The Structure of Congress PDF

The Structure of Congress- Congress is bicameral - 2 chambers- - The HOR- lower house, with 435 congress people- each congressperson represents a congressional district. Minimum age of 25, and all serve 2 years- the majority of their time is spent campaigning. US...

The Structure of Congress- Congress is bicameral - 2 chambers- - The HOR- lower house, with 435 congress people- each congressperson represents a congressional district. Minimum age of 25, and all serve 2 years- the majority of their time is spent campaigning. US citizen for 7 years. Reside in state - The senate- Upper house of Congress- it has 100 members- each serve 6 years- each represent 2 senators- ⅓ senators are contested at every election. Minimum age is 30 and US citizen for 9 years. Reside in State. The bicameral legislature was put in place in the philadelphia convention in 1787 in order to solve the issue of underrepresentation of states. The sentate ensures that small state are equally represented, and the proportional house of reprensitatievs ensures taht smaller states are not overepresented. For example states like california that have a population of 40 million have 52 representatives. 7 smaller states have only 1 such as Alaska (700,000). Roles of Congress- - Passing legislation - federal law - Represnting the people - intrests of constituents - Overseeing the exeucitev- scurtnise and check on the president. Legislative Congress initiates The Affordable Demonstrates powers legislation. Both houses Care Act Congress's critical must approve a bill. (2010), passed role in shaping Once a bill has been after significant domestic policy approved, it is sent to debate in both and addressing the president, where it houses of national issues will either be signed, Congress. through legislation. vetoed, or "left on the president's desk."  Overriding a In the event of a The Justice Highlights the presidential veto presidential veto, Against balance of power Congress decides Sponsors of between whether to amend or Terrorism Act Congress and the abandon the bill or to (2016), president, override the veto. overridden allowing Congress can override despite Congress to the president's veto if it President assert its authority has a two-thirds Obama's veto. over vetoed majority in each house. legislation. Initiating Any amendment to The 27th Reflects the amendments to the the Constitution Amendment difficulty of Constitution needs a two-thirds (1992), which changing the majority in both limits Constitution, houses. Once it congressional ensuring only passes Congress, pay increases, widely supported the amendment is took over 200 changes are then sent to the years to be made. states for approval. ratified. Ratifying treaties Presidents The Treaty of Demonstrates the (Senate only) negotiate treaties, Versailles (1919) Senate's crucial role but they cannot be was rejected by in foreign policy, ratified (made the Senate, often serving as a official) without a preventing the U.S. check on two-thirds majority from joining the presidential in the Senate. League of Nations. authority. Declaring war Both houses must The Shows the vote for a declaration declaration of constitutional of war. This power has war against requirement for not been used since Japan in congressional approval 1941. Modern 1941 after the in major military presidents avoid Pearl Harbor conflicts, though asking Congress for a attack. modern presidents formal declaration of often bypass this with war. other measures. Congressional Congress must The Watergate Highlights oversight approve federal hearings Congress's ability budgets. (1973), which to check and Congressional exposed investigate the committees also allow presidential executive branch, congressional abuses of reinforcing the oversight and power. system of checks investigation of the and balances. executive. Confirming presidential Senate confirmation is The Senate Shows the appointments (Senate required for all confirmation of Senate's only) presidential Justice Amy influence over appointments to the Coney Barrett shaping the federal judiciary. Many to the Supreme judiciary and presidential Court in 2020. executive appointments to the branch executive branch also leadership. need Senate confirmation. Impeachment and Only the House of The Demonstrates removal from office Representatives can impeachment the high impeach a public official. of President threshold for A simple majority in the Donald Trump removal, House is needed for (2019 and reflecting the impeachment. Only the 2021), though principle of due Senate can try he was process and impeachments. A acquitted in preventing two-thirds majority the Senate misuse of this Senate vote is needed both times. power. for a guilty verdict, which results in the official's immediate removal from office. Electing the president This The 1824 election, where Rarely used, but and vice president in the power John Quincy Adams was it reflects event of a hung Electoral has not chosen by the House of Congress's College needed Representatives after no ability to resolve to be candidate received a contested used majority in the Electoral presidential since College. elections. 1824. The legislative process in Congress- 2022-24= 3% of Bills itnroduced are passed- decreasing trend- 8% in the 1980s- hyperparitsnship is making the legisalitve process difffult It is increasingly difficult to pass legislation in Congress because it requires bi-paritisnhip.  