Theories and Models PDF

Theories and Models Theories, Models, and Data - Distinction between theories and models is un- - Unterscheidung zw. Theorien und Modellen unscharf; clear/blurred; terms often used interchangeably. Begriffe oft synonym verwendet - Data patterns suggest theories/models; models...

Theories and Models Theories, Models, and Data - Distinction between theories and models is un- - Unterscheidung zw. Theorien und Modellen unscharf; clear/blurred; terms often used interchangeably. Begriffe oft synonym verwendet - Data patterns suggest theories/models; models need - Datenmuster legen Theorien/Modelle nahe; Modelle validation against facts. durch Fakten überprüft - Explanation moves: - Erklärung bewegt sich: data → theory → model → data. Daten → Theorie → Modell → Daten. - Theories: plausible links between causes and effects. - Theorien: plausible Verknüpfungen von Ursachen u. Wirkungen - Models: schematic representations of reality/possible - Modelle: schematische Darstellungen der Reali- worlds. tät/möglicher Welten - Models help understanding and prediction. - Modelle helfen bei Verständnis u. bei Vorhersagen. - Models are intermediaries between theory and data. - Modelle stehen zw. Theorie und Daten - Data confirm/falsify theories and models. - Daten bestätigen oder widerlegen Theorien/Modelle - Some theories/models have no data link. - Einige Theorien/Modelle keine Datenverbindung - Models without theory common in applied research. - Modelle ohne Theorie in angew. Forschung verbreitet - Useful for smoothing, interpolating, extrapolating. - Nützlich zum Glätten, Interpolieren, Extrapolieren - Combination of theories and models essential to un- - Kombination von Theorien und Modellen essenziell, derstand the world. um Welt zu verstehen Theory (Theorie) Purpose: Explains broad, general principles or phe- Zweck: Erklärt breite, allg. Prinzipien, Phänomene. noms Scope: Broad, often encompassing multiple factors or Umfang: Breit gefasst, umfasst oft mehrere Faktoren variables oder Variablen Function: generates hypotheses & guides further Funktion: Generiert Hypothesen und leitet weitere research Forschung an Level of Abstraction: More abstract and conceptual Abstraktionsgrad: Stärker abstrakt und konzeptionell Explanation vs Prediction: Explains 'why' something Erklärung vs Vorhersage: Erklärt, 'warum' etwas ge- happens schieht Application: conceptual framework for understand- Anwendung: Bietet einen konzeptionellen Rahmen, um ing complex phenomena komplexe Phänomene zu verstehen. Examples: Beispiele: - Overload Principle: Explains that training adapta- - Overload-Prinzip: Erklärt, dass Trainingsanpassun- tions occur when the body is subjected to stresses gen entstehen, wenn der Körper stärker belastet wird greater than usual. als gewohnt. - Central Governor Theory: Proposes the brain regu- - Central Governor Theory: Besagt, dass das Gehirn lates physical effort to prevent harm. körperliche Anstrengung reguliert, um Schäden zu - Sliding Filament Theory: Describes how muscle con- vermeiden. tractions occur through sliding of actin and myosin fil- - Gleitfilament-Theorie: Beschreibt, wie Muskelkon- aments. traktionen durch das Gleiten von Aktin- und Myosinfi- - Simple vs. complex lamenten erfolgen. - Relative Energy Deficiency: influenced by training, life/environmental, mental health, disordered eating, nutrition, sleep, infection/illness, undiagnosed clinical conditions Model (Modell) Purpose: Simplifies and represents a specific aspect Zweck: Vereinfacht und stellt einen spezif. Aspekt oder or process Prozess dar Scope: Narrow focus, often representing one part of Umfang: Enger Fokus, stellt oft nur einen Teil eines a larger system größeren Systems dar Function: Helps predict outcomes and applies theo- Funktion: Hilft, Ergebnisse vorherzusagen, und setzt ries in practice Theorien in die Praxis um Level of Abstraction: More concrete and specific Abstraktionsgrad: Konkreter und spezifischer Explanation vs Prediction: Focuses on 'how' or 'what' Erklärung vs Vorhersage: Konzentriert sich auf 'wie' by simplifying relationships. oder 'was', indem Beziehungen vereinfacht werden. Application: Used as practical tools to represent spe- Anwendung: praktisches Werkzeug, um spezif. Aspek- cific aspects for application or prediction. te darzustellen oder Vorhersagen zu treffen Examples: Beispiele: - FITT Model: Structures exercise programs (Frequen- - FITT-Modell: Strukturiert Trainingsprogramme (Fre- cy, Intensity, Time, Type) based on overload theory. quenz, Intens., Dauer) basierend auf Overload-Prinzip. - Performance Fatigue Model: Represents how the CNS - Performance-Fatigue-Modell: Zeigt, wie das ZNS die regulates exercise intensity to prevent exhaustion. Intensität reguliert, um Erschöpfung zu vermeiden. - Hill Muscle Model: Predicts muscle force production - Hill-Muskelmodell: Sagt die Muskelkraft basierend based on length and velocity of contraction auf Länge und Geschw. der Kontraktion voraus à All truths are model dependent. Scientists can and do àAlle Wahrheiten sind modellabh.,. Wissenschaftler use different models to interpret the common infor- können versch. Modelle verwenden und tun dies auch, mation that is available to all. um die gemeins. Informationen zu interpretieren, die allen zur Verfügung stehen. Why Models? - simplified representation or abstraction of a real- - vereinfachte Darstellung oder Abstraktion eines rea- world system, phenomenon, or process. len Systems, Phänomens oder Prozesses - used to understand, predict, and analyze complex - verwendet, um komplexe Phänomene zu verstehen, phenomena by breaking them down into more manage- vorherzusagen und zu analysieren, indem sie in hand- able and comprehensible components, play a crucial lichere und verständlichere Komponenten zerlegt, role in various scientific disciplines, including physics, spielen entscheidende Rolle in versch. wissenschaftl. chemistry, biology, economics, and many others Disziplinen (Physik, Chemie, Biologie, etc.) Decision-making Tool: Aid coaches and practitioners in - Werkzeug zur Entscheidungsfindung: helfen Trainern making informed decisions based on physiological data. und Praktikern, auf Grundlage physiolog. Daten fun- Standardization: Create a common framework to com- dierte Entscheidungen treffen pare different populations, interventions, and training Standardisierung: Schaffung gemeinsamen Rahmens programs. für Vergleich versch. Populationen, Interventionen und Trainingsprogramme. Periodization: Macrocycle (>10 w.) > Mesocycle (2-10 w.)> Microcycle (1-2 w.) > session Mesocycle (2-10 weeks) Macrocycle ( >10 weeks) Charts 24h continuum & intensity zone tracking of long-distance runners and rowers, differences in waking time of %-HRmax without training intervention à different physical activity in their free time Discussion, thoughts & possible solution strategies - focusing on exercise training, recovery, nutrition, psychological skills, and skill acquisition as key factors - We need a plan, otherwise it’s chaos àeach session, medium/long term àwhat is the vision? - know about athlete: history (stress, injuries, emotion), resources (e.g. strength training, nutrition etc.), limita- tions (musculature, finances, education, health, anthropometry, etc.), suitable structuring? - Depending on sport, athlete & context, different psycho-physical control systems (e.g. daily, 3x/week) - Test batteries differ (biochemical, neuromuscular, psychological) - Establish early warning systems “flagging”, “traffic light” - Small day-by-day variation develop periodization over time - Make information usable (e.g. weekly feedback/criticism/adjustment)  Endurance training models Figure 1 Spectrum of sports - “Maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) sets the upper limit for endurance performance.” Hill 1922 (Nobelpreis) - Peak VO2max: sport students male 45-65, female 40-55 ml/min/kg Children (9 – 11 years): 32 – 55 ml/min/kg Heart transplantation < 12 ml/min/kg Elite HM WR Male 83, M WR Female 75 ml/min/kg Cross Country skiing: male 85-90, female 75-84 ml/min/kg - Fick Equation: VO2 = HR x SV x avO2 diff. (HR x SV = Q (Cardiac output) - maximal lactate steady state (MLSS/MaxLASS): intensity at which lactate production and elimination still bal- anced, any higher intensity leads to an accumulation of blood lactate. - intensities at or below MLSS: exercise duration is primarily limited by glycogen stores in muscles, intensities above MLSS lead to a progressively increasing acidosis, the higher the intensity above MLSS, the shorter the maximal exercise duration. àthreadmill/bicycle-ergometer: 4mmol/l - energy expenditure for constant running speed àsubmax. VO2 at constant speed (running economy “RE”) - speed for quantifying RE: 16-19km/h for well-trained runners, 3-12 km/h for untrained - improve RE: training years, increase in training