others 495 Social Identity Theory: Us versus Them 445 TRY IT! Social Support 496 ETHNOCENTRISM IN-GROUP BIAS OUT-GROUP Reframing: Finding Meaning in Traumatic Events 497 ­HOMOGENEITY BLAMING THE VICTIM JUSTIFYING Prevention: Promoting Healthier Behavior 498 FEELINGS OF ENTITLEMENT AND SUPERIORITY Realistic Conflict Theory 449 Summary 500 Test Yourself 501 Reducing Prejudice 451 The Contact Hypothesis 452 Social Psychology in Action 3 WHERE CONTACT CAN GO WRONG Social Psychology and the Law 503 Cooperation and Interdependence: The Jigsaw Eyewitness Testimony 505 Classroom455 Why Are Eyewitnesses Often Wrong? 505 WHY DOES JIGSAW WORK? ENCODING STORAGE RETRIEVAL TRY IT! Jigsaw-Type Group Study 457 Judging Whether Eyewitnesses Are Mistaken 510 THE GRADUAL SPREAD OF COOPERATIVE AND RESPONDING QUICKLY POST-IDENTIFICATION FEEDBACK INTERDEPENDENT LEARNING Summary 459 Test Yourself 461 TRY IT! The Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony 513 The Recovered Memory Debate 513 Social Psychology in Action 1 Juries: Group Processes in Action 516 How Jurors Process Information during the Trial 516 Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Confessions: Are They Always What They Seem? 517 Sustainable and Happy Future 462 Deliberations in the Jury Room 519 Applied Research in Social Psychology 465 Summary 520 Test Yourself 521 Capitalizing on the Experimental Method 466 ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERVENTIONS Glossary523 POTENTIAL RISKS OF SOCIAL INTERVENTIONS Social Psychology to the Rescue 468 References529 Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable Future 469 Credits567 Conveying and Changing Social Norms 469 Name Index 571 TRY IT! Reducing Littering with Descriptive Norms 470 Keeping Track of Consumption 471 Subject Index 590 Introducing a Little Competitiveness 472 This page intentionally left blank Preface W hen we began writing this book, our overriding one video in Chapter 9 tells the story of how a student goal was to capture the excitement of social psy- learned to avoid process loss in her study groups. These chology. We have been pleased to hear, in many videos are in the Revel version of the text, placed along- kind notes and messages from professors and students, that side the ­relevant concepts. we succeeded. One of our favorite responses was from a A second new feature, called #trending, is a brief student who said that the book was so interesting that she ­analysis of a current event that illustrates a key principle always saved it for last, to reward herself for finishing her in each chapter. In Chapter 11 on Prosocial Behavior, for other work. With that one student, at least, we succeeded in ­example, we describe two incidents where a woman and making our book an enjoyable, fascinating story, not a dry a child, respectively, were left bleeding on the road and report of facts and figures. passers-by walk by them as if nothing had happened. There is always room for improvement, however, and Students are asked to think about how concepts in the our goal in this, the tenth edition, is to make the field of chapter might help explain why the passers-by were social psychology an even better read. When we teach the unmotivated to help a wounded stranger, such as Latané course, there is nothing more gratifying than seeing the and Darley’s (1970) hypothesis about the bystander ­effect sleepy students in the back row sit up with interest and and decision model of helping. Importantly, these exam- say, “Wow, I didn’t know that! Now that’s interesting.” We ples will be updated frequently in the Revel version of hope that students who read our book will have that same the text, such that students will always be able to connect reaction. what they are reading to current, real-world events. Third, every chapter now begins with a feature called, “What Do You Think?” where students answer a survey What’s New in This Edition? question designed to illustrate a concept in that chapter. In Chapter 6, for example, students are asked, “Have you ever First a word about what has not changed. As mentioned, joined a group that required you to do something humili- we have done our best to tell the story of social psychol- ating or dangerous in order to gain membership?” In the ogy in an engaging way that will resonate with students. Revel version of the text, students get immediate feedback We also have retained features that help students learn on how other students have answered (23% said yes to this and retain the material. As before, each chapter begins question). Then, at the end of the chapter, there is a writing with learning objectives, which are repeated in the sec- exercise tied to the survey question that instructors can as- tions of the chapter that are most relevant to them and in sign if they wish. In Chapter 6, for example, the question the chapter-ending summary. All major sections of every is, “How does justification of effort help explain why haz- chapter end with review quizzes. Research shows that ing and initiation rites are common across so many different students learn material better when they are tested fre- group types?” quently; thus, these section quizzes, as well as the test Lastly, we have added videos that recreate classic ex- questions at the end of every chapter, should be helpful periments in social psychology. These videos, recorded learning aids. In the Revel version of the text, instructors exclusively for this book’s Revel product, give students a have the option of assigning these quizzes and giving vivid and contemporary look at how an experiment was course credit for correct answers. Each chapter also has done and what it found. our Try It! feature that invites students to apply what And, of course, we have updated the tenth edition sub- they have learned to their own lives. Several of these Try stantially, with numerous references to new research. Here It! features have been updated. is a sampling of the new research that is covered: We are pleased to add several new features to the tenth edition that we believe will appeal to students Chapter 1: This chapter contains updated examples, and make it even easier for them to learn the material. a new Try It!, and a new section on the role of bio- The first is called #SurvivalTips which are brief videos logical approaches and evolutionary theory in social recorded by students who have taken a social psychol- psychology. ogy class. Each one tells a personal story relaying how Chapter 2: A signature of our book continues to be a the student applied social ­psychology to better navigate readable, student-friendly chapter on research methods or “survive” a real situation in their lives. For example, in social psychology. This chapter has been updated 13 14 Preface for the tenth edition with new references and examples can vary in predicting outcomes when it comes to and a discussion of the replication debate in social evaluation of job résumés based on applicant name. psychology. A new interactive feature is also included to explain Chapter 3, “Social Cognition: How We Think About the formula for persuasion according to the Yale the Social World,” has been updated with more than Attitude Change approach. 