The Empowering (Super) Heroine? PDF 2015

Sex Roles (2015) 72:211–220 DOI 10.1007/s11199-015-0455-3 ORIGINAL ARTICLE The Empowering (Super) Heroine? The Effects of Sexualized Female Characters in Superhero Films on Women Hillary Pennell & Elizabeth Behm-Morawitz Published online: 11 March 2015 # Springer Science+Business Media New York...

Sex Roles (2015) 72:211–220 DOI 10.1007/s11199-015-0455-3 ORIGINAL ARTICLE The Empowering (Super) Heroine? The Effects of Sexualized Female Characters in Superhero Films on Women Hillary Pennell & Elizabeth Behm-Morawitz Published online: 11 March 2015 # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015 Abstract The present study was conducted with female un- ences. This study was conducted with female undergraduates dergraduates in the Midwestern region of U.S. to examine the in the U.S. to examine the potential positive and negative potential positive and negative influences of the gendered de- influences of the representations of women in superhero films. pictions of women in superhero films. This study utilized so- According to the U.S. Movie Market Summary, in 2012, 1.3 cial cognitive and objectification theory frameworks to exper- billion tickets were purchased, and the U.S. film industry imentally examine the short-term effects of exposure to sexu- earned an impressive $10.8 billion. The popularity of film alized female characters in superhero films on 83 female has held steady over the years, but certain genres of film have viewers’ gender role beliefs, body esteem, and self-objectifi- become more recognizable than ever. Action films, more spe- cation. Results show that exposure to the sexualized-victim cifically comic book/superhero films, have become increas- images of women in superhero films decreased egalitarian ingly popular in the since the beginning of the new millenni- gender role beliefs. Exposure to the sexualized-heroine im- um (McCallister et al. 2006). ages resulted in lower body esteem. Additionally, a positive Although U.S. comic book-based films have greatly con- effect emerged with a greater belief in the importance of body tributed to the U.S. film industry since the 1930s competence to the self-concept for women who were exposed (McCallisteret al. 2006), with new technology, today’s comic to the superheroine characters. This study demonstrates short- book films have become Bblockbusters^ and sure successes term effects from viewing sexualized images of women in for movie studios. These blockbuster comic book films are superhero films and provides a significant understanding of characterized by big action sequences coupled with computer how sexualized female representations may impact gender generated image (CGI) special effects technology; they are related beliefs as well as perceptions of one’s self-esteem fast-paced, entertaining, and have become cultural phenome- and body objectification. na. Comic book movies, specifically those films done by the comic power-house of Marvel Entertainment, the largest U.S. Keywords Superhero. Sexualization. Objectification. comic publisher, with approximately 37 % of the comic book Gender. Stereotyping market (McCallisteret al. 2006), have taken over the box of- fice with movies like Spider-Man (http://marvel.com/movies/ movie/6/spider-man), Blade (http://marvel.com/movies/ movie/10/blade), X-Men (http://marvel.com/movies/movie/8/ Introduction x-men), The Incredible Hulk (http://marvel.com/movies/ movie/23/the_incredible_hulk), and Iron-Man (http://marvel. com/movies/movie/19/iron_man). These films have become This research explores the short-term effects of exposure to gendered representations in superhero films on female audi- well-liked and successful due to the extensive fan base already created by the comic books themselves (Meslow 2012). They attract the youthful movie-going demographic, appeal to the nostalgic older audiences, and offer well-established charac- H. Pennell (*) : E. Behm-Morawitz ters and storylines with sequel potential. They reach wide Department of Communication, University of Missouri, 315 Switzler Hall, Columbia, MO 65211, USA audiences across the world on a variety of cultural levels due e-mail: [email protected] to the films worldwide distribution (Richwine 2014). 