Little Women by Louisa May Alcott - Plot, Themes, and Context

[Little Women -- Louisa May Alcott (1868)] [Plot] - **"**[Playing Pilgrim"]\ Introduces the four March sisters---Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy---and their modest, loving home as they cope with poverty and dream of a brighter future. - ["A Merry Christmas"]\ Despite financial hardship...

[Little Women -- Louisa May Alcott (1868)] [Plot] - **"**[Playing Pilgrim"]\ Introduces the four March sisters---Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy---and their modest, loving home as they cope with poverty and dream of a brighter future. - ["A Merry Christmas"]\ Despite financial hardship, the family's Christmas is marked by selflessness and gratitude, setting the tone for their values of charity and sacrifice. - ["The Laurence Boy"]\ The Marches meet their wealthy, charismatic neighbor, Laurie Laurence, whose immediate friendship---especially with Jo---opens new social possibilities. - ["Burial of a Secret"]\ Personal secrets and hidden feelings begin to emerge as the sisters wrestle with their individual ambitions and frustrations about their constrained lives. - ["Being Neighborly"]\ Acts of kindness toward neighbors (and vice versa) illustrate the importance of empathy and community in the March household. - ["Beth Finds the Palace Beautiful"]\ Gentle Beth discovers beauty in simplicity and music, reinforcing her quiet strength and deep compassion. - ["Amy's Play"]\ Amy stages a small play that both entertains and reveals her budding artistic aspirations and a desire for refinement. - ["Jo's Temper and Talent"]\ Jo's fiery nature is on display as she battles frustration while simultaneously nurturing her passion for writing and storytelling. - ["Meg's Social Aspirations"]\ Meg begins to experience the temptations and challenges of high society, learning about the differences between appearances and true happiness. - ["A Social Gathering at the Laurence Home"]\ A formal event at the Laurence residence deepens acquaintances and highlights contrasts between the March family's modesty and the opulence of wealth. - ["Lessons in Self-Sacrifice"]\ The sisters confront personal shortcomings and learn through small sacrifices the value of humility and empathy. - ["Trials and Triumphs"\ ]Conflicts---both internal and with others---force the sisters to reconsider their values, with each learning from setbacks and small victories. - ["Heartbreak and Hard Lessons"\ ]The impact of societal expectations and personal failures is felt deeply; tensions rise as each sister begins to face the cost of their dreams. - ["Beth's Fragile Health"]\ Beth's quiet struggle with illness becomes more serious, casting a long, somber shadow over the family and uniting them in concern. - ["Grief and Growing Pains"]\ In the wake of Beth's deteriorating health, the sisters experience profound grief while also finding strength in their shared bond. - ["Jo's Literary Ambitions"]\ Determined to forge her own path, Jo commits more deeply to writing---even as she battles self-doubt and the limitations imposed by her era. - ["Meg's Matrimonial Step"]\ Meg's journey takes a turn toward adulthood when she marries Mr. Brooke, illustrating the balance between domestic responsibilities and personal dreams. [Themes] - [Family and Sisterhood:] the importance of familial love, support, shared experiences. - [Coming of Age and Personal Growth:] Each sister's journey reflects challenges of maturing/ discovering one's identity/ defining personal values. - [Gender Roles and Societal Expectations:] limitations and expectations placed on women during the 19th century; the struggle for independence and self-fulfillment - [Love, Sacrifice, and Duty:] balance between personal desires vs. responsibilities to family and society [Historical Context] - [Time Period and Setting:] - during the American Civil War (1861--1865) - experiences of a middle-class family in New England during a time of national upheaval - [Prevailing Gender Norms:] - [Domestic Sphere:] - Women largely expected to fulfill roles within the home as wives, mothers, and caregivers. - The ideal of "the angel in the house" modesty, self-sacrifice, and domesticity - [Limited Public Roles:] - women's participation in public and professional life restricted. - Careers limited to teaching, writing, or other extensions of domestic nurturing - [Economic and Social Constraints:] - [Financial Dependence:] - Women often depended on male relatives for financial security limited opportunities to earn independent incomes - Property and legal rights controlled by male family members - [Educational Opportunities:] - oriented toward developing the skills deemed appropriate for women---music, literature, the arts - [Changing Attitudes and Individual Ambition:] - [Emergence of New Ideas:] - saw early challenges to traditional gender roles during that period growing discussions about women's rights and individuality - [Character Representations:] - *Jo March* = tension between societal expectations