40 new references. There is a new section on the plan- Chapter 8, “Conformity and Obedience: Influencing ning fallacy and discussions of recent research find- Behavior,” now opens with a more positive focus on ings, such as a study on counterfactual thinking and social influence, in the form of Pete Frates and the people’s belief in God. ALS ice bucket challenge. We have added a discus- Chapter 4, “Social Perception: How We Come to sion of the proliferation of “fake news” in the section Understand Other People,” now includes several new on informational social influence. The chapter also features, including a new opening drawing on the Black features a new interactive video demonstrating stu- Mirror television series, an interactive photo gallery on dents employing various social influence techniques using first impressions to your advantage, a discussion and added discussion of contemporary criticism of of cross-cultural attitudes regarding karma and beliefs Milgram’s research. in a just world, and a reorganized discussion of Kelley’s Chapter 9, “Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups,” covariation model. now opens with an analysis of problematic group deci- Chapter 5, “The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a sion making and strategizing in Hilary Clinton’s 2016 Social Context,” has been updated with more than 35 campaign team. We have also added coverage of recent new references. The chapter headings have also been research on combating the problematic effects on deindi- reorganized into three major sections, which should viduation online and group polarization via social media make the material clearer to students. There is a new feeds. The chapter also includes expanded and updated opening example about children raised by animals and discussion of the prisoner’s dilemma and a new photo how they might have influenced their sense of self. gallery regarding resource dilemmas. Lastly, the section on self-esteem has been updated and Chapter 10, “Attraction and Relationships: From moved to Chapter 6. Initial Impressions to Long-Term Intimacy,” has Chapter 6, “Cognitive Dissonance and the Need to a new title to better reflect the balanced focus be- Protect Our Self-Esteem,” is one of the most exten- tween initial attraction and relationship trajectory/ sively revised chapters in this edition. This chap- satisfaction. A new interactive photo gallery explores ter has always been a signature of the book; we are the relationship between mere exposure and liking, the only text to devote an entire chapter to cogni- and a new interactive video illustrates the matching tive dissonance theory and self-esteem maintenance. hypothesis in attraction. We have added ­coverage We proudly retain this chapter in our tenth edition, (including an interactive figure) of Sternberg’s ­ continuing to present classic work in cognitive disso- ­triangular theory of love and have reorganized and nance in a highly readable manner with compelling updated the concluding section on relationship ­ examples designed to draw students in. At the same ­satisfaction and breaking up. time we have updated the chapter, adding a major In Chapter 11, “Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People new section on advances and extensions of dissonance Help?” includes more than 30 new references, expanded theory that includes discussions of self-affirmation discussions of empathy and altruism and volunteerism, theory and self-evaluation maintenance theory. There and a revised discussion of religion and prosocial is also a section on narcissism and self-esteem, which behavior. previously appeared in Chapter 5. Lastly the chapter Chapter 12, “Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other has two new Try It! exercises that students will enjoy: People? Can We Prevent It?,” has significant content In one they complete a values affirmation writing ex- updates in addition to covering new research. Our ercise, and in another they can take a short version of discussion of testosterone and aggression is more nu- the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and get feed- anced, disentangling some aspects of gender and hor- back on their score. mones and introducing the other sex hormone related Chapter 7, “Attitudes and Attitude Change: to aggression, estradiol. We also introduce and evalu- Influencing Thoughts and Feelings,” includes a new ate two formal evolutionary theories of aggression: opening story, new examples from Election 2016 in the challenge hypothesis and dual-hormone theory. the discussion of affectively based attitudes, and new We also streamlined the section on sexual assault discussion of how implicit versus explicit attitudes to make this important section clearer. Overall, the Preface 15 chapter narrative now emphasizes the convergent fact inspired the creation of Revel: an interactive learning evidence for the role of impulsivity in aggression environment designed for the way today’s students read, across biological and psychological evidence. think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and In Chapter 13, “Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, students nationwide, Revel is the newest, fully digital way and Cures,” has undergone a major organizational to deliver respected Pearson content. Revel enlivens course and content update. We