Goes through both houses simultaneously, no legislative ping pong like the UK. So in soem aspects its efficient-Foudnign fathers wanted it to be difficult- preferred slow orgianc change. Aspe Descripti Significa Exam ct on nce ple Introduction of a Bill A bill is introduced The starting point The Civil Rights by a member of of the legislative Act of 1964 was Congress (House process; allows introduced in the or Senate) and lawmakers to House of assigned a number address specific Representatives (e.g., H.R. for issues or concerns as H.R. 7152. House bills, S. for by proposing new Senate bills). laws. Committee Referral The bill is sent to a Committees serve The Affordable relevant committee, as the Care Act (2010) where it is studied, "gatekeepers" of was extensively debated, and legislation, debated in the possibly amended. ensuring only House Ways and Committees may well-vetted bills Means and hold hearings and proceed to the full Senate Finance seek expert chamber for a vote. Committees. opinions. Committee Action The committee may Enables specialized The Judiciary vote to approve, review of legislation Committee amend, or reject the by lawmakers with approved the bill. If approved, it is expertise in specific Voting Rights Act sent to the full policy areas, of 1965 before it  chamber for strengthening the moved to the full consideration. quality of proposed House for laws. debate. Floor Debate The bill is debated by the Encourages open The Civil full chamber. Members discussion of Rights Act of may propose further proposed laws, 1964 saw amendments. Debate allowing legislators extensive rules vary between the to voice concerns, debate, House (strict rules) and propose changes, or including the Senate (filibusters advocate for the bill. filibusters in allowed). the Senate. Voting A vote is held in the Demonstrates The House originating chamber. If majority support for approved the approved, the bill legislation, ensuring Infrastructure moves to the other that laws reflect the Investment and chamber for will of elected Jobs Act in 2021 consideration. Voting representatives and, by a vote of methods include voice by extension, the 228-206. vote, roll call, and electorate. electronic voting. Consideration in the The other chamber Provides an The Senate Other Chamber considers the bill. It additional layer of amended the may approve, amend, scrutiny, ensuring Affordable or reject it. If balanced Care Act amendments are representation before sending made, the bill returns from both it back to the to the originating chambers of House for final chamber for Congress. approval. reconciliation. Conference If the two chambers Ensures The conference Committee pass different versions consistency and committee of the bill, a conference agreement resolved committee (comprising between the differences in the members from both House and Tax Cuts and chambers) reconciles Senate, Jobs Act of 2017, the differences and avoiding allowing it to pass produces a final legislative both chambers. version. conflicts. Final Approval The reconciled bill is Demonstrates The final version sent back to both bicameral support of the CARES Act chambers for a final for the legislation, (2020) was vote. If approved by reinforcing the approved by both both, it is sent to the principle of checks chambers before president for and balances. being sent to the signature or veto. president. Presidential Action The president can sign Provides a critical President the bill into law, veto it, check on legislative Lyndon B. or take no action power, ensuring the Johnson (pocket veto if executive branch signed the Congress adjourns, or has input into the Civil Rights it becomes law after 10 law-making Act of 1964 days if Congress is in process. into law. session). Overriding a Veto If the president Reinforces Congress vetoes the bill, Congress’s authority overrode Congress can and ensures that the President override the veto president cannot Nixon’s veto of  with a two-thirds unilaterally block the War Powers majority vote in both widely supported Resolution in chambers. legislation. 1973. Composition of Congress- Congress has been ciriticsed for failing to reflect the diversity of US society. US is forecasted to become minority white by 2045 when white people will make less than 50% of the population. Congress is ‘white,pale and stale’. - COngress is graduly becoming more repsitve of society- the 117th congress was the most ractailly diverse congress,- first 2 muslim women where elected,and 4 native american where elected. At 29 AOC was the youngest congressperson. She and 3 other democrat congresswomen of colour where known as the squas- and repsnritnga new age of progressive politics. However congress is still sigifanclty undeprespetned- 2018 midterms more women rean for congress then ever partly as a reaction to Clintosn 2016 defeat. The resulting 116th congress had the largest population of women (24%) in US history. Surpassed again in 117th (27%), although the US population is majority female. Women are better represneted in the democrat party. Republicans made up 37 of the 142 women in 117th. Hispanics are the largest ethnic minority in the US and make up 18% of the popualtion- just 9% of the 117th congress. Of the 52 Hispanic members, 46 were in the house, 6 in senate. Record number of blacks in 117th congres, 52 in house and 3 in senate. 58 where democrats adn 3 ehre repubclains. Those with no religion remiaed teh most underpersted in congress. Total of 23% are atheist in US but only one membe of the 117th congress was. (Simena, democrat senotra for Arizona). 