scope, increase training intensity, altitude training, uphill run- ning, strength training (achilles tendon stiffness), appropriate footwear - number of training years correlates with RE (r = 0.62) - cumulative distance the runner has covered over the years and not training volume per se Skeletal Muscle & Tendon Morphology & Plasticity - Model: protein synthesis - Muscle plasiticity: Catabolic (Necrosis, Sarcopenia, Dys- trophy, Atrophy) vs. Anabolic (Hypertrophy) - Protein intake 1.62 g/kg/day no further gains - Cross-bridge cycle: 1. Pulling (myosin heads pull on actin, muscle shortening = contraction) 2. Letting go: after pulling, myosin head let go of the actin 3. myosin get ready to grab and pull again by using energy from ATP - Hill’s Muscle Force-Length Model: max. power of force at approx. 30% of max. contraction slow movement execution àhigh force development - Adaptation over time: first intramuscular coord. àhypertrophy - Fibre types: 2x: fast twitch, high force, fast fatigue 2a: fast twitch, moderate force, fatigue resistant 1: slow twitch, low force, fatigue resistant àto get to high-threshold motor units, body first recruit lower-threshold motor units - Adaptation: Energy deficiency theory: lack of energy in protein synthesis under stress leads to “overreaction” of protein resynthesis and thus contractile “overbuilding” Mechanical repair: mechanical microtraumas induce increased protein anabolism àexercise stimulus àresponse matrix àsignal transduction àadaption àadaptational effect Health Models - Health: “state of complete phys., mental and social well-being & not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.“ - Biopsychosocial perspective - Continuum, not healthy or ill, influence of stressors and Re- sources, internal and external demands - Risk factors: clouds - Salutogenesis (Antonovsky): - Social-ecological models: determinants of physical activity - Theory of planned behaviour: Attitude + Subject. Norm + Perceived Behavioral Control à Intention à Behavior - Behavior, and exercise and training performance is influenced through various determinants on different levels, from individual to environmental levels - If we want to change the outcome,we need to start to change the important determinants - need to identify explaining and changing theories to alter the determinant and achieve better outcomes  Hypoxia & Training - HKS-Grundprinzipien: O2 enters respiratory system through convection (flow transport) àO2 enters blood- stream via diffusion and binds chemically to Hb àvia diffusion O2 reaches body cells - Blood oxygen saturation curve: pressure: atmosphere > alveols > arterial blod > capillaries mitochondria - Dalton: mixture of non-reacting gases total pressure exerted equal to sum of partial pressures of individ. Gases - pO2 @3000m 108mmHg (O2= 21%), @177m 215 mmHg (O2= 21%), @breathing air with 100% O2 764 mmHg - Rule 1: ambient pO2¯ àtissue O2-saturation¯ àbody tries to elevate O2-saturation mainly by HR­ - Races >800m, the altitude at which competition takes place is crucial - Acute adaptations of Hypoxia: o Heart rate, Hyperventilation, CO2 ventilatory response, Hb­ - Chronic adaptations of Hypoxia o Resting Heart rate over 25 days ¯ o “thickening” of blood: plasma¯, hematocrit­ àdehydration, eryhtrocytes­ (drink!, frequent urination, urine yellow/clear?) o Hb concentration­, capillary densitiy­ Hypoventilation­ - Hypoxic training methods: figure - Meta-Analysis: +1-4% Sea-level performance, +2-7% running economy (1 - > 4weeks) Hyperoxia & Training - Low amount of publications, some studies presented in pdf - Allows to exercise at higher intensities, thus imposing a larger physiological training stess - Large effect of training in hyperoxia on exercise performance, moderate effect for increasing normoxic VO2max - A likely positive effect on performance compared to normoxic training, unclear effect on VO2max - Side effects: damage to alveolar membrane, free radicals, vasoconstriction, drying of airways, equipment Carbon Monoxide (Re)breathing - CO binds to Hb with appr. 240x greater affinity than oxygen - Produced naturally in body as a byproduct of Hb breakdown and other proteins - Signal molecule in body, influencing processes like inflammation and blood vessel dilation - At high concentrations: poisoning àheadache, dizziness, confusion, unconsciousness, death - Inhaling small amount of CO à rebreathing in a closed system à measuring