generalized the discussion content with media interactives and assessments—i­cluding of prejudice from the strong focus on Black-White an interactive figure) of ntegrated directly within the au- and male-female relations to relate more generally thors’ narrative—that provide opportunities for students to other ­ethnic, gender, and stigmatized identities. to read about and practice course material in tandem. This Nonetheless, we maintain an important dialog on immersive educational technology boosts student engage- anti-Blackness, including a discussion of police shoot- ment, which leads to better understanding of concepts and ings and activist groups. We expanded the discussion improved performance throughout the course. of emotions as a core component of prejudice, through which we included more physiological ­research on Learn More about Revel prejudice into the chapter. Under the ways to reduce http://www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/ prejudice, we have extended the discussion of inter- Rather than simply offering opportunities to read group contact to teach students about indirect contact, about and study social psychology, Revel facilitates and we have streamlined the discussion of the jigsaw deep, engaging interactions with the concepts that mat- classroom. The entire chapter was updated with new ter most. By providing opportunities to improve skills ­examples from recent popular culture and interactive in analyzing and interpreting sources of psychological components in Revel. evidence, for ­example, Revel engages students directly Social Psychology in Action chapters—“Using Social and immediately, which leads to a better understanding Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy of course material. A wealth of student and instructor Future,” “Social Psychology and Health,” and “Social resources and interactive materials can be found within Psychology and the Law”—have been updated with Revel. Some of our favorites are mentioned in the infor- many references to new research, but remain shorter mation that follows. chapters. When we teach the course, we find that stu- For more information about all the tools and resources dents are excited to learn about these applied areas. in Revel and access to your own Revel account for Social At the same time, we recognize that some instructors Psychology, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/revel. have difficulty fitting the chapters into their courses. As with the previous edition, our approach remains to Instructor Resources maintain a shortened length for the applied chapters to We know that instructors are “tour guides” for their stu- make it easy to integrate these chapters into different dents, leading them through the exciting world of social parts of the course in whatever fashion an instructor psychology in the classroom. As such, we have invested deems best. SPA1, “Using Social Psychology to Achieve tremendous effort in the creation of a world-class collection a Sustainable and Happy Future,” includes an updated of instructor resources that will support professors in their opening example about the effects of climate change mission to teach the best course possible. and new examples of ways in which students can both Coauthor Sam Sommers guided the creation of this act in sustainable ways and maximize their well-being. supplements package, which has been reviewed and up- In SPA2, “Social Psychology and Health,” we updated dated for the tenth edition. Here are the highlights of the coverage on perceived control interventions among supplements we are pleased to provide: nursing home residents and included a new interactive on coping with stress. SPA3, “Social Psychology and PRESENTATION TOOLS AND CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Law,” has a new video about attentional blindness and Social Psychology PowerPoint Collection (0134700732) an interactive feature on best practices in eyewitness The PowerPoints provide an active format for pre- identification procedures. senting concepts from each chapter and incorpo- rating relevant figures and tables. Instructors can Revel for Social Psychology choose from three PowerPoint presentations: a lec- ture presentation set that highlights major topics Revel™ from the chapters, a highly visual lecture presenta- When students are engaged deeply, they learn more ef- tion set with embedded videos, or a PowerPoint fectively and perform better in their courses. This simple collection of the complete art files from the text. The 16 Preface PowerPoint files can be downloaded from www scenes, and our book is no exception. We need to give a.pearsonglobaleditions.com. special thanks to Elizabeth Page-Gould for her tremendous Instructor’s Resource Manual (0134700694) The help in revising two of the chapters. Her deep knowledge Instructor’s ­Manual includes key terms, lecture ideas, of social psychology and wonderful writing style contrib- teaching tips, suggested readings, chapter outlines, uted greatly to this edition. We would also like to thank the student projects and research assignments, Try It! exer- many colleagues who read one or more chapters of this edi- cises, critical-thinking topics and discussion questions, tion and of previous editions of the book. and a media resource guide. It has been updated for the tenth edition with hyperlinks to ease facilitation of Reviewers of the Tenth Edition navigation within the Instructor’s Resource Manual. Jim Allen, State University of New York, College at Geneseo; Kathryn Anderson, Our Lady of the Lake University; Anila ASSESSMENT RESOURCES Bhagavatula, California State University–Long Beach; Amy Test Bank (0134700740) Each of the more than 2,000 Bradshaw-Hoppock, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University; questions in this test bank is page-referenced to the text Ngoc Bui, University of La Verne; Bernardo Carducci, Indiana and categorized by topic and skill level. Each question University Southeast; Alex Czopp, Western Washington in the test bank was reviewed by several instructors University; Keith Davis, University of South Carolina; to ensure that we are providing you with the best and Michael Dudley, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville; most accurate content in the