The Anatomy of Medical Terms PDF - Medical Terminology

MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY MUA - GMP THE ANATOMY OF MEDICAL TERMS Prince Frimpong Addai Copyright © 2024 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2 3  Learning objectives Select the roots, combining vowels, and combining forms of medical terms. Dem...

MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY MUA - GMP THE ANATOMY OF MEDICAL TERMS Prince Frimpong Addai Copyright © 2024 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2 3  Learning objectives Select the roots, combining vowels, and combining forms of medical terms. Demonstrate the importance of suffixes and prefixes in forming medical terms. Construct (build) medical terms from separate elements. Deconstruct (break down) medical terms into their elements. Use correctly the plurals of medical terms. 4 Roots and Combining Forms 5  Elements of a Medical Term ✓Roots—the core meaning of the word ✓Prefix—the beginning of some words ✓Suffix—the ending of some words ✓Combining vowel—a vowel that joins a root to another root or to a suffix ✓Combining form—a combination of a root and a combining vowel 6  Roots and Combining Vowels ▪ All medical terms have one or more roots. ▪ The root provides the meaning of the word. ▪ Example: The word pneumonia has the root pneum-, meaning lung or air. 7  Roots and Combining Vowels ▪ Roots are often joined to other elements of a medical term by placing a combining vowel on the end of the root. ▪ A root plus a combining vowel creates a combining form. ▪ Example: pneum root + o combining vowel = pneum/o combining form 8  Combining Forms pneum- root -o- combining vowel pneum/o combining form pulmon- root -o- combining vowel pulmon/o combining form 9 Suffixes 10  Suffix ▪ A suffix is an element added to the end of a root or combining form to give it a new meaning. ▪ If the suffix begins with a consonant, it must follow a combining vowel. ▪ Suffixes can have more than one meaning ▪ If the suffix begins with a vowel, no combining vowel is needed. 11  Suffix Pulmon -ary root + suffix = Pulmonary, pertaining to the lung. Pulmon/o -logy root + combining vowel + suffix = Pulmonology, study of the lung. 12 Suffix 3 -ia a condition of Pneumonia, a condition (infection) of the lung. -ation a process Respiration, a process of breathing. 13  Some Classifications of Suffixes 1. Diagnostic – Diagnosis, procedure, or test 2. Surgical – Describes surgical procedures 3. Pathological – Describes a sign/symptom of a disease 4. Descriptive or Adjectival –mean pertaining to 5. Nouns – do not fall under any above classification. Maintain the root or combining form as a noun 14 Diagnostic Suffixes Identify the suffixes of the following words: Hematoma hemat/ = root. -oma = suffix. Hematuria hemat/ = root. -uria = suffix. 15 Surgical Suffixes Identify the suffixes of the following word: Appendectomy append/= root. -ectomy = suffix. Lithotripsy lith/o = combining form. -tripsy = suffix. 16 Pathological Suffixes Identify the suffixes of the following words: Cystitis cyst/ = root. -itis = suffix. Cyanosis cyan/= root. -osis = suffix. 17  Adjective Suffixes Suffixes meaning pertaining to: -ac Cardiac = pertaining to the heart. -ary Pulmonary = pertaining to the lungs. -ior Posterior = pertaining to the back of the body. 18  Noun Suffixes -iatry Psychiatry = treatment, medical specialty. -ician Pediatrician = Expert specialist. -icle Ossicle = Small, minute. 19 Prefixes 20  Prefixes Added directly to the root or the combining form. Change the meaning of medical terms No use of combining vowel Examples: peri-cardium = prefix + root. epi-cardium = prefix + root. 21 Prefix 2 pre- mature prefix + root = Premature, before the normal pregnancy. post- mature prefix + root = Postmature, after the normal pregnancy. 22 Some Classifications of Prefixes 1. Position 2. Number and Measurement 3. Direction 23 Position Prefixes Identify the prefixes of the following words: Epidermis epi- = prefix. Dermis = root. Hypodermis hypo- = prefix. dermis = root. 24 Number and Measurement Prefixes Identify the prefixes of the following word: Multipara multi- = prefix. para = root. Primipara primi- = prefix. para = root. 25  Direction Prefixes Identify the prefixes of the following word: Antevert ante- = prefix. vert = root. Synapse syn- = prefix. apse = root. 26 Unique Medical Words 27 Greek, Latin, and Old English Words Some medical terms cannot be broken down into elements Examples: Greek: toxin - meaning poison. Latin: medical - meaning to heal. Old English: record - meaning to remember. 28 Terms That Are Alike Many words in the medical language are similar in spelling and pronunciation. Examples: ilium and ileum. malleus and malleolus. 