212 Sex Roles (2015) 72:211–220 Research suggests (all studies referenced in this article are female characters and typically those roles focus on their sex based on U.S. samples unless otherwise noted) that cultural appeal. Even in U.S. G-rated films, women are often messages about gender within popular media can become hypersexualized with unrealistically small waists, unusually normative and influence real-world perceptions. Media effects large chests, and unattainable hourglass figures research provides evidence that entertainment media mes- (Herbozoet al. 2004). Women are usually the love interest of sages impact individuals’ stereotypical gender role beliefs the hero and function as a spectacle, typically playing victims and expectations (Behm-Morawitz and Mastro 2008, 2009; being rescued by the hero, therefore not narrating the plot Lafky and Duffy 1996; Signorielli 1989, 1993). Specifically, (Clover 1999; Mulvey 1999; Tasker 1993). images and messages within these popular films can reinforce Stabile (2009) specifically examined the superhero film as well as create gender stereotypical expectations (Behm- genre. She observed that according to U.S. cultural norms, Morawitz and Pennell 2013). Because images of women in the role of someone is need of protection is invariably female these films are so limited in comparison to men (Carroll or feminized. The active roles of the protector are masculin- 1990), it is especially important to examine these character- ized, having strength and power as the foundation of mascu- izations that are highly memorable, in part due to their novelty. linity; therefore, femininity is seen as vulnerable and weak. U.S. psychology research suggests that novel stimulus, like Consequently, superheroes are men because men are under- superheroines and their stories, interest audiences because of stood as protectors in our culture and women more often ap- their newness (Musen and Treisman 1990). Thus it can be pear as victims. reasoned that superhero sagas have unique appeal in that they In particular, it is the sexualization through clothing and offer an escape into fantastical worlds rich with novel beings body type (Herbozo et al. 2004) and victimization through and places, that present audiences with stories that are cen- passivity and submissiveness (Clover 1999; Stabile 2009) of tered on stimuli unique from real life. female characters in film that reflect traditional roles for wom- Also it is important to understand from where our concepts en. Because cognitions and behavior can be shaped through of gender and standards of physical appearance based on gen- the observations of models presented by the media (Bussey der arise and critique the images and messages we receive and Bandura 1999) exposure to sexualized/victimized (i.e., through mediums like film. Gender is particularly important damsel in distress) and sexualized/empowered (i.e., superher- to consider in the present study because this can help explain oine) characterizations of women in superhero films would be an individuals’ ability to learn about gendered norms through expected to negatively influence short-term real world percep- observations of media models like film. Bussey and Bandura tions of women’s traditional gender roles, body esteem, and (1999) suggest that media character portrayals, for instance self-objectification. However it can be argued that women in women in superhero films, may be used to help build an indi- these superhero films can have positive, rather than negative vidual’s social standards about gender related-roles, attitudes, effects on audiences. Many of the superheroines like X-Men’s appearance and behaviors. Storm or Mystique can be viewed as having empowering In the present research, an experimental study was characteristics. These characters are physically strong, athlet- conducted with an undergraduate female population to ic, proficient, confident, and intelligent, characteristics that are examine the potential positive and negative effects of counter-stereotypical for female characters (Behm-Morawitz the gendered depictions of women in superhero films. and Pennell 2013; Stabile 2009). Although their sex appeal This study was guided by social cognitive (Bussey and may be seen as objectification of the female body, it may also Bandura 1999) and objectification theory frameworks be constructed as empowering by showing distain for tradi- (Fredrickson and Roberts 1997) and experimentally ex- tional feminine modesty. Indeed, these characters represent a amined the short-term effects of viewing sexualized im- departure from the traditional role of the damsel in distress for ages of women in superhero films. It was predicted that women in superhero films. However, U.S. research (e.g., viewing sexualized images of women in these films Behm-Morawitz and Mastro 2009) suggests that the would result in less egalitarian gender role beliefs about sexualization of these characters serves to reinforce traditional women in the real world, lower body esteem, and pro- gender role beliefs in female audience members, rather than duce higher degrees of self-objectification. challenge them. Although female participants may identify with and report feeling empowered by superheroines due to Portrayals of Women in Action Films the female characters’ commanding cognitive and physical abilities (Behm-Morawitz and Pennell 2013), the U.S. research indicates that women in U.S. action films are sexualization of these female characters may supersede these often exploited, using only their sexuality as the focus of their empowering attributes and produce stereotypical gender- characters; and, those characters are not