industry. Heidi English, College of the Siskiyous; Joe Ferrari, DePaul University; Christine Floether, Centenary College; Krista Forrest, University of Nebraska at Kearney; Allen Gorman, Acknowledgments Radford University; Jerry Green, Tarrant County College; Elliot Aronson is delighted to acknowledge the collabora- Dana Greene, University of North Carolina; Donnell Griffin, tion of Carol Tavris. He would also like to acknowledge the Davidson County Community College; Lisa Harrison, contributions of his best friend (who also happens to be his California State University, Sacramento; Gina Hoover, Ohio wife of 60 years), Vera Aronson. Vera, as usual, provided in- State University; Jeffrey Huntsinger, Loyola University spiration for his ideas and acted as the sounding board for Chicago; Alisha Janowsky, University of Central Florida; and supportive critic of many of his semiformed notions, Bethany Johnson, University of Nebraska–Omaha; Deborah helping to mold them into more sensible analyses. Jones, Columbia University; Suzanne Kieffer, University of Tim Wilson would like to thank his graduate mentor, Houston; Marvin Lee, Tennessee State University; Alexandra Richard E. Nisbett, who nurtured his interest in the field Luong, University of Minnesota Duluth; Robyn Mallett, and showed him the continuity between social psychologi- Loyola University Chicago; Brian Meier, Gettysburg College; cal research and everyday life. He also thanks the many stu- Andrea Mercurio, Boston University; Lori Nelson, University dents who have taken his course in social psychology over of Iowa; Darren Petronella, Nassau Community College; the years, for asking fascinating questions and providing Jennifer Rivers, Elms College; Kari Terzino, Des Moines Area wonderful examples of social psychological phenomena in Community College; T. Joel Wade, Bucknell University; Angela their everyday lives. Lastly, he thanks the many graduate Walker, Quinnipiac University; Chrysalis Wright, University students with whom he has had the privilege of working of Central Florida; Garry Zaslow, Nassau Community College; for joining him in the ever-fascinating discovery of new so- Jie Zhang, University at Buffalo cial psychological phenomena. Sam Sommers would like to acknowledge, first and fore- Reviewers of Past Editions most, the Sommers ladies, Marilyn, Abigail, and Sophia, for Jeffrey B. Adams, Saint Michael’s College; Bill Adler, being patient with round-the-clock revision sessions, for tol- Collin County Community College; John R. Aiello, Rutgers erating the constantly expanding mass of papers and books University; Charles A. Alexander, Rock Valley College; on the floor of the study (he promises to clean them up be- Sowmya Anand, Ohio State University; Nathan Arbuckle, fore work starts on the eleventh edition), and for frequently Ohio State University; Art Aron, State University of New providing excellent real-life examples that illustrate social York, Stony Brook; Danny Axsom, Virginia Polytechnic psychological concepts. He also gives special thanks to all of Institute and State University; Joan W. Baily, Jersey City State his teachers of social psychology, for introducing him to the College; Norma Baker, Belmont University; Austin Baldwin, field, for continued support, and for serving as role models as University of Iowa; John Bargh, New York University; instructors, mentors, researchers, and writers. William A. Barnard, University of Northern Colorado; Doris No book can be written and published without the G. Bazzini, Appalachian State University; Arthur Beaman, help of many people working with the authors behind the University of Kentucky; Gordon Bear, Ramapo College; Susan Preface 17 E. Beers, Sweet Briar College; Kathy L. Bell, University of University; Gordon Hammerle, Adrian College; H. Anna North Carolina at Greensboro; Leonard Berkowitz, University Han, Ohio State University; Judith Harackiewicz, University of Wisconsin–Madison; Ellen S. Berscheid, University of of Wisconsin–Madison; Elaine Hatfield, University of Hawaii, Minnesota; John Bickford, University of Massachusetts, Manoa; Vicki S. Helgeson, Carnegie Mellon University; Joyce Amherst; Thomas Blass, University of Maryland; C. Hemphill, Cazenovia College; Tracy B. Henley, Mississippi George Boeree, Shippensburg University; Lisa M. Bohon, State University; Ed Hirt, Indiana University; Harold California State University, Sacramento; Jennifer Bosson, The Hunziker Jr., Corning Community College; David E. Hyatt, University of Oklahoma; Chante C. Boyd, Carnegie Mellon University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh; Marita Inglehart, University University; Peter J. Brady, Clark State Community College; of Michigan; Carl Kallgren, Behrend College, Pennsylvania Kosha Bramesfeld, Pennsylvania State University; Kelly State University, Erie; Stephen Kilianski, Rutgers University; A. Brennan, University of Texas, Austin; Richard W. Brislin, Bill Klein, Colby College; James D. Johnson, University of East-West Center of the University of Hawaii; Jeff Bryson, North Carolina, Wilmington; Lee Jussim, Rutgers University; San Diego State University; Melissa ­Burkley, Oklahoma State Stephen Kilianski, Rutgers University; Fredrick Koenig, University; Amy Bush, University of Houston; Amber Bush Tulane University; Alan Lambert, Washington University, Amspoker, University of Houston; Brad Bushman, Iowa State St. Louis; Emmett Lampkin, Kirkwook Community College; University; Thomas P. Cafferty, University of South Carolina, Elizabeth C. Lanthier, Northern Virginia Community Columbia; Melissa A. Cahoon, Wright State University; College; Patricia Laser, Bucks County Community College; G. Frank Calabrese, Community College of Philadelphia; Michael Daniel Lassiter, Ohio University; Dianne Leader, Georgia Caruso, University of Toledo; Nicholas Christenfeld, Institute of Technology; John Lu, Concordia University; University of California, San Diego; Margaret S. Clark, Stephanie Madon, Iowa State University; John Malarkey, Carnegie Mellon University; Russell D. Clark, III, University Wilmington College; Andrew Manion, St. Mary’s University of North Texas; Susan D. Clayton, Allegheny College; of Minnesota; Allen R. McConnell, Michigan State University; Megan Clegg-Kraynok, West Virginia University; Brian