11 openly LGBTQ members of congress. Share Comparison of the 110th, 117th, and 118th U.S. Congresses Demographi 110th Congress 117th Congress 118th Congress c Group (2007–2009) (2021–2023) (2023–2025) Women 16% (74 in the 27% (118 total: 28% (149 total: House, 16 in the 94 in the House, 124 in the House, Senate) 24 in the Senate) 25 in the Senate) People of Approximately 22% 25% Color 13% African 42 members 12% 13% Americans Hispanic 27 members 9% 10% Americans Asian 4 members 4% 4% Americans Religious Predominantly Predominantly Predominantly Representati Christian Christian (88%) Christian on First Muslim and 0.2% no religion Gradual increase Buddhist in diversity members LGBTQ+ Not recorded 2% Approximately 3% Representati on Average Age 55.9 years 58.4 years 57.9 years (House) Average Age 61.7 years 64.3 years 64.0 years (Senate) Professional Dominated by Similar trends Continued Background law, business, (99% have dominance by law, and public university business, and service degrees) public service Reasons for undereprestion- Many memerbs of congress first sevre in state legiaure, where women and agrcain americans are also underpresitned. Their can be ahsotgae of suitable conadte for congress, Better reprsted in house than the senate, ebcuase of the existence of minaoiry and majority dicsitrs in which a majority of voters are smae minsoirty ethnic gorup- this does nto apply to senate- Gerrymandering. Historically more male dominated than today- hisotircally created a off putting environment for women. The senate swimming pool was male only till 2009 and allowed men to bathe naked Also have the be physically present making it difficult for those seeking maternity leave when senate is in session 2018- Tammy Duckwirth was the first senator to have a baby while in office, adn she convey the senate to change its rules to allow young children into the chamber. Terms of office- The result of 2 years in HOR- has created a dynamic but possibtl unstable political enviroment- very quickly refelct changes in puublic opinion. Senotrs are more expricedn and take a view of more long term issues as they dont face elections freiwutly. Allows them to take decisions that might be unpopual in the short term. The snetat acts as a barrier agaistn votlaite swigns to public opinion. The party with a majority is unlikely to change in the senate in midterms elections. Senate cools legislation passed by the house., like how a aucer cools hot tea. PArty alleigeicen- OCngress is domaited by the main two parties. All but 2 senators where R or D and all HOR where Bernie Sanders of Vermont and Angus King of Maine They belong however ot democrat caucuases and closely aling themselves during voting with them BS also stood as a presidnetail candidate in 2016 adn 2020. Debates concerning the functions and powers and effectiveness of Congress- Legislation- Congress is the federal legislature and responsible for initiating, ebating, ammednign and passing elgiaton. Gridlock 1. 2018–2019 Government Gridlock hinders Congress's Shutdown: Stalemate over ability to enact laws on critical border wall funding between a issues, eroding public trust and Republican Senate and leading to inefficiencies like Democratic House led to a government shutdowns or 35-day shutdown. unresolved crises. 2. Debt Ceiling Crisis (2011): Disagreement between Congress and President Obama led to a credit downgrade for the U.S. 3. Gun Control (2013): After Sandy Hook, Congress failed to pass expanded background checks due to gridlock. Divided Government 1. Merrick Garland Divided government fosters Nomination (2016): partisan conflict, often resulting Republican Senate blocked in legislative paralysis or Obama’s Supreme Court contentious policy reversals nominee. that undermine public 2. Affordable Care Act confidence in governance. Repeal (2017): A Republican Congress attempted to repeal the ACA but failed due to internal divisions. 3. Clinton Impeachment (1998): Republican House impeached President Clinton, but the Senate acquitted him. Filibuster 1. Civil Rights Act of 1964: The filibuster empowers minority Southern Democrats parties to block legislation, filibustered for 60 days but safeguarding against hasty were eventually overcome. decisions but frequently stalling 2. For the People Act important and widely supported (2021): Republicans reforms. filibustered voting rights legislation in the Senate. 3. Dream Act (2010): Filibuster prevented legislation granting legal status to undocumented immigrants brought to the U.S. as children. Cloture 1. Civil Rights Act of 1964: Cloture is a critical tool to Cloture was invoked to break counteract filibusters, but the the filibuster, the first time it need for a supermajority often was successfully used for civil makes its success challenging, rights legislation. especially in a hyper partisan 2. Judicial Nominations environment. (2013): Senate Democrats reduced the cloture threshold to a simple majority for judicial appointments. 3. Bipartisan Infrastructure Bill (2021): Cloture enabled Senate debate to advance despite Republican opposition. Does congress perform its legislative function effectively - Yes- - Congress has passed the transformative legislation including Obamas patient protection and affroadbale care act 2010, whihc reformed healthcare in teh US - Major legaltion is more likely to be passed inperiods of unified government- 2009 to 2010 - Even during a period of hyperparitsn compromise is possible. Republicans and Democrats both worked together to pass the first step act 2018, whic reformed the criminal justice system. It passed 87-12 votes int eh senate and 358-36 votes in the House, demostraign bi=paritisan support. - Congress can pass emergency legisaiton when it need to - responded to the COVID 19 with a 2.1 billion fiscal stimulus. Teh CARES act 2021. - Reject legislation proposed by the execitev, which is an important heck on the power of hte president. No- - Only ⅔% of bills get passed- 1980s it was 6/7% - The 112th congress passed 283 bills, least productive in US history - The 115th COngress passed 442 bills, but a third of these where ceremonial, so didnt produce a substantial change. - Gridlock is common, paritusalry in the current climate of polirisitaion, which makes bi=paritisnaship diffuclt - Meerbs of the sentate can filibuster bills, contributing to gridlock - Increased use of closed rules by the HOuse rules committee has reduced the number fo amended on house bills, which prevents legislation form being improved - Watering down of key bills - Presidetnal vetos are raely overutend 1/10 obama. 