and personal ambition; desire for independence vs. career as a writer - Other characters, like Meg and Amy varied responses to societal pressures - [Impact of the Civil War:] - [Role Expansion:] - war period required women to take on additional responsibilities began to shift perceptions about women's capabilities - [Social Change:] - aftermath of the war opened discussions on reform/ restructuring of social norms influencing ideas about women's roles. [Anne of Green Gables -- L. M. Montgomery (1908)] [Plot:] - [Anne Arrives] - Siblings Marilla and Matthew Cuthbert plan to adopt a boy to help on their farm Anne Shirley, an imaginative and talkative orphan, arrives instead. - Marilla debates whether to send Anne back - [Settling In] - Anne is captivated by Green Gables and Avonlea. - meets Mrs. Rachel Lynde, first encounter is rocky Anne learns to apologize - Marilla decides to keep Anne insists she must learn discipline - [School and Friendships] - Anne becomes best friends with Diana Barry and starts school - gets into trouble for talking too much clashes with the stern teacher, Mr. Phillips - [Mishaps and Adventures] - accidentally gets Diana drunk by serving currant wine instead of raspberry cordial - Marilla initially forbids their friendship, later relents when Anne proves her character - [Academic Rivalry and Dreams] - Anne meets Gilbert Blythe, who teases her about her red hair - holds a grudge despite his attempts to apologize - excels in school, competing academically with Gilbert. - [More Troubles and Triumphs] - Anne falls off a roof during a dare - dyes her hair green by accident - begins writing stories - dreams of becoming a teacher - [Growth and Achievements] - wins a scholarship and earns high marks at school - matures, becoming more graceful and self-assured. - [Tragedy and Change] - Matthew dies of a heart attack Anne and Marilla devastated - Marilla's eyesight worsens Anne to gives up her college plans to stay at Green Gables - Anne and Gilbert reconcile he gives up a teaching post for her start of their friendship [Main Themes] - [Imagination and Identity] - Anne's vivid imagination helps her cope with hardships/define herself in a world that values conformity. - early 20th century: societal expectations for women emphasized practicality/restraint Marilla - Anne's imaginative spirit both refreshing and rebellious - [Gender Roles and Female Independence] - Anne is ambitious, intelligent, determined to pursue education and career challenging traditional expectations - rise of the women's suffrage movement in Canada ( achieved federally in 1918) - Anne's education and independence reflects growing shift toward female empowerment - [Education and Personal Growth] - Anne's journey: impulsive, dreamy girl responsible, educated young woman = the transformative power of learning - Education for women becoming more accessible - higher education and professional careers still rare - changing societal views on women\'s education - [Belonging and Family] - Anne, as orphan, finds love and acceptance at Green Gables. - Orphanages/foster care systems were common in late 19th and early 20th centuries - adoption not always based on emotional bonds - according to book family is built on love rather than blood ties - [Rural Life and Community] - Avonlea = close-knit, moral, traditional society individuals support one another. - rural communities in Canada were backbone of society - the novel idealizes the simplicity and values of country life in contrast to industrialization [The Great Gatsby -- F. Scott Fitzgerald (1925)] [Plot] - Nick Carraway, a young bond salesman, moves to West Egg, Long Island, in the summer of 1922. - His neighbor, Jay Gatsby, is a wealthy and mysterious man who throws lavish parties hoping to attract his lost love, Daisy Buchanan. - Daisy, Nick's cousin, is married to Tom Buchanan, a wealthy and unfaithful man who is having an affair with Myrtle Wilson, the wife of a garage owner, George Wilson. - Gatsby and Daisy had a romantic past, and Gatsby hopes to rekindle their love. He asks Nick to arrange a meeting between them. - Daisy and Gatsby reconnect and begin an affair. Gatsby believes Daisy will leave Tom for him. - During a tense confrontation in a New York City hotel, Tom exposes Gatsby's shady business dealings and insists Daisy loves him, not Gatsby. - On the way back, Daisy (driving Gatsby's car) accidentally kills Myrtle. Gatsby takes the blame. - George Wilson, believing Gatsby killed Myrtle, shoots Gatsby and then himself. - Gatsby's funeral is sparsely attended. Disillusioned by the East, Nick moves back to the Midwest, reflecting on the corruption of the American Dream. [Main Themes] - [The American Dream:] - critiques the idea of the American Dream (prosperity, success, and upward mobility through hard work) - Gatsby\'s rise from poverty to wealth - his ultimate downfall suggests corruption and unattainability - pursuit of wealth and status moral decay and emptiness. - [Wealth and Class:] - divide between old money (Tom and Daisy