M. Adam Meade, North Carolina State University; Joann M. Cohen, University of Texas, San Antonio; Florette Cohen, Montepare, Tufts University; Richard Moreland, University Rutgers University; Jack Cohen, Camden County College; of Pittsburgh; Dave Nalbone, Purdue University–Calumet; Steven G. Cole, Texas Christian University; Eric J. Cooley, Carrie Nance, Stetson University; Todd D. Nelson, Michigan Western Oregon State University; Diana Cordova, Yale State University; Elaine Nocks, Furman University; Matylda University; Traci Craig, University of Idaho; Jack Croxton, Osika, University of Houston; Cheri Parks, Colorado Christian State University of New York, Fredonia; Keith E. Davis, University; W. Gerrod Parrott, Georgetown University; David University of South Carolina, Columbia; Mary Ellen Dello Peterson, Mount Senario College; Mary Pritchard, Boise State Stritto, Ball State University; Dorothee Dietrich, Hamline University; Cynthia K. S. Reed, Tarrant County College; Dan University; Kate Dockery, University of Florida; Susann Richard, University of North Florida; Neal Roese, University Doyle, Gainesville College; Steve Duck, University of Iowa; of Illinois; Darrin L. Rogers, Ohio State University; Joan Michael G. Dudley, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville; Rollins, Rhode Island College; Paul Rose, Southern Illinois Karen G. Duffy, State University of New York, Geneseo; Valerie University Edwardsville; Lee D. Ross, Stanford University; Eastman, Drury College; Tami Eggleston, McKendree College; Alex Rothman, University of Minnesota; M. Susan Rowley, Timothy Elliot, University of Alabama–Birmingham; Steve L. Champlain College; Delia Saenz, Arizona State University; Ellyson, Youngstown State University; Cindy Elrod, Georgia Brad Sagarin, Northern Illinois University; Fred Sanborn, State University; Kadimah Elson, University of California, San North Carolina Wesleyan College; Connie Schick, Bloomsburg Diego/Grossmont College; Rebecca S. Fahrlander, University University; Norbert Schwartz, University of Michigan; of Nebraska at Omaha; Alan Feingold, Yale University; Gretchen Sechrist, University at Buffalo; Richard C. Edward Fernandes, East Carolina University; Phil Finney, Sherman, Miami University of Ohio; Paul Silvia, University Southeast Missouri State University; Susan Fiske, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Randolph A. Smith, Ouachita of Massachusetts; Robin Franck, Southwestern College; Denise Baptist University; Linda Solomon, Marymount Manhattan Frank, Ramapo College of New Jersey; Timothy M. Franz, College; Janice Steil, Adelphi University; Jakob Steinberg, St. John Fisher College; William Rick Fry, Youngstown State Fairleigh Dickinson University; Mark Stewart, American University; Russell Geen, University of Missouri; Glenn River College; Lori Stone, University of Texas at Austin; Geher, State University of New York at New Paltz; David JoNell Strough, West Virginia University; T. Gale Thompson, Gersh, Houston Community College; Frederick X. Gibbons, Bethany College; Scott Tindale, Loyola University of Chicago; Iowa State University; Cynthia Gilliland, Louisiana State David M. Tom, Columbus State Community College; David University; Genaro Gonzalez, University of Texas; Jessica Trafimow, New Mexico State University; Ruth Warner, St. Gonzalez, Ohio State University; Sara Gorchoff, University Louis University; Anne Weiher, Metropolitan State College of California, Berkeley; Beverly Gray, Youngstown State of Denver; Gary L. Wells, Iowa State University; Jackie 18 Preface White, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Paul L. Marketing Manager), Louis Fierro (Editorial Assistant), Wienir, Western Michigan University; Kipling D. Williams, and Angel Chavez (Project Manager). We would especially University of Toledo; Tamara Williams, Hampton University; like to thank Thomas Finn (Developmental Editor), who Paul Windschitl, University of Iowa; Mike Witmer, Skagit provided expert guidance with constant good cheer and Valley College; Gwen Wittenbaum, Michigan State University; insight even through barrages of e-mail exchanges and at- William Douglas Woody, University of Northern Colorado; tachments, and Amber Chow (Portfolio Manager), whose Clare Zaborowski, San Jacinto College; William H. Zachry, smart vision for the book, and commitment to making it as University of Tennessee–Martin; Leah Zinner, University of good as it can be, have truly made a difference. Finally, we Wisconsin–Madison thank Mary Falcon, but for whom we never would have We also thank the wonderful editorial staff of Pearson begun this project. for their expertise and professionalism, including Dickson Thank you for inviting us into your classroom. We wel- Musslewhite (Editorial Director), Cecilia Turner (Content come your suggestions, and we would be delighted to hear Producer), Christopher Brown (Executive Product your comments about this book. Elliot Aronson [email protected] Tim Wilson [email protected] Sam Sommers [email protected] Global Edition Acknowledgments This Global Edition is the result of an integrated effort of individuals who have contributed their insights, critiques, and recommendations on this book and the Revel course. We are deeply grateful for these collaborations and reviews: Albert Lee Kai Chung, Nanyang Technological University Lambros Lazuras, Sheffield Hallam University Alizeh Batra Merchant, New York University Abu Dhabi Michael Thai, The University of Queensland About the Authors Elliot Aronson real-world problems. Dr. Aronson’s own recent books for general audiences include Mistakes Were Made (but not by ME), with When I was a kid, we were the only Jewish family in a vir- Carol Tavris, and a memoir, Not by Chance Alone: My Life as ulently anti-Semitic neighborhood. I had to go to Hebrew a Social Psychologist. school every day, late in the afternoon. Being the only youngster in my neighborhood going to Hebrew school made me an easy target for some of the older neighborhood Tim Wilson toughs. On my way home from Hebrew school, after dark, One day when I was 8, a couple of older kids rode up on I was frequently waylaid and roughed up by roving gangs their bikes to share some big news: They had discovered an shouting anti-Semitic epithets. abandoned house down a