4/12 trump. Supermajority. Oversight- One of congress function is to oversee, inveitgate, adn scurntise the acitveis of the federal governetmn Political factros determine the success of this usually- - During periods of divided government the majority of one or both houses of Congress has an incentive to investigate their opponents in the executive, - Winning the house in 2018 the House launched investigation relsuting in Trumps impeahcemtn During periods of unfied governetmn it is weaker- only if the president has control over his own party (Trump had a unified government but still couldnt repeal obamacare in his first 100 days) - Presidents who face high approavlr stings face less opposition form congress- congress has low approval ratings (8%) so its politcially difficult for them to hamper a popular preisdnts. GWB had 90% approval ratings and enjoyed less conrgessionla scuirnty Investigating the executive- Standing and select committee inveitagte the actions of executive. Hold hearings and can comple witness to provied information to inevsigation. Lying is a cirme with possible prison sentnes (compare to AMber Rudd) The threat of invesigaiton shoudl motiavate the exeucitev to ensure tis aciton are legal btu also to ensure that it can handle the media attention- these are televised- Watergate Scandal (1973-74): The Senate Watergate Committee compelled testimony from Nixon’s staff, leading to his resignation after tapes revealed misconduct. January 6th Committee (2022): Televised hearings investigated the Capitol riots, revealing executive branch involvement. Amber Rudd Resignation (2018): The UK Home Secretary resigned after giving false information in a parliamentary inquiry, demonstrating accountability in oversight. Clinton Impeachment (1998): Judiciary Committee hearings into the Monica Lewinsky scandal damaged Clinton's reputation but polarized public opinion. Fast and Furious Scandal (2012): Exposed mismanagement within the Justice Department, demonstrating how investigations highlight operational flaws. FEMA and Hurricane Katrina (2005): Congressional probes into FEMA’s inadequate disaster response prompted future administrations to reform disaster preparedness. Some ivetgaitons are intended to smear political oppositons with bad publciaity instead of good overisgitn. Even with good publcisty results are tnagibe; - Benghazi Hearings (2015): Critics argued the investigation focused more on damaging Hillary Clinton's reputation than improving embassy security. Trump Impeachment Investigations (2019 & 2021): While addressing abuse of power and incitement of insurrection, both faced accusations of political motivation. Iran-Contra Affair (1987): While uncovering illegal arms sales, the investigation also served as a partisan battlefield. Huge workload for congress and therefore they are helped by the GOA. However these have all been cut. Staff at GOA,CBO adn CRS were cut by 45% between 1975 and 2015 - Post-9/11 Investigations: Despite limited resources, agencies supported congressional probes into intelligence failures. Affordable Care Act Oversight (2010): Reduced staff constrained Congress's ability to oversee the ACA's implementation effectively. Confirmation of nominees- Senate ocnfimaiton encourages preisndets to nominate capable high quality individuals. The confirmation process has been ciricised for being highly politicized. A preisdent taht contorls the senate has theri nomianton confirmed even ifn the nominee is highly contreversial or posses quesitonabel ability. - Example: Brett Kavanaugh's Supreme Court Confirmation (2018)  Context: President Donald Trump nominated Brett Kavanaugh to the Supreme Court. At the time, the Senate was controlled by the Republican Party, which aligned with the president. Controversy: Kavanaugh faced significant allegations of sexual misconduct, questions about his judicial temperament, and intense public opposition. Despite the controversy, the Republican-controlled Senate confirmed his nomination by a narrow vote of 50-48. Significance: This case demonstrates how a president with Senate control can secure confirmation for a nominee even amid substantial controversy. It highlights the influence of party loyalty in the confirmation process and raises concerns about whether nominees are evaluated based on merit or partisan interests. Example: Betsy DeVos's Confirmation as Secretary of Education (2017) Context: President Donald Trump nominated Betsy DeVos to serve as Secretary of Education. The Republican Party controlled the Senate at the time. Controversy: DeVos faced widespread criticism for her lack of experience in public education and limited knowledge of key education policies, such as federal laws regarding students with disabilities (e.g., the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act). Her confirmation hearings exposed gaps in her understanding of basic education issues. Outcome: Despite her controversial performance during the hearings, DeVos was confirmed by the Senate in a 51-50 vote, with Vice President Mike Pence