offered complexity in related perceptions. It is the dichotomous representation of the film’s storyline (Clover 1999; Mulvey 1999; Tasker 1993). superheroines as being extraordinary, yet sexualized that Not unlike other media, film offers a narrow range of roles for muddies the potential for these characters to be empowering Sex Roles (2015) 72:211–220 213 versus stereotypically gendered (Behm-Morawitz and Pennell effects research has also demonstrated recurrent or regular 2013). viewing can impact viewers’ perceptions. For example, a re- cent study has shown effects of regular viewing of MTV’s 16 Social Cognitive Theory, Gender, and Learning and Pregnant on female adolescents’ perceptions (Aubrey from Superhero Films et al. 2014). In this study, the effects of regular viewing on beliefs related to pregnancy, relationships, and parenting were A better understanding of how individuals process film im- measured. Aubrey et al. (2014) found that regular viewers of ages can be obtained by drawing upon social cognition. the show had more favorable attitudes toward teen pregnancy, People often make judgment about gender, race, sexuality, perceived lower personal risk for getting pregnant, and accept- and appearance through the use of cognitive mechanisms. ed more myths about teen pregnancy than did their peers who Bussey and Bandura (1999) offer a framework based in social were non-regular viewers of the series. Similarly, we might cognitive theory that helps understand how exposure to medi- expect that regular viewing of superhero-based films, for the ated models like those in superhero films can influence atti- present study, may influence participants’ perceptions of tudes and beliefs specifically about gender. According to gender-related beliefs. Although the primary aim of this study Bussey and Bandura (1999), media messages serve as a is to conduct a controlled test of the short-term effects of source for Bthe development of gender-linked knowledge gendered representations of women in superhero films, it and competencies^ (p. 686). Accordingly, sexualized por- was also important to control for the potential relationship trayals of women may be used to aid in developing an indi- between regular viewing and the dependent variables. vidual’s standards about gender-appropriate appearance, Therefore, from the social cognitive theory of gender de- gender-based conduct, and normative gender roles. velopment and differentiation perspective, it is expected that U.S.-based research reveals that there is a significant relation- viewing sexualized-victim and sexualized-heroine portrayals ship between media exposure to gender stereotypes and individ- of women will result in increased belief in traditional, stereo- uals’ stereotypical gender role beliefs and expectations (Lafky typical roles for women in the real world. It is expected that and Duffy 1996; Signorielli 1989, 1993). Studies have found exposure to these sexualized representations of women will that U.S. mainstream media, such as blockbuster superhero result in less favorable perceptions in comparison to women films, often hold on to traditional gender stereotypes in their with no exposure to these representations. Thus the following presentation of women and men (Behm-Morawitz and Mastro hypothesis was predicted: 2008; Signorielli 1989). In a more recent study, Coyne et al. (2014) demonstrated that exposure to superheroes in television H1 Viewing the sexualized heroine condition and sexual- and a film was related to gender stereotypic play among chil- ized victim condition is associated with decreased egal- dren. This study provides empirical evidence between super- itarian gender role beliefs in comparison to the no stimuli hero media depictions and gender stereotyping among viewers. condition. These gender stereotypes are usually defined as broad gen- eralizations about what it means to be male and female based on some knowledge of limited aspects of certain members of The Sexual Objectification of Women in Superhero Films that sex. For women, they are stereotypically judged to be less intellectual, more emotional, and less aggressive than men; Objectification theory offers a framework for understanding the physically, women are expected to be youthful, beautiful, soft, consequences of being female in a culture that sexually objec- and voluptuous (large chest and round buttocks) but thin tifies women, the media being a wide-reaching source of con- (Deaux and Lewis 1983). In regard to role behaviors, women structing this culture. Thus, objectification theory by are supposed to be more nurturing and motherly. Finally, for Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) posits that the media encour- women, their occupations are to hold jobs that involve care- age women to self-objectify through the emphasis of the sexual taking, low status (e.g., secretarial positions), and jobs that do objectification of women’s bodies in media such as magazines, not involve