country road. “It’s really neat,” I have a vivid memory of sitting on a curb after one they said. “We broke a window and nobody cared!” My of these beatings, nursing a bloody nose or a split lip, feel- friend and I hopped onto our bikes to investigate. We had ing very sorry for myself and wondering how these kids no trouble finding the house—there it was, sitting off by could hate me so much when they didn’t even know me. I itself, with a big, jagged hole in a first-floor window. We thought about whether those kids were taught to hate Jews got off of our bikes and looked around. My friend found a or whether, somehow, they were born that way. I wondered baseball-sized rock lying on the ground and threw a per- if their hatred could be changed—if they got to know me fect strike through another first-floor window. There was better, would they hate me less? I speculated about my own something exhilarating about the smash-and-tingle of shat- character. What would I have done if the shoe were on the tering glass, especially when we knew there was nothing other foot—that is, if I were bigger and stronger than they, wrong with what we were doing. After all, the house was would I be capable of beating them up for no good reason? abandoned, wasn’t it? We broke nearly every window in I didn’t realize it at the time, of course, but eventually I the house and then climbed through one of the first-floor discovered that these were profound questions. And some windows to look around. 30 years later, as an experimental social psychologist, I had It was then that we realized something was terribly the great good fortune to be in a position to answer some of wrong. The house certainly did not look abandoned. There those questions and to invent techniques to reduce the kind were pictures on the wall, nice furniture, books in shelves. of prejudice that had claimed me as a victim. We went home feeling frightened and confused. We soon Elliot Aronson is Professor Emeritus at the University of learned that the house was the home of an elderly couple California at Santa Cruz and one of the most renowned social psy- who were away on vacation. Eventually, my parents dis- chologists in the world. In 2002, he was chosen as one of the 100 covered what we had done and paid a substantial sum to most eminent psychologists of the twentieth century. Dr. Aronson repair the windows. For years, I pondered this incident: is the only person in the 120-year history of the American Psycho- Why did I do such a terrible thing? Was I a bad kid? I didn’t logical Association to have received all three of its major awards: think so, and neither did my parents. How, then, could a for distinguished writing, distinguished teaching, and distin- good kid do such a bad thing? Even though the neighbor- guished research. Many other professional societies have honored hood kids said the house was abandoned, why couldn’t my his research and teaching as well. These include the American friend and I see the clear signs that someone lived there? Association for the Advancement of Science, which gave him its How crucial was it that my friend was there and threw highest honor, the Distinguished Scientific Research award; the the first rock? Although I didn’t know it at the time, these American Council for the Advancement and Support of Educa- reflections touched on several classic social psychological tion, which named him Professor of the Year of 1989; the Society issues, such as whether only bad people do bad things, for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, which awarded him whether the social situation can be powerful enough to the Gordon Allport prize for his contributions to the reduction of make good people do bad things, and the way in which prejudice among racial and ethnic groups; and the William James our expectations about an event can make it difficult to see Award from the Association for Psychological Science. In 1992, it as it really is. Fortunately, my career as a vandal ended he was named a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sci- with this one incident. It did, however, mark the beginning ences. A collection of papers and tributes by his former students of my fascination with basic questions about how people and colleagues, The Scientist and the Humanist, celebrates his understand themselves and the social world—questions I contributions to social psychological theory and its application to continue to investigate to this day. 19 20 About the Authors Tim Wilson did his undergraduate work at Williams College had watched was of an actor, and in some versions of the and Hampshire College and received his PhD from the University study he mentioned having a girlfriend. In other versions, of Michigan. Currently Sherrell J. Aston Professor of Psychology he mentioned a boyfriend. What the researchers were actu- at the University of Virginia, he has published numerous articles ally studying was how this social category information of in the areas of introspection, attitude change, self-knowledge, and sexual orientation would influence participants’ attitudes affective forecasting, as well as a recent book, Redirect: The Sur- about the interaction. prising New Science of Psychological Change. His research And then she took out a tape measure. has received the support of the National Science Foundation and The tape measure was to gauge how close to my part- the National Institute for Mental Health. He has been elected ner’s chair I had placed my own chair, the hypothesis being twice to the Executive Board of the Society for Experimental So- that discomfort with a gay partner might manifest in terms cial Psychology and is a Fellow in the American Psychological of participants placing their chairs farther away. Greater Society and the Society for Personality and Social Psychology. In comfort with or affinity for the partner was predicted to 2009, he was named a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts lead to more desire for proximity. and Sciences. In 2015 he received the William James Fellows And at that, I was hooked. The little voice in my head Award from the Association for Psychological Science. Wilson had grown from a whisper to a full-throated yell that this has taught the Introduction to Social Psychology course at