29 Prefix 3 uni- Unilateral, one side of the body. bi- Bilateral, two (both) sides of the body. 30 Prefix 4 peri- Perinatal, around the time of birth. epi- Epigastric, above the stomach. hypo- Hypogastric, below the stomach. 31 Prefix 5 micro- Microcyte, small red blood cell. macro- Macrocyte, large red blood cell. 32 Word Deconstruction 33 Word Deconstruction When you see an unfamiliar medical term, first identify the suffix. For example: cardiologist The suffix is -logist, one who studies and is a specialist in. Cardi/o is the combining form for heart. 34 Word Deconstruction Use deconstruction to determine the meaning of the following word: myocardial The suffix is -al, pertaining to; my/o is the combining form for muscle; and the root cardi means heart. 35 Word Deconstruction Identify the elements of the following word: cardiomyopathy cardi/o- combining form -my/o- combining form -pathy suffix 36 Plurals Plural endings for medical terms do not simply involve adding an “s.” Plural endings must be memorized. 37  Plural Examples Singular Ending Plural Ending Examples -a -ae axilla -a -ae axillae -is -es diagnosis -is -es diagnoses 38 Pronunciation 1 Correct pronunciation of medical terms is essential so that other health professionals can understand what you are saying. It is an especially important component in ensuring patient safety and providing high-quality patient care. 39 Pronunciation 2 Some words that are pronounced the same are spelled differently and have different meanings. For example: Both ilium and ileum are pronounced ILL-ee-um. The ilium is a bone in the pelvis. The ileum is a segment of the small intestine. 40 Pronunciation 3 Some words sound the same if incorrectly pronounced. For example: The term prostate, pronounced PROSS-tate, refers to the gland at the base of the male bladder. The term prostrate, pronounced pross-TRAYT, means to be physically weak or exhausted or to lie flat on the ground. 41 Note Many words, when they are written or pronounced, have an element that, if misspelled or mispronounced, gives the intended word an entirely different meaning. A treatment response to the different meaning could cause a medical error or even the death of a patient. 42 Note Consider the case of confusing hypotension (low blood pressure) with hypertension (high blood pressure). A treatment response to the different meaning could cause a medical error and perhaps the death of a patient. 43 Note When you understand the individual word elements that make up a medical term, you are better able to understand clearly the medical terms you are using. 44 Final Word 1 Being a health professional requires the utmost attention to detail and precision in both written documentation and verbal communication. A patient’s life can be in your hands. Any incorrect spelling can reflect badly on the whole health team. Any incorrect pronunciation and spelling can reflect badly on you as a health professional. 45 Final Word 2 Roots provide the core meaning of medical terms. Roots are often joined to other elements in the medical term by placing a combining vowel on the end of the root. Adding a suffix or a prefix to a root can build new words with different meanings. Precision in communication is vitally important. 46 Body Structure 1  Objective To know of body directions and orientations in details To describe body locations and positions Topics covered: – Anatomic Position & Directional terms – Body Planes – Body Cavities – Abdominal Regions & Quadrants – Common terms for body parts- anterior & posterior – Different Body Positions of Medical interests – Few related medical terms- roots, prefixes and key words 2 DIRECTIONAL TERMS 3 Anatomical Position Upright – With face front – Arms at the side – Palm forwarded – Feet paralleled Universally accepted 4  Anatomical Directions- 1 Term Definition Anterior toward the front (belly) of the body (ventral) Posterior toward the back of the body (dorsal) Superior above; in a higher position Inferior below; in a lower position Cranial toward the head (cephalad) in superior direction Caudal toward the lower end of the spine (Latin Cauda means “tail”); in inferior direction https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jwB5SL90Le8 5 Anatomical Directions- 2 Term Definition Medial toward the midline of the body Lateral toward the side of the body Proximal nearer to the point of attachment or to a given reference point; nearer to midline Distal Farther/away from the point of Attachment or from a given reference Point; away from midline Superficial closer to the surface of the body (external) Deep closer to the center of the