manual labor. As further evidence from experi- television, and film, which associate the value of women large- mental work, video game play with sexualized heroines (sim- ly with their appearance. Fredrickson and Roberts (1997), de- ilar in characterization to the superheroines of film) can unfa- fine sexual objectification as Boccur[ing] whenever a woman’s vorably influence people’s beliefs about women in the real body, body parts, or sexual functions are separated out from her world (Behm-Morawitz and Mastro 2009). person, reduced to the status of mere instruments, or regarded While U.S. media effects research has demonstrated the as if they were capable of representing her^ (p. 175). In the case short term effects of exposure to gendered depictions in media of women in superhero films, the sexual objectification of the on individuals’ unfavorable beliefs and attitudes about people body is central to the identity of the victim and the superhero- in the real world (Behm-Morawitz and Mastro 2009; Coyne ine. Many times when women are included in the superhero et al. 2014; Signorielli 1989; &Signorielli 1993), media narrative, they tend to play victims in need of rescue by the 214 Sex Roles (2015) 72:211–220 male superheroes. Their abilities are stripped from them and competence of the female body becomes an important compo- their bodies are the primary focus. According to Behm- nent of a female’s personal identity, wherein she may look to Morawitz and Pennell (2013), B…superhero stories take a fa- her body as being central to her self-worth and self-esteem. miliar gender narrative and transform it into a supergendered Moreover, research indicates media become a significant narrative, with hypermuscular male heroes and source of information about the normative standards of appear- hypersexualized female victims, glorifying traditional gender ance of the female body and contribute to women’s feelings roles^ (p. 75). The images of the female victim fit with stereo- about their bodies (Murnen, et al. 2003; Ussher 1989) thus typical conventions of femininity (i.e., weak and sexy) and affecting their body esteem. The images of the female form serve to support normative messages of masculinity (i.e., in portrayed by the media are used as a source of comparison, control and capable). For the superheroine, although they offer through which women and girls look to determine their own a much more physically capable picture of a woman in com- worth and men and boys may use to form expectations of parison to the female victim, they are also presented as females. The awareness of one’s own body in comparison to hypersexualized in order to balance their masculine traits of media images of the female body begins to be a source of self- physical capabilities (Behm-Morawitz and Pennell 2013). concept struggle for females beginning during the adolescent The superheroine characters are often portrayed wearing tight, period, and this struggle is thought to continue throughout life body-revealing clothing and use their sexuality to get what they (Ussher 1989). U.S. empirical research has demonstrated that want. Thus the superheroines can appeal to audiences in the exposure to such idealized media images of females typically way that they do not deviate too far from traditional gender lowers girls’ and women’s esteem with their own bodies norms by maintaining a focus on their body and sexuality. (Bissell and Zhou 2004; Murnen, et al. 2003; Ussher 1989). U.S.-based research by Aubrey et al. (2009) showed that Though these two concepts are distinct, the representations women who were exposed to images of female models with of sexualized and idealized images of the female body in su- high skin exposure used more negative words to describe their perhero films would be expected to not only heighten self- own appearance than participants assigned to view control im- objectification post viewing, but to also decrease body esteem ages. In a similar U.S. study Aubrey et al. (2011) examined the among women. Thus, in line with social cognitive theory of effects of sexual objectification of female artists in U.S. music gender development and differentiation, observation of these videos on male undergraduates’ sexual beliefs. The study re- media models would be linked to problematic perceptions of vealed that participants who viewed music videos of highly the body, whether through others’ perceptions or one’s own objectified female artists reported more adversarial sexual be- perceptions. It is expected that exposure to sexualized repre- liefs, acceptance of interpersonal violence, and negative atti- sentations of women in superhero films will result in less tudes about sexual harassment than participants assigned to favorable perceptions of the body in comparison to women low-sexual objectifying music videos by the same female artists. with no exposure to these representations. The following hy- Accordingly, our goal of this study is to