the was a field I could get excited about. First of all, the re- University of Virginia for more than 30 years. In 2001 he was searchers had tricked me. That, alone, I thought was, for awarded the University of Virginia All-University Outstand- lack of a better word, cool. But more important, they had ing Teaching Award, and in 2010 was awarded the University of done so in the effort to get me and my fellow participants ­Virginia Distinguished Scientist Award. to reveal something about our attitudes, preferences, and tendencies that we never would have admitted to (or per- Sam Sommers haps even would have been aware of) had they just asked us directly. Here was a fascinatingly creative research de- I went to college to major in English. I only found myself in sign, being used in the effort to study what struck me as an an Intro to Psychology course as a second-semester fresh- incredibly important social issue. man because, well, it just seemed like the kind of thing you Like I said, I was hooked. And I look forward to help- did as a second-semester freshman. It was when we got to ing to introduce you to this field that caught me by surprise the social psychology section of the course that a little voice back when I was a student and continues to intrigue and in my head starting whispering something along the lines inspire me to this day. of, Hey, you’ve gotta admit this is pretty good stuff. It’s a lot like Sam Sommers earned his BA from Williams College and his the conversations you have with your friends about daily life, but PhD from the University of Michigan. Since 2003 he has been a with scientific data. faculty member in the Department of Psychology at Tufts Uni- As part of the class, we had the opportunity to partici- versity in Medford, Massachusetts. His research examines is- pate in research studies for course credit. So one day I found sues related to stereotyping, prejudice, and group diversity, with myself in an interaction study in which I was going to work a particular interest in how these processes play out in the legal on solving problems with a partner. I walked in and it was domain. He has won multiple teaching awards at Tufts, includ- clear that the other guy had arrived earlier—his coat and ing the Lerman-Neubauer Prize for Outstanding Teaching and bag were already hanging on the back of a chair. I was led to Advising and the Gerald R. Gill Professor of the Year Award. He another, smaller room and shown a video of my soon-to-be was also inducted into the Tufts Hall of Diversity for his efforts partner. Then I was given a series of written questions about to promote an inclusive climate on campus for all students. He my perceptions of him, my expectations for our upcoming has testified as an expert witness on issues related to racial bias, session together, and so forth. Finally, I walked back into the jury decision making, and eyewitness memory in criminal trial main area. The experimenter handed me a chair and told proceedings in eight states. He has written two general audience me to put it down anywhere next to my partner’s chair, and books related to social psychology: Situations Matter: Under- that she would go get him (he, too, was presumably com- standing How Context Transforms Your World (2011) and pleting written questionnaires in a private room). This Is Your Brain on Sports: The Science of Underdogs, So I did. I put my chair down, took a seat, and waited. the Value of Rivalry, and What We Can Learn from the Then the experimenter returned, but she was alone. She T-shirt Cannon (2016). He is also co-author of Invitation to told me the study was over. There was no other participant; Psychology (7th edition), along with Carole Wade, Carol Tavris, there would be no problem solving in pairs. The video I and Lisa Shin. Special Tips for Students “T here is then creative reading as well as crea- to other people. Still others are short quizzes that illustrate tive writing,” said Ralph Waldo Emerson in social psychological concepts. 1837, and that aptly sums up what you need to Watch the videos. Our carefully curated collection of in- know to be a proficient student: Be an active, creative con- terviews, news clips, and research study reenactments is sumer of information. How do you accomplish that feat? designed to enhance, and help you better understand, the Actually, it’s not difficult. Like everything else in life, it just concepts you’re reading. If you can see the concept in ac- takes some work—some clever, well-planned, purposeful tion, it’s likely to sink in a little deeper. work. Here are some suggestions about how to do it. Get to Know the Textbook Just Say No to the Couch Believe it or not, in writing this book, we thought carefully about the organization and structure of each chapter. Things Potato Within are presented as they are for a reason, and that reason is to Because social psychology is about everyday life, you might help you learn the material in the best way possible. Here lull yourself into believing that the material is all common are some tips on what to look for in each chapter. sense. Don’t be fooled. The material presented in this book is more complicated than it might seem. Therefore, we want Key terms are in boldface type in the text so that you’ll to emphasize that the best way to learn it is to work with it notice them. We define the terms in the text, and that defi- in an active, not passive, fashion. You can’t just read a chap- nition appears again in the margin. These marginal defini- ter once and expect it to stick with you. You have to go over tions are there to help you out if later in the chapter you the material, wrestle with it, make your own connections to forget what something means. The marginal definitions are it, question it, think about it, interact with it. Actively work- quick and easy to find. You can also look up key terms in ing with material makes it memorable and makes it your the alphabetical Glossary at the end of this textbook. own. Because it’s a safe bet that someone is going to ask you Make sure you notice the headings and subheadings. The about this material later and you’re going to have to pull it headings are the skeleton that holds a chapter together. They out of memory, do what you can to get it into memory now. link together