Buchanan) and new money (self-made wealth, Gatsby - elitism and superficiality of the upper class, social barriers that prevent Gatsby from integrating into their world - [Love and Desire:] - Gatsby\'s idealized love for Daisy romanticized vision of her - desire and obsession distort reality, leading to disillusionment and tragedy - [Moral Decay:] - characters exhibit selfishness, dishonesty, and a lack of empathy - reckless behavior of the wealthy (Tom\'s infidelity, Daisy\'s carelessness) reflects moral emptiness of the Jazz Age - [Illusion vs. Reality:] - Gatsby\'s fabricated identity; dream of reuniting with Daisy; belief in recreating the past - characters hiding behind facades - [The Past and Nostalgia:] - Gatsby\'s obsession with recapturing the past recreate his idyllic romance with Daisy - the past as irretrievable and clinging to it leads to disappointment - [Isolation and Loneliness:] - Despite parties and wealth, Gatsby ultimately isolated/misunderstood - longing for connection and acceptance - [The Jazz Age and Excess:] - Set in the Roaring Twenties - extravagance, hedonism - emptiness and moral decay that accompany excess critique of 1920s America and the human condition [Howl -- Alan Ginsberg (1956) ] [Overview] - one of the most iconic poems of the Beat Generation - known for raw emotion, free verse, critique of modern society. - [Part I: ] - lament for the suffering of Ginsberg's peers, - those marginalized by mainstream society - [Part II: ] - condemnation of \"Moloch,\" - symbol of capitalism, industrialization, social oppression - [Part III: ] - personal address to Carl Solomon friend Ginsberg met in a psychiatric hospital - solidarity and hope [Key Themes] - [Madness and Marginalization] - portrays mental/emotional struggles of those who don't fit into conventional society artists, drug users, outcasts. - close friend Carl Solomon, institutionalized for mental illness, becomes symbol of this suffering. - [Critique of Capitalism and Conformity] - \"Moloch\" represents destructive system that crushes individuality, creativity, spiritual freedom - criticizes how materialism, rigid social structures alienate people - [Sexuality and Liberation] - explicit about homosexuality breaking literary/social taboos of the 1950s - helped pave the way for greater LGBTQ+ representation in literature - [Spirituality and Transcendence] - seeks spiritual meaning, drawing on influences from Buddhism, Judaism/ visionary experiences. - Ginsberg believed poetry/personal expression could lead to enlightenment and resistance against oppressive forces [Style and Literary Techniques] - [Free Verse and Long Lines] - Inspired by Walt Whitman long, flowing lines to create rhythm that mimics speech/thought - The lack of traditional structure reinforces the poem's rebellious energy. - [Repetition and Anaphora] - I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness\"---sets the tone - Repetition of phrases like "who..." at beginning of lines in Part I and "Moloch!" in Part II creates intensity and urgency - [Biblical and Mythological Allusions] - \"Moloch\" is reference to Old Testament deity associated with child sacrifice symbolizing modern oppression - draws from religious imagery contrast divine vision with societal decay [Impact and Censorship] - was considered obscene led to 1957 trial for violating obscenity laws - court ruled in Ginsberg's favor turning point for freedom of speech in literature - defining work of the Beat Generation influencing countercultural movements of the 1960s. *Howl* is both a personal and political outcry, a mix of despair, rage, and spiritual longing. It remains a powerful critique of modern civilization and an anthem for nonconformity, creative expression, and social change. [A Room of One's Own -- Virginia Woolf (1929)] [Who Was Virginia Woolf? ] - Born: January 25, 1882, in London, England - Died: March 28, 1941 (by suicide) - British writer, modernist, and feminist thinker - known for her experimental literary style/ exploration of gender, identity, and consciousness key figure in the Modernist movement  - member of the Bloomsbury Group (influential intellectual circle in early 20th-century England) - [Notable Works:] - *Mrs. Dalloway* (1925) - *To the Lighthouse* (1927) - *Orlando* (1928) - *A Room of One's Own* (1929) - *The Waves* (1931) [Literary Contributions:] - Stream-of-consciousness narrative style capturing characters\' inner thoughts/emotions - Feminist literary criticism - Modernist experimentation challenging traditional storytelling techniques [Life and Influence] - Born into literary family - denied formal university education  educated herself through private study - part of progressive intellectual circle: included writers, artists, philosophers who rejected Victorian traditions - redefined narrative structure focusing on internal consciousness rather than linear plots - *Mrs. Dalloway* and *To the Lighthouse* are examples of stream-of-consciousness technique - *A Room of One's Own* (1929) became a foundational feminist