body (internal) 6  Directional Terms- Relations same Anterior vs. Posterior same Ventral vs. Dorsal Medial vs. Lateral Superior vs. Inferior Cranial vs. Caudal Superficial vs. Deep Distal vs. Proximal Supine vs. Prone Supination vs. Pronation Plantar vs. Dorsum 7 8 8 BODY PLANES 9  Body Planes The body is visually divided into areas called planes Frontal plane – passing through the body vertically from head to foot ✓ Divides body into anterior & posterior parts ✓ Also called Coronal plane Sagittal plane – passing through the body vertically from head to foot ✓ Divides body into right & left parts ✓ Midsagittal/ Medial plane: if through the midline Transverse plane – passes through the body horizontally ✓ Divides body into superior & inferior parts 10 10  Frontal (Coronal) Plane Passing through the body vertically from head to foot Divides body into anterior & posterior parts 11  Sagittal Plane Passing through the body vertically from head to foot Divides body into right & left parts Midsagittal/ Medial plane: if through the midline 12  Transverse Plane Passes through the body horizontally Divides body into superior & inferior parts 13 All Planes 14  QQQ Shoulder joint is ___________to wrist joint? (proximal or distal) Caudal end is also called as ________ end (tail or head) If I have itchy lesion on my abdomen (belly) , which part of the body is it on ? (dorsal or ventral) Frontal plane divides the body into _____ and ______ parts. 15  The artery here is _____________ to vein? (medial / lateral) 16 BODY CAVITIES 17 17  Body Cavities Internal Organs are located within different cavities Dorsal (Posterior) Cavities Ventral (Anterior) Cavities 18 18  Body Cavities 1. Dorsal (Posterior) Cavities: – Cranial cavity for Brain – Spinal cavity for spinal cord 2. Ventral (Anterior) Cavities: – Thoracic cavity for heart and lungs – Abdominal cavity for abdominal organs – Pelvic cavity for reproductive/urinary organs 19 19 ABDOMINAL REGIONS 20  Abdominal Regions The Abdomen is divided into 9 imaginary regions Three medial regions Six lateral regions https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gKMg-i5QRzk 21 21  Abdominal Regions Right hypochondriac Epigastric Left hypochondriac Right lumbar Umbilical Left lumbar Right inguinal (iliac) Hypogastric Left inguinal 22 22  Abdominal Regions MEDIAL REGIONS: Epigastric: above stomach Umbilical: includes umbilicus/naval Hypogastric: below stomach LATERAL REGIONS: Hypochondriac: near to the ribs, especially cartilages (chondr/o) of ribs Lumbar: near small of back Inguinal (iliac): near upper bone of the hip, the ilium; inguinal is related to groin 23 23 ABDOMINAL QUADRANTS 24  Abdominal Quadrants The abdomen can be divided into four sections by a single vertical line and a single horizontal line that intersect at the umbilicus (navel) Four imaginary quadrants right upper quadrant (RUQ) left upper quadrant (LUQ) right lower quadrant (RLQ) left lower quadrant (LLQ) 25 25 Common terms for body regions, anterior view 26 Common terms for body regions, posterior view 27  Body Positions Position Description 1. Anatomical position standing erect, facing forward, arms at sides, palms forward, legs parallel, toes pointed forward. Used for descriptions and studies of the body. 28  Body Positions Position Description 2. Decubitus position lying down, specifically according to the part of the body dē-KŪ-bi-tus resting on a flat surface, as in left or right lateral decubitus, or dorsal or ventral decubitus decubitus means "lying down". Originates from the Latin term decumbere meaning "to lie down". RIGHT LATERAL DECUBITUS POSITION 29  Body Positions Position Description 3.Dorsal recumbent On back, with legs bent and separated, feet flat. position Used for obstetrics and gynecology Position that places person in a reclined posture, as in while riding a bicycle 30  Body Positions Position Description 4. Fowler position on back, head of bed raised about 18 inches, knees elevated. Used to ease breathing and for drainage 31  Body Positions Position Description 5. Jackknife position an anatomic position in which the patient is placed on JAK-nīf the stomach with the hips flexed and the knees bent at a 90-degree angle and the arms outstretched in front of the patient. Examination and instrumentation of the rectum are facilitated by this position. 32  Body Positions Position Description 6. Knee–chest position On knees, head and upper chest on table, arms crossed above head. Used in gynecology and obstetrics and for flushing the intestine 33  Body Positions Position Description 7. Lateral recumbent on the side with one leg flexed; arm position may vary position 34  Body Positions Position Description 8. Lithotomy position On back, legs flexed on abdomen, thighs apart. li-THOT-ō-mē Used for gynecologic and urologic surgery. 