like vertebrae. If you ever feel lost, look back to Here are some techniques to use: the previous heading and the headings before it—this will Go ahead and highlight lines in the text—you can do give you the “big picture” of where the chapter is going. It so in Revel by clicking and dragging the cursor over should also help you see the connections between sections. a sentence; you can even choose your own color, and The summary at the end of each chapter is a succinct short- add a note! If you highlight important points, you will hand presentation of the chapter information. You should read remember those important points better and can scroll it and make sure there are no surprises when you do so. If any- back through them later. thing in the summary doesn’t ring a bell, go back to the chap- Read the chapter before the applicable class lecture, not ter and reread that section. Most important, remember that the afterward. This way, you’ll get more out of the lecture, summary is intentionally brief, whereas your understanding which will likely introduce new material in addition to of the material should be full and complete. Use the summary what is in the chapter. The chapter will give you the big as a study aid before your exams. When you read it over, ev- picture, as well as a lot of detail. The lecture will en- erything should be familiar. When you have that wonderful hance that information and help you put it all together. feeling of knowing more than is in the summary, you’ll know If you haven’t read the chapter first, you may not un- that you are ready to take the exam. derstand some of the points made in the lecture or real- Be sure to do the Try It! exercises. They will make concepts ize which points are most important. from social psychology concrete and help you see how they Here’s a good way to study material: Write out a key can be applied to your own life. Some of the Try It! exercises concept or a study in your own words, without look- replicate social psychology experiments. Others reproduce ing at the book or your notes. Or say it out loud to self-report scales so you can see where you stand in relation ­yourself—again in your own words, with your eyes 21 22 Special Tips for Students closed. Can you do it? How good was your version? of a social psychologist—and try to apply what you Did you omit anything important? Did you get stuck are learning to the behavior of friends, acquaintances, at some point, unable to remember what comes next? If strangers, and, yes, even yourself. In each chapter you so, you now know that you need to go over that infor- will see how other students have done this in brief mation in more detail. You can also study with some- videos called #SurvivalTips. Make sure you use the one else, d ­ escribing theories and studies to each other Try It! exercises. You will find out how much social and seeing if you’re making sense. psychology can help us understand our lives. When If you have trouble remembering the results of an im- you read the news, think about what social psychol- portant study, try drawing your own version of a graph ogy has to say about current events and behaviors; we of the findings (you can use our data graphs for an idea believe you will find that your understanding of daily of how to proceed). You will probably find that you life is richer. If you notice a news article that you think remember the research results much better in pictorial is an especially good example of “social psychology form than in words. Draw the information a few times in action,” please send it to us, with a full reference to and it will stay with you. where you found it and on what page. If we decide to use it in the next edition of this book, we’ll list your Remember, the more you work with the material, the name in the Acknowledgments. better you will learn and remember it. Write it in your own words, talk about it, explain it to others, or draw We realize that 10 years from now you may not re- visual representations of it. member all the facts, theories, and names you learn now. Last but not least, remember that this material is a Although we hope you will remember some of them, our lot of fun. You haven’t even started reading the book main goal is for you to take with you into your future a yet, but we think you’re going to like it. In particu- great many of the broad social psychological concepts pre- lar, you’ll see how much social psychology has to tell sented herein—and, perhaps more important, a critical and you about your real, everyday life. As this course pro- scientific way of thinking. If you open yourself to social gresses, you might want to remind yourself to observe psychology’s magic, we believe it will enrich the way you the events of your daily life with new eyes—the eyes look at the world and the way you live in it. Chapter 1 Introducing Social Psychology Chapter Outline and Learning Objectives Defining Social Psychology Where Construals Come From: Basic Human LO 1.1 Define social psychology and distinguish it from Motives other disciplines. LO 1.3 Explain what happens when people’s need to feel Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, and Common good about themselves conflicts with their need to Sense be accurate. How Social Psychology Differs From Its Closest The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good About Cousins Ourselves The Social Cognition Motive: The Need to Be Accurate The Power of the Situation LO 1.2 Summarize why it matters how people explain and Why Study Social Psychology? interpret events, as well as their own and others’ LO 1.4 Explain why the study of social psychology is behavior. important. Underestimating the Power of the Situation The Importance of Construal 23 24 Chapter 1 WHAT DO YOU THINK? Survey What Do You Think? Revel Interactive SURVEY RESULTS Do you consider yourself good at predicting how people around you will behave and react under different circumstances? Yes No It is a pleasure to be your tour guides as we take you on a journey through the world of social psychology. As we embark on this journey, our hope is to convey our excitement about social psychology—what it is and why it matters. Not only do we, the authors, enjoy teaching this stuff

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