text, arguing that women need financial and personal independence to create literature. - *Orlando* (1928) explores gender fluidity, decades ahead of its time. - suffered from bipolar disorder/severe depressive episodes - overwhelmed by war, personal struggles, illness died by suicide. - Woolf's work transformed modern literature influencing writers like Sylvia Plath, Toni Morrison, Margaret Atwood - central figure in feminist literary criticism - ideas on gender, identity, creativity widely discussed today [Key Themes and Historical Context] 1\. [Women's Financial and Educational Barriers] - Before 20th century, women had limited access to education/ largely financially dependent on male relatives - Higher education for women was still new idea---Cambridge and Oxford began admitting women in the late 19^th^/early 20th centuries - Many careers, including writing, dominated by men - Woolf insists women need financial independence/private space to develop their creativity. - reflects the growing movement toward women's higher education/professional opportunities 1. [Patriarchy and Women's Exclusion from Literary History] - Women historically denied same literary and artistic opportunities as men - famous women writers before Woolf (e.g., Jane Austen, Charlotte Brontë, George Eliot) faced social resistance/published under male pseudonyms - 1920s: rise of modern feminism, but traditional gender roles still strong - critiques the way male writers dominated literary history/misrepresented women in literature - Shakespeare's sister would have been just as talented; denied opportunities to write/be remembered 2. [The Androgynous Mind and Breaking Free from Gender Bias] - In 1920s, feminism divided between demanding equality with men vs. celebrating women's unique differences - rise of women writers during period experimenting - Woolf argues great writers should transcend gender biases, writing from \"androgynous\" perspective 3. [The Future of Women Writers] - Women in Britain only just gained the right to vote (1918 for some, 1928 for all) - More women entering professions and writing still faced discrimination in publishing/academia - Woolf hopeful that with more opportunities, future generations of women will contribute to literature more freely - call to action for young women to take advantage of changing social conditions [Death of the Author -- Roland Barthes (1967)] - deeply influenced by the intellectual and cultural shifts of the mid-20th century - arguments emerged in response to developments in literary theory, philosophy, political thought that challenged traditional notions of meaning and authority 1. [The Rise of Post-Structuralism] - 1960s: scholars began questioning structuralism ( meaning is stable, rooted in deep structures of language and culture) - Post-structuralists challenged idea that texts have fixed meanings instead ambiguity/the role of interpretation - Barthes rejects idea that text's meaning is determined by a single, authoritative source 2. [Decline of Authorial Authority & Influence of Existentialism] - 20th century: shift away from individual genius  increasing focus on how social, historical, linguistic factors shape meaning - Existentialists emphasized freedom of the individual to create meaning rather than traditional authority - Barthes extends this to literature a text is not controlled by author\'s intent  instead shaped by reader's interpretation 3. [Critique of Traditional Literary Criticism] - before Barthes: literary criticism often biographical and historical analysis = understanding a text by examining author\'s life/intentions - letters, diaries, historical context to determine what author "meant" - rejects this method meaning should come from text itself, not author\'s life 4. [Influence of Media and Mass Communication] - 1960s: explosion of mass media, advertising, popular culture blurred lines between high vs. low art - idea of \"single, authoritative creator\" was being questioned films, TV, literature more collaborative and open to interpretation - Barthes\' essay reflects growing skepticism toward centralized authority (authors, politicians, the media) - ideas resonate with postmodernism embraces multiple perspectives; rejects rigid meanings 5. [Political and Social Upheaval (1960s Context)] - 1960s: civil rights movements, student protests, anti-authoritarian sentiments across the world - shifting power from author (figure of authority) to reader fits within broader countercultural rejection of rigid authority and absolute truths [Critique] [1. Author's Intent Still Matters:] - ignoring the author\'s intent oversimplifies interpretation - Certain texts (e.g., political manifestos, autobiographies, historical writings) cannot be understood without considering author's purpose and context - Example: George Orwell's *1984*; author's political views influence the novel's meaning ignoring his intent might lead to misinterpretation 1. [Texts Have Fixed or Limited Meanings:] - not all interpretations equally valid - Some works  specific