casting the tie-breaking vote. Significance: This example illustrates how Senate control by the president's party can lead to the confirmation of nominees who face questions about their qualifications or suitability for the role. It highlights the potential prioritization of political loyalty over expertise in key appointments. The senate also block for a partisian reason- Obama's supreme court nominee merrick Garland , Impeachment- HAs only occurred 3 times and no president has ever actually been impeached. Bill clinton was impchead in 1998 for hsi actions with Monica lewinsky- his reputation nevere really recovered Nixon resigned in 1974 over the watergate scandal over the threat of impeachment Tehy can also impeach other governetment official- in theory it pushes memebrs of the execuitev to follow the law Trump was impeached twice. First time he was acquitted by the senate (52-48). Surpsignly immiedalt after his acquital his popoualrity reached its peak of 49%. The contvresy had no impact on his approval, if anythjgi possitev impact- so impeachment is limited. His second impahcemtn trial occured after he left office. Senate ratificaiton of treaties- President negotiates them adn teh senate must ratify them - forces the branches to work togehter. Agreeemtn is no always possibel- - Treaty of versialles 1920- caused a period of isolantionism of the US, perhaps conbrtied to WW2 - The comprheisve trest ban treaty 1990- would of banned the testing of nuclear weapons - The conveiton of hte rigth of persons with dsblites, a UN treaty that protects the rights of disabled (2012) Does congress fuffil its overisight fucntion effecitvly Power of the purse- In order for peoples represtievets give their conest on taxation- conittuion gives congress power of the purser, Only congress cna raise rveenye for federal governetm, All tax bills mus talso bu started in the house. Government shutdowsn occur when the execuitev and legislative are not prepared to compromise. Most govenremtn shutdowns are partial (last one or 2 days), increasing trend of them lasitng longer. 2018-19- 35 day ogveremntn shutdown 2017- 21 day government shutdwon The execuitevof often may be forec to make concession o congress to keep the federal government running. Trump found a way to bypass congress power of the purse in 2019- by declaring national emergency to access emerhgcy funding for boarder wall. Party system - congressional caucasus Group of people in congress that work toegthet ot achieve similar legislative aims. Many caucasus are party ones in both H adn S. Smaller ones act as ideologicla groups- usually factions. Freedom house cacua- 45 members i Congressional progressive scauca= 100 democrat Some are bi paritiasn - - Herion and Opioc task force - Climate solutions caucasus - Congressional black caucas- but only 4 reps have ever joined it. Mnay include memebrs form both houses. The congressiona black caucas had 55 memerbs in 2019, two of whom where senators. Smaller caucases can be powerful, even acting as alternaitev infleucens to the party leadership. At the start fo 2018 the house freedom cause opposed trump budget, forcing the repubocians to depend on democrat to pass teh bill. Party leadership- - The majority leader if they hold a majority in that chamber - The minority leader if they hold a minority in that camber Act as the floor leaders in btoh chambers, plna the legisitev agedan and coordinate their party for votes adn debates. Their job is trye ot achieve party unity. The speakers ofHOR is the most high profile ldeaerhips position in congress, Elected by all memerbs of the house, so blengs to the majority party.They determine the legislative aegean for hte house and choose members of conference adn select committees. The cosntittuion places the speaker second only to the VP in the line of presdneital succession If the speaker is from different party ot the exeucitev, tehy preview the main focus of opposition ot preisndet. The speaker is supported by the house majority leader who follows teh speakers agena by scheuelign legialton for consdeiign by the house- laso helps by the assietn speaker, party whip and cahir of the party caucus. Party dicsplien - Traditional been weak. Majority and minsoirty parry whips in each camber, orgaisnei pary memerbs to vote directly y the learhrip, how3eer their power is limited. The separation of powers prevents party leade form offeirng ogvenment positon to congress peosons. Enhanced Notes on Congressional Committees Standing Committees Permanent committees that focus on specific areas of policy Definition: such as foreign affairs, agriculture, or defense. There are 20 standing committees in the House and 16 in the Senate. Much of their work occurs in subcommittees. Composition: Party representation within committees reflects the proportions in the House or Senate. Roles and Responsibilities: ○ Legislation: Hold hearings during the committee stage of bills to listen to and question witnesses and vote on whether the bill should proceed to the full House or Senate.  