CO levels - Chronic use of CO to induce hypoxia - Studies: daily CO inhalation over 2-3 weeks may increase Hbmass and potentially VO2max, repeated inhalation should be banned, allowable under controlled conditions, WADA’s challenge to monitor, detect and discourage Internal & External Measurements - Tracking and monitoring: o Position: GPS, Video, radio-based tracking (RFID) àindoor vs. outdoor o Physiological parameters: HR, HRV Respiration o Visualization: Video, tactical board o Notation Systems: Notation of Event Data, Analysis of Experts o Team Management Systems: Communication, Planning and Periodization, Scouting - Tracking and Monitoring Systems: Validity & Reliability? Scientific Relevance? E.g. polar, statsports, catapult - What can we measure?: External vs. Internal à Objective vs. Subjective - Selecting Variables: Locomotive – Mechanical – Metabolic àwhich are relevant of each category? àselecting by correlation + providing additional information to work with? àVariable providing new information + suited for training task?  "Thermoregulation" (Billy Sperlich) - Definition and Core Concept o Thermoregulation: Maintaining core body temp. within a normal range: 36.1-37.8 °C o The larger the species, the greater the metabolic rate at rest, the more heat is emitted o Endotherm organisms: regulate body temp. from inside o Ectotherm species: cold-blooded animals, ambient temp., in cold less active, muscle shivering heats o Mechanisms of Heat Regulation: § Heat Production: Muscular activity, hormones, thermic effect of food § Heat Dissipation: Radiation, conduction, convection, and evaporation o Core body temp. may rise above 40°C during intense physical activity, in muscle over 42°, increased muscle temp. àbiomechanical processes accelerated, over 40° heat intolerance o Tbody = 0,65 * Tcore + 0,35*Tskin o Measurements: infrared, Thermography, Telemetric assessment: Core (pill) and skin (sensor), ear = bad o Measurements: - Heat Stress and Adaptation o Heat Production: § At rest: 1.25–1.5 kcal/min § During intense physical work: Up to 15 kcal/min o Heat Dissipation in Exercise: § Evaporation of sweat: Primary mechanism (up to ~35% heat loss) § Increased blood flow to skin (vasodilation) § Convection: heat exchange via a medium (air, water) § Radiation: thermal radiation from electromagn. Waves § Conduction: heat flow in a solid or a stationary fluid § Evaporation: heat loss through evaporation § E.g. dogs no sweat, only over breathing/convection o Heat Acclimatization: § Improves thermoregulation through plasma volume ex- pansion, reduced HR, and improved sweat response § Accelerated via sauna sessions, training in warm clothing, or staying in hot regions - Cold Stress and Adaptation o Acute Cold Responses: § Shivering, vasoconstriction, and increased meta- bolic rate via non-shivering thermogenesis. § Risks include dehydration from increased urine production and fluid loss through respiration. o Exercise in Cold: § Proper clothing prevents heat loss but impairs heat exchange § Wind chill effect exacerbates cooling by lowering perceived temperature - Gender Differences in Thermoregulation o Women generally sweat less than men but are equally capable of maintaining core temperature. o Menstrual cycle influences temperature regulation, with higher body temp. during certain phases (0.3°)  o Differences in skin temperature between gender concerning heating areas (clothing) - Extreme Conditions o Hyperthermia: § Symptoms: Heat exhaustion, cramps, stroke, and multi-organ failure in extreme cases § Not only heat (40°C ok) but problem: humidity and heat!! o Hypothermia: § Core temperature 2% of body weight: reduced performance due to lower SV and increased HR o Sweat loss à blood volume¯ à SV¯ àsince VO2 and avDO2 constant à HF­ àsince HFmax is limited àloss of power o Skin temperature: warm àwhile increasing exercise cooling à from 10 – 30 minutes post training warming (still lower than initial temp.) - Clothing and Heat Exchange o Clothing acts as a thermal insulator and reduces heat dissipation o Tight-fitting clothing minimizes heat loss compared to loose-fit o Material choice (e.g., cotton) affects sweat evaporation and cooling efficiency o American Football: cooling fluid t-shirts o Basic concept: onion 3 layers à1. Cotton/loose (maybe change in long durations) 2. Most important for long duration, 3. Protect for rain, wind (?), in rest: dry layers - Applications