historical, cultural, linguistic meanings  not as fluid as Barthes suggests - Example: Legal documents/religious texts often have authoritative interpretations  cannot be freely reinterpreted 2. [Reader Is Not Completely Free] - reader does not have total freedom in interpreting a text are influenced by cultural norms, biases, language - Meaning not just constructed by reader shaped by education, ideology, social conditioning - Example:  modern reader might interpret *The Iliad* differently than ancient Greek audience doesn't mean every interpretation is equally valid 3. [Contradiction: Barthes as an Author Himself] - Barthes argues for \"death\" of the author, yet he himself is author presenting an argument - Should we also disregard Barthes' intent/interpret his essay however we want? - paradox undermines his claim 4. [Influence of the Author on the Text Cannot Be Erased] - Even if we focus on reader's interpretation, author still creates the text, chooses words, structures meaning - text itself shaped by author's cultural background, experiences, intentions cannot be entirely dismissed - Example:  feminist reading of *Jane Eyre* is valid, but Charlotte Brontë's own life experiences add depth to interpretation [Encoding/Decoding -- Stuart Hall (1973)] [1. Communication as a Process:] - Communication not simply transmission of information a complex process involving encoding (creation of messages) and decoding (interpretation by audiences) - Meaning not fixed is constructed through interpretation [2. Encoding (Production of Meaning):] - Media producers encode messages with intended meanings influenced by ideologies, cultural norms, institutional frameworks - structure of media production shapes how messages are created (organizations prioritize certain narratives) [3. Decoding (Interpretation of Meaning):] - Audiences do not passively absorb they actively interpret/negotiate meaning based on experiences, background, cultural context - Interpretation influenced by class, race, gender, ideology [4. The Three Readings (Decoding Positions):] - three possible ways audiences interpret media messages: - Dominant-Hegemonic Reading - audience fully accepts intended meaning (e.g., believing news story as presented) - Negotiated Reading - audience partly agrees but modifies meaning based on personal context (e.g., accepting some aspects but questioning others) - Oppositional Reading - audience rejects the intended meaning interprets the message in a counter way (e.g., seeing a news story as biased propaganda) 5. [Media, Ideology, and Power:] - Media plays central role in reinforcing dominant ideologies (e.g., capitalism, patriarchy) - audiences not passive have the ability to resist/reinterpret messages struggles over meaning 6. [Implications for Media Studies:] - model challenges traditional sender-receiver models of communication - shifts focus from media effects (what media does to people) to audience reception (how people engage with media) [Historical Context:] [1. Rise of Mass Media and Television (1950s--1970s):] - television had become dominant force in shaping public opinion - Governments/corporations used media to reinforce dominant ideologies (e.g., nationalism, consumerism) - model challenged the idea of passive audiences actively interpreted media based on social and political positions [2. The Influence of Marxism and the Frankfurt School:] - Hall influenced by Marxist theory, particularly how ruling classes maintain power through ideology rather than just force - The Frankfurt School argued that mass media manipulated public into conforming to capitalist values - Hall modified this view, while media promotes dominant ideologies, audiences can still resist and reinterpret [3. Postwar Britain: Class, Race, and Media Representation:] - UK in 1970s: major social and political shifts: - decline of British Empire; increased immigration - Economic crises and growing class struggles - rise of conservative and neoliberal ideologies Thatcherism in 1980s - Hall, a Jamaican-born intellectual in Britain, particularly interested in how media portrayed race, class, identity - model explains how audiences from different backgrounds interpret media differently 4. [The Emergence of Cultural Studies:] - Hall leading figure in British Cultural Studies moved away from traditional media theories focused on effects (like behaviorism) - Instead of \"What does media do to people?\" \"How do people engage with media?