Example: The House Judiciary Committee's hearings on the impeachment of Donald Trump (2019) set the stage for articles of impeachment. Example: The Senate Armed Services Committee reviews defense-related legislation critical for military policy and budget allocation. ○ Oversight and Investigation: Focus on executive actions within their policy area, ensuring legal compliance and effective governance. Example: The Senate Finance Committee investigated tax evasion by multinational corporations, influencing tax reforms in the 2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act. Example: The House Oversight Committee investigated federal COVID-19 response strategies in 2020. ○ Confirmation of Presidential Appointments (Senate Only): Committees conduct public hearings to assess nominees' qualifications and suitability for office. Example: The Senate Judiciary Committee’s hearings on Brett Kavanaugh’s Supreme Court nomination (2018) became a high-profile public test of the nominee’s suitability. Committee votes often influence the likelihood of Senate confirmation. Strengths: ○ Long-term members develop expertise in specific policy areas, improving legislative scrutiny and oversight. Example: Senator Chuck Grassley, a senior member of the Senate Finance Committee, has consistently influenced agricultural and financial policy due to his expertise. ○ Media Attention: High-profile hearings attract significant media focus, enhancing their role as a check on executive power. Example: The Senate Foreign Relations Committee's grilling of Secretary of State Antony Blinken on Afghanistan withdrawal policy (2021).  Weaknesses: ○ Limited Authority: Standing committees cannot legislate directly, compel executive compliance, or implement policies. ○ Potential Politicization: Investigations, especially into executive actions, may prioritize political agendas over substantive oversight. House Rules Committee A powerful committee in the House of Representatives that Definition: sets the rules for floor debate on bills. Roles and Responsibilities: ○ Determines how long bills are debated and whether amendments can be proposed (open or closed rules). Example: In 2017-2019, 56% of bills were debated under closed rules, restricting amendments and limiting minority party influence. ○ Uses majority party control to decide which bills reach the floor for debate. Example: In 2021, the committee prioritized the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, ensuring timely debate. ○ Can force debate on bills if an absolute majority of congresspersons sign a discharge petition. Example: A 2002 discharge petition on the McCain-Feingold campaign finance reform bill overcame Rules Committee resistance. Strengths: ○ Gives the majority party significant power to control the legislative agenda. ○ Chairpersons wield considerable influence, enabling them to advance specific policies or personal agendas.  Example: Former Chair Pete Sessions allegedly leveraged his position to secure millions in lobbying donations. Weaknesses: ○ Increasing use of closed rules restricts bipartisan collaboration and limits legislative flexibility. ○ Smaller membership skewed toward the majority party often exacerbates partisan divides. Conference Committees Temporary committees convened when the House and Definition: Senate pass different versions of the same bill. Roles and Responsibilities: ○ Reconcile differences between House and Senate bills, producing a final version sent back for a vote. Example: The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (2017) was reconciled in conference committee to align corporate and individual tax provisions. ○ Ensures compromise and legislative clarity when discrepancies arise. Strengths: ○ Critical in resolving differences between chambers, ensuring coherent legislation. Example: The Affordable Care Act (2010) was finalized in conference to align complex provisions on healthcare coverage and funding. Weaknesses: ○ Use of conference committees has declined significantly over time (e.g., 67 times in 1995–1997; only 7 times in 2017–2019), with party leaders preferring alternative reconciliation methods to maintain control.  Example: Leaders circumvented conference committees during budget negotiations in 2019 to avoid losing influence over the final bill. Select Committees Temporary committees established to address urgent or Definition: specific issues, though some are permanent (e.g., House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence). Roles and Responsibilities: ○ Investigate pressing issues to prevent standing committees from being overloaded. Example: The Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (2017-2020) investigated Russian interference in the 2016 Presidential election. ○ Conduct high-profile hearings to address public concerns. Example: The Select Committee on the January 6th Attack (2021-2022) exposed executive and legislative complicity in the Capitol riot. Strengths: ○ Specialized focus allows for detailed investigations and public accountability. Example: The Church Committee (1975) revealed illegal surveillance activities by the FBI and CIA, leading to significant intelligence reforms. ○ Creates pressure on the executive to ensure legal and ethical actions that can withstand scrutiny. Weaknesses: ○ Often lack legislative authority, limiting their ability to enforce recommendations. ○ Politicization of select committee work can undermine credibility and effectiveness.  Example: The Benghazi Select Committee (2014-2016) faced criticism for prioritizing political attacks over substantive policy improvements. General Analysis 1. Effectiveness of Committees: Congressional committees remain indispensable for ensuring legislative efficiency, public accountability, and executive oversight. Their specialized expertise enables them to handle the complexity of modern governance. 2. Challenges: Politicization, limited enforcement powers, and the growing influence of party leaders weaken the independent oversight capacity of committees. 