in Medicine o Hypothermia Therapy: § Lowering core temperature reduces metabolic rate and oxygen consumption, aiding recovery after cardiac arrest or brain injury (Biomechanics of COD with Implications for S&C (Dr. Daniel Kadlec)) - Influence of agility: multifaceted, including perceptual, cognitive, physical and motor control constraints àcomplicating coaching strategies, understanding this complexity is crucial for effective training - 🤕 Injury Risks: o Injury = Load > Tissue tolerance o External load¯: trunk & pelvis control, knee flexion, foot dynamics o Muscular support­: hip support, quad & hamstring timing, calf complex o Sidestepping high risk for non-contact ACL injuries, emphasizing the need for targeted injury pre- vention strategies in training programs, train movements that replicate game situations. Change of Direction (Philipp Kunz) Terminology of Changing Direction Key Concepts: o Planning and Execution: Two distinct areas in movement o Perceptual Factors: Decision making o Changing Direction Speeds: Physiological execution of movement Intersection of both leads to Agility: o Agility encompasses perception, planning, decision making, and execution o Changing Direction Speed is a subset of agility, not synonymous with agility Influencing Factors of Agility (by Sheppard and Young) Change of Direction categorized into: o Technique o Straight Sprinting speed (SSS) o Anthropometry o Leg muscle qualities § Reactive strength, concentric strength and power, left-right muscle imbalance Perceptual & decision-making factors: § Anticipation § Pattern Recognition § Visual Scanning § Knowledge of Situations Focus for training today: Leg muscle qualities and SSS Anthropometry and Technique: o Not the focus as they are harder to influence through training Methodology in Studies Common approach: o Test athletes for changing direction ability and physiological factors o Measure the correlation between the two Straight Sprinting Speed Correlation with change of direction: o Moderate correlations found in studies (0.33 to 0.55). o Variables affecting correlation: Distance of sprint, angle/number of turns, type of athlete o Relationships between COD, Sprint, Jump and Squat Power Performance Reactive Strength Overview of meta-analysis (2023): o Negative correlation with changing direction speed (better reactive strength = faster speed). o Reactive Strength Index (RSI) calculated through jumping metrics (jump height/contact time).  Average correlation found: -0.42. Concentric Strength and Power Changing direction involves: o Deceleration to speed 0 (eccentric) and then re-acceleration (concentric). Most studies focus on concentric strength correlation due to insufficient eccentric strength research Meta-analysis confirms moderate correlation (0.55). Eccentric Strength Not sufficiently covered in literature until recently: o New findings: high importance in change of direction ability (high force during deceleration) Muscle Imbalance Muscle power and imbalance as a predictor for change of direction speed: o Study indicated right leg dominance could impact performance due to imbalances o Need for more research and less consistent findings, no meta-analysis Conclusion No consistency in testing methods (strength/power (static vs. dynamic), straight sprinting, jumps) Differences between age groups, male/female, sports More research needed for eccentric strength (meta analysis) àCOD multifactorial ability àas S&C Coach specific research needed (sport, age, gender, etc.) Testing Methods Testing Parameters Tests for change of direction must consider: o Familiarization: Reduce learning effects on tests o Time under tension: Different tests have varying effects o Number and angle of turns Common Tests 1. Illinois Agility Test: o Appears misleading as it tests change of direction not agility o Time averages: Male ~16s, Female ~17.5s 2. 505 Test: o Simple change of direction (180-degree turn) o Time averages: Male ~2.5s, Female ~2.7s 3. T-Test: o Involves multiple directional changes o Time averages: Male ~10.5s, Female ~12s àResults: high intraday reliability, all tests assess same physical components àgood intra comparability of the tests, but there’s no gold standard Conclusion: Practical Recommendations Holistic training (sport specific) Additional training: influencing factors? Focus on athlete’s weaknesses! Don’t forget to decelerate! Testing COD: does test reflect my requirements?