extend our aware- potheses were predicted: ness and understanding of how visual representations of women’s bodies in superhero films may affect women’s levels H2 Viewing the sexualized heroine condition and sexual- of self-objectification. Our prediction is that superhero films’ ized victim condition is associated with decreased body objectification of the female body will result in women objec- esteem in comparison to the no stimuli condition. tifying their own bodies by privileging their concern about H3a Viewing the sexualized heroine condition and sexual- how they look over the competence of their body. It is expect- ized victim condition is associated with increased focus ed that female participants who view the superhero films will on the importance of appearance to one’s self-concept report greater perceived importance of appearance and lower in comparison to the no stimuli condition. perceived importance of body competence (e.g., strength and H3b Viewing the sexualized heroine condition and sexual- health) to the self-concept in comparison to those who do not ized victim condition is associated with decreased fo- view the clips. Additionally, while self-objectification entails cus on the importance of body competence to one’s the viewing of the body for the pleasure of others, body es- self-concept in comparison to the no stimuli condition. teem relates to level of satisfaction with one’s own body (Franzoi and Shields 1984). In terms of the media’s role in affecting female body esteem, much research has examined the effects of exposure to the thin Method (or curvaceously thin) female body ideal so prevalent in main- stream U.S. media. Developmental U.S. research suggests that Stimuli for women, in particular, the image of the body often becomes very important to their identity (Ussher 1989). In other words, The Spider-man and X-Men films were chosen as stimuli be- research suggests that the appearance and functionality/ cause of exemplification of the sexualized female victim and Sex Roles (2015) 72:211–220 215 sexualized superheroine roles, respectively. In the Spider-man 43 % (n=9) were male. The average age of the participants in series, the character Mary Jane is shown as weak and in need the X-men viewing condition was 19.67 years old (SD=0.97). of rescue by her male counterpart. Conversely, in the X-Men Participants were assigned to watch a 13 min long montage of series the female characters are strong, intelligent, and physi- video clips of female characters from the film series Spider-man cally capable. However, the female characters in both series (sexualized-victim) or X-Men (sexualized-heroine). The are sexualized through their appearance (the characters are all sexualized-victim female character was shown with large breasts thin, busty, and wear tight/revealing clothing). Thus the fe- and a small waist; her skin was exposed in the stomach, breast, male character in Spider-man represented the sexualized- and thigh area accompanied by tight clothing. This female char- victim stimuli and the female characters in X-Men represent acter was also shown in harmful or dangerous situations where the sexualized-heroine stimuli. she was rescued by her male counterpart. The sexualized-heroine These films were also selected because of their popularity, female characters similarly were shown with large breasts, small adding to the external validity of the study design. The first X- waists, and tight clothing. However, these characters were shown Men film earned $296 million worldwide, X2 earned $408 mil- in situations where they were physically strong, intelligent, and lion, and the third film in the series, X-Men: The Last Stand, capable compared to their male-counterparts. A montage of clips earned an impressive $459 million. Spider-man, brought in was used in order to include prototypical representations of wom- $404 million in the United States alone and $822 million world- en in superhero films from multiple films rather than just one film. wide in 2002 (Spider-man 2013). On its opening day, Spider-man After viewing film clips containing these characterizations, grossed more than $40 million dollars, breaking Hollywood’s participants filled out a questionnaire asking about the female previous record for Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone characterizations and their level of enjoyment of the clips. (Buncombe 2002). A little over a decade after the film’s debut, Overall, the sexualized-victim and sexualized-heroine video Sony Pictures rebooted the Spider-Man franchise by releasing the montages were rated to be similar in terms of enjoyment, F (1, first installment of another trilogy entitled The Amazing Spider- 36)=2.69, p=0.11, and entertainment, F (1, 36)=0.03, p=0.88. man, which grossed more than $700 million worldwide (The The sexualized-victim female character was judged to be less Amazing Spider-Man 2012). Spider-man 3 brought in the highest aggressive, F (1, 36)=201.03, p