3. Trend of Decline: The decreasing use of conference committees and increasing reliance on closed rules highlight Congress's drift toward centralized, partisan control at the expense of broader legislative input. Enhanced Notes: Representative Role of Senators and Representatives Communicating with Constituents Members of Congress (MOCs) communicate with their Description: constituents through visits to their state or district, including town hall meetings, and by leveraging modern tools like social media, email, and newsletters to inform and engage the public. Examples: ○ Town Halls: Senator Elizabeth Warren held numerous town halls to discuss healthcare reforms and answer constituent questions during debates over the Affordable Care Act (2017).  ○ Social Media Engagement: Representative Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez uses platforms like Instagram and Twitter to interact directly with constituents and explain legislative processes. ○ Emails and Newsletters: Senator Bernie Sanders sends regular email updates to his constituents, detailing his work in Congress and seeking feedback. Analysis: ○ Effective communication strengthens the link between legislators and constituents, ensuring that voters feel represented and heard. ○ Social media offers direct access to constituents but can also lead to polarization and misinformation. ○ Frequent town halls and digital engagement signal transparency and accountability, but they may prioritize vocal constituents over silent majorities. Passing Legislation Members debate, amend, and vote on legislation with their Description: constituents' needs in mind, guided by either the delegate model (reflecting constituents' preferences) or the trustee model (exercising personal judgment). Examples: ○ Delegate Model: Senator Joe Manchin (D-WV) opposed some Biden administration policies, citing his constituents' preferences in coal-dependent West Virginia. ○ Trustee Model: Senator John McCain’s (R-AZ) dramatic "thumbs-down" vote against repealing the Affordable Care Act (2017) reflected his personal judgment despite pressure from his party. ○ Legislation and Constituents: Representative Lauren Underwood (D-IL) advocated for healthcare reforms specifically  targeting issues faced by rural and suburban constituents in Illinois. Analysis: ○ Balancing local needs with national interests is a constant tension in the legislative process. ○ While the delegate model enhances democratic representation, the trustee model allows for nuanced, expert-driven decisions that may conflict with immediate public sentiment. ○ Partisan divides can complicate this balance, forcing legislators to prioritize party loyalty over constituents' preferences. Committee Membership Members of Congress sit on committees that align with Description: their expertise or help them defend their state's or district's interests. Examples: ○ Senate Agriculture Committee: Senators from farming-heavy states like Iowa and Kansas often serve on this committee to shape agricultural policy beneficial to their constituents. ○ House Transportation Committee: Representative Peter DeFazio (D-OR) championed infrastructure legislation to address local transportation challenges in Oregon. ○ Energy and Commerce Committee: Members from energy-rich states advocate for policies supporting their industries, as seen with Representative Fred Upton (R-MI) pushing for energy deregulation. Analysis: ○ Committee membership allows legislators to bring specialized expertise and advocate for policies that directly benefit their constituents. ○ However, this focus can lead to regional bias, where national interests are overshadowed by local concerns.  ○ Committees also offer opportunities to negotiate bipartisan compromises, though partisan tensions often hinder this potential. Lobbying the Executive Description:Legislators lobby the executive branch for funding and policies that benefit their constituents, often through controversial practices like pork-barrel spending. Examples: ○ Pork-Barrel Spending: In 2011, Congress passed legislation to limit pork-barrel projects by reducing earmarks, leading to decreased funding from 2012-2017. However, pork funding increased dramatically to $15 billion annually in 2018 and 2019. ○ Federal Funding for Districts: Senator Ted Stevens (R-AK) famously secured funding for the "Bridge to Nowhere," a project criticized as unnecessary but aimed at benefiting Alaskan communities. ○ Natural Disaster Relief: Representative Cedric Richmond (D-LA) lobbied for increased FEMA funding after Hurricane Katrina to support his district's recovery. Analysis: ○ Lobbying helps legislators deliver tangible benefits to their districts, strengthening their reelection prospects. ○ However, excessive or wasteful pork-barrel spending undermines public trust and diverts funds from national priorities. ○ The resurgence of earmarks illustrates the enduring demand for localized funding, despite efforts to curtail them. Constituency Casework  Members of Congress assist constituents with individual Description: issues, such as benefit payments, immigration applications, or navigating government decisions. Staff play a crucial role in resolving these problems. Examples: ○ Veterans Affairs Assistance: Representative Debbie Dingell (D-MI) resolved issues for veterans facing delays in receiving benefits, highlighting Congress's role in addressing bureaucracy. ○ Immigration Casework: Senator Richard Durbin (D-IL) helped constituents navigate delays in citizenship applications during periods of administrative backlog. ○ Natural Disaster Aid: Representative Sheila Jackson Lee (D-TX) assisted constituents in securing FEMA aid after Hurricane Harvey. Analysis: ○ Casework showcases Congress's personal connection with constituents, allowing members to directly address individual needs. ○ Effective casework can enhance public perception of legislators but also risks overshadowing larger policy work. ○ Staffing limitations may restrict the scope of casework, especially in districts with high constituent demand. General Analysis 1. Balancing National and Local Roles: Senators and representatives must navigate the tension between advancing national policy and addressing localized needs, which can sometimes conflict. 