\" - encouraged scholars to study audience interpretation, subcultures, resistance  5. [Political Movements and Counterculture (1960s--1970s)] - civil rights movements, feminist struggles, anti-colonial resistance - challenged dominant narratives and offered oppositional readings of media - Hall's model provided framework to understand how marginalized groups reinterpret media in ways that reflect their own experiences and resistance to oppression [Critique] [1. Lack of Empirical Evidence:] - Hall's model largely theoretical/ lacks extensive empirical research on how audiences actually decode media - Hall suggests three decoding positions real-world audience interpretations more complex and fluid [2. Oversimplification of Audience Interpretation:] - three decoding positions useful, but too rigid - audiences do not fall neatly into one category interpretations can shift depending on context, mood, evolving perspectives [3. Overestimation of Audience Agency:] - Hall overstates audience's ability to resist dominant messages - Structural factors (economic conditions, education, media monopolies) make oppositional readings more difficult - dominant ideologies remain deeply ingrained because of repetitive exposure through multiple media channels [4. Neglect of Media Production and Institutional Power:] - Hall does not explore how media institutions operate in depth - Later scholars argue corporate ownership and advertising heavily influence media content, limiting audience agency [5. Limited Applicability in the Digital Age:] - model developed in the 1970s, when mass media dominated - In digital age, social media, user-generated content, algorithm-driven feeds complicate encoding/decoding process - Audiences today also content producers, blurring lines between encoding and decoding [6. Cultural and Social Differences in Interpretation:] - Hall assumes class, race, ideology shape how people decode later scholars highlight intersectionality [Compulsory Heterosexuality and the Lesbian Existence -- Adrienne Rich] [1. Compulsory Heterosexuality:] - Society assumes/enforces heterosexuality as the default, natural, only legitimate form of sexuality - This benefits patriarchy, ensuring women remain dependent on men for emotional, economic, social survival - Heterosexuality not a choice but political institution that upholds male dominance [2. The Lesbian Continuum:] - expands definition of lesbianism beyond sexual relationships - introduces "lesbian continuum" to include all forms of female bonding, solidarity, resistance to male control - challenges the idea that women's lives must revolve around men [3. Erasure of Lesbian Existence] - Women\'s histories, especially of lesbians/non-heterosexual relationships, have been ignored, erased, distorted - Feminist/academic discourse often centers women's experiences in relation to men - calls for re-examination of history that includes lesbian narratives and female autonomy [4. Patriarchy and Violence:] - Women socialized/coerced into heterosexuality through cultural norms, media, laws, sometimes violence - Compulsory heterosexuality not just personal choice but  structure that enforces male dominance [5. Feminism Must Acknowledge Lesbian Existence] - Early feminism often centered white, middle-class, heterosexual women ignoring lesbian struggles - argues feminism must fully incorporate lesbian existence to challenge patriarchy effectively [Historical Context] [1. Second-Wave Feminism (1960s--1980s):] - Rich writing during second wave of feminism focused on workplace rights, reproductive justice, gender equality - many feminist movements prioritized heterosexual women's issues; ignored lesbian concerns [2. The Rise of Lesbian Feminism] - In 1970s/1980s, lesbian feminism emerged as critique of mainstream feminism's exclusion - lesbian feminists distanced themselves from heterosexual feminism/mainstream LGBTQ+ movements these often prioritized gay men's rights [3. The Backlash Against Feminism and LGBTQ+ Rights:] - New Right and conservative movements of 1980s promoted traditional family values/ pushed back against feminist and LGBTQ+ rights - essay can be seen as response to efforts to reassert heterosexuality as the norm [4. The Erasure of LGBTQ+ Histories:] - Before 1980s, historical and literary texts rarely acknowledged lesbian relationships - Rich's call to recover lesbian history aligns with work of scholars who documented lesbian lives in history [5. The AIDS Crisis and LGBTQ+ Activism:] - Rich focuses on women's oppression essay also fits into broader LGBTQ+ struggle of 1980s (especially AIDS crisis) forced discussions about queer rights into public sphere [Critique and Relevance Today] [✅ Strengths] - Challenges assumption that heterosexuality is "natural" rather than socially enforced - Expands definition of lesbian identity beyond sexual attraction - Recognizes how heteronormativity upholds patriarchal oppression - Calls for recovery of erased lesbian histories [❌ Criticisms] - Some argue that the lesbian continuum is too broad, potentially erasing distinct lesbian identities. - Does not fully address intersectionality---e.g., the experiences of Black, Indigenous, or working-class lesbians. - idea of compulsory heterosexuality has been debated contemporary queer theory sees sexuality as more fluid [Relevance Today] - Still influential in feminist, queer, gender studies - Can be applied to modern LGBTQ+ struggles fight against conversion therapy and discrimination in education, marriage, healthcare - Anticipates third-wave/intersectional feminism further explores the role of race, class, gender identity in sexuality