2. Effectiveness: Communication tools like social media have increased accessibility, but they can also amplify partisan divides and misinformation.  3. Challenges: Practices like pork-barrel spending and excessive focus on casework may distract from broader legislative responsibilities, but they remain critical for political survival and maintaining voter trust. Evalauting represetion- Congress is unpopualr, but individual memerbs of congress are likelty to be reelected. More than 90% of incumbenetn cndaies are typically reutrend to the house, and releciton for the senate are nearly as high. OCnsituens feel individual memerbs are doing good- results it fewer comeptiitev electoral distiricts. Election House Incumbent Senate Incumbent Year Re-election Rate Re-election Rate 2008 94% 83% 2010 85% 84% 2012 90% 91% 2014 95% 82% 2016 97% 93% 2018 92% 84% 2020 95% 89% 2022 94% 100% Powers of Congress (Table Summary) Key Powers: Legislative Powers: Initiating and approving bills, overriding presidential vetoes with a two-thirds majority. Amending the Constitution: Congress can propose amendments requiring a two-thirds vote in both houses.  War Declaration: Both houses must approve a declaration of war (unused since 1941). Oversight and Appointments: Congressional oversight investigates the executive branch; Senate confirms judicial and executive appointments. Impeachment: The House initiates impeachments, but removal requires a two-thirds Senate vote. Representation in Congress (2021–23) Women: 27% of Congress vs. 51% of the U.S. population. People of Color: African Americans (12%), Hispanic Americans (9%), Asian Americans (4%)—all underrepresented compared to national demographics. Religion: 88% of members identify as Christian, compared to 71% of the public. Non-religious individuals are vastly underrepresented (0.2% vs. 23%). LGBTQ+: 2% in Congress vs. 4.5% of the population. Education: 99% of Congress members have a university degree compared to 35% of the general population. Nancy Pelosi as Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi was the first female Speaker of the House (2007–2011, reelected in 2019). She led the Democratic majority in passing significant legislation, including healthcare reforms. Pelosi spearheaded the 2019 impeachment of President Trump but also worked with Republicans on bipartisan trade deals. Synoptic Link: Women like Pelosi and Vice President Kamala Harris hold powerful positions in U.S. politics, yet barriers remain. Women make up 27% of Congress, a figure far below their share of the population. Debate: Does Congress Use the Power of the Purse Effectively? Yes: The power of the purse is one of the most powerful checks on the power of the executive. Government shutdowns force the president to make concessions to Congress in order to avoid them. Examples of effective use include reducing the size of the federal budget and addressing U.S. debt. No: Government shutdowns are disruptive, unpopular, and often lengthy. Pork barrel funding (unnecessary spending projects to please constituents) represents a misuse of taxpayers' money. The power of the purse has relatively weak enforcement mechanisms, allowing loopholes Relationship to the Supreme Court Under the checks and balances system, the Supreme Court can declare laws passed by Congress as unconstitutional. Congress, however, can only override the Court’s rulings by proposing a constitutional amendment. This requires a two-thirds majority in both chambers and ratification by three-quarters of U.S. states. Example: In 1996, Congress passed the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which denied federal recognition of same-sex marriages. However, Supreme Court rulings in United States v. Windsor (2013) and Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) overturned DOMA, effectively legalizing same-sex marriage nationwide. Congress also has the power to impeach Supreme Court justices, though this is rarely used (only one justice has been impeached, in 1811, and he was acquitted by the Senate). Debate: Is Congress the Broken Branch of Government? Yes: Frequent gridlock—only 2–3% of bills become law. Increased partisanship has undermined legislative efficiency. Government shutdowns are unpopular and disrupt federal functions. No: Major legislation, such as the CARES Act 2020, still passes during crises. Bipartisan compromises, like the First Step Act 2018, demonstrate collaboration is still possible. Congress retains the ability to act decisively during national emergencies. Debate: Does Congress Fulfill Its Oversight Function Effectively? Yes: Strong oversight occurs during periods of divided government. Committees provide high-profile scrutiny of the executive branch. Congress can impeach and try presidents for wrongdoing. The Senate can refuse to confirm presidential appointments and treaties. No: Oversight is weaker during unified government, as members avoid criticizing their party’s president. Investigations can be politicized and yield few results. No president has ever been removed via impeachment. Power of the Purse  The Constitution grants Congress control over taxation and spending, known as the power of the purse. All tax bills must start in the House, but the Senate can amend them. Government shutdowns occur when Congress and the president fail to compromise on federal budgets.