35  Body Positions Position Description 9. Prone lying face down 10. Supine* lying face up SŪ-pīn * To remember the difference between prone and supine, look for the word up in supine. 36  Body Positions Position Description 11. Sims position On left side, right leg drawn up high and forward, left arm along back, chest forward resting on bed. Used for kidney and uterine surgery, colon examination, and enemas 37  Body Positions Position Description 12. Trendelenburg On back with head lowered by tilting bed back at 45º angle. position tren-DEL-en-berg Used for pelvic and abdominal surgery, treatment of shock 38 Body Positions 39  Roots for Regions of the Head and Trunk Root Meaning Example Definition of example cephal/o head microcephaly abnormal smallness of the head mī-krō-SEF-a-lē cervic/o neck cervicofacial pertaining to the neck and face ser-vi-kō-FĀ-shal thorac/o chest, thorax intrathoracic within the thorax in-tra-thō-RAS-ik abdomin/o abdomen intraabdominal within the abdomen in-tra-ab-DOM-i-nal celi/o abdomen celiac pertaining to the abdomen SĒ-lē-ak lapar/o abdominal wall laparoscope instrument for viewing the peritoneal cavity LAP-a-rō-sko-p through the abdominal wall lumb/o lumbar region, thoracolumbar pertaining to the chest and lumbar region lower back thō-rak-ō-LUM-bar periton, peritoneum peritoneal pertaining to the peritoneum peritone/o per-i-tō-NĒ-al 40 MICROCEPHALY 41 Laproscopy - performed under general anesthesia in a surgical center. A small needle is inserted into the abdominal cavity and CO2 gas is introduced. The laparoscope (a telescope with a strong light and camera) is introduced through the navel. A variety of instruments can be inserted into the pelvis, through other small incisions, to perform diagnostic and corrective surgery. Also known as Celioscopy 42  Roots for the Extremities Root Meaning Example Definition of Example acro extremity, acrocyanosis bluish discoloration of the extremities end ak-rō-sĪ-a-NŌ-sis brachi/o arm antebrachium forearm an-tē-BRĀ-kē-um dactyl/o finger, dactylospasm spasm (cramp) of a finger or toe toe DAK-til-ō-spazm ped/o foot pedometer instrument that measures footsteps pēDOM-ēter pod/o foot podiatric pertaining to study & treatment of foot pō-dē-AT-rik 43 ? 44 ? 45 ? 46 ? 47  Prefixes for Position and Direction Prefix Meaning Example Definition of Example circum- around circumoral around the mouth ser-kum-OR-al peri- around periorbital around the orbit (eye socket) per-ē-OR-bit-al intra- in, within intravascular within a vessel (vascul/o) in-tra-VAS-kū-lar epi- on, over epithelium tissue that covers surfaces ep-i-THĒ-lē-um extra- outside extrathoracic outside the thorax eks-tra-thō-RAS-ik infra-* below infracostal below the ribs (cost/o) in-fra-KOS-tal 48  Prefixes for Position and Direction (contd.) Prefix Meaning Example Definition of Example sub-* below, under sublingual under the tongue (lingu/o) sub-LING-gwal inter- between interscapular between the scapulae in-ter-SKAP-ū-lar (shoulder blades) juxta- near, beside juxtaposition a location near or beside another juks-ta-pō-ZI-shun structure para- near, beside parasagittal near or beside a sagittal plane par-a-SAJ-i-tal retro- behind, retrouterine behind the uterus backward rētrō-Ū-ter-in supra- above suprapatellar above the patella (kneecap) su-pra-pa-TEL-ar *Also indicates degree. 49 Juxtaglomerular retroperitoneal 50  Key Terms Anatomical position Standard position; Body upright/ erect with forward facing, arms at side, palms facing forward and feet parallel Frontal (Coronal) plane Vertical plane that separates body into anterior and posterior parts Sagittal plane Vertical plane that separates body into right and left parts Transverse plane Horizontal plane that divides body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) parts Diaphragm The muscle that separates thoracic from abdominal cavity Thoracic cavity Ventral (anterior) cavity above diaphragm, the chest cavity Abdominal cavity Large ventral cavity below the diaphragm and above the pelvic cavity Pelvic cavity Ventral (anterior) cavity below abdominal cavity Abdominopelvic cavity That includes abdominal and pelvic cavities Peritoneum Large membrane that lines the abdomiopelvic organs Cranial cavity Dorsal cavity that contains brain Spinal cavity/ spinal canal Dorsal (posterior) cavity that contains spinal cord 51  Supplementary Terms Digit A finger or toe Epigastrium Epigastric region, region above stomach Fundus Base or body of hollow organ, away from opening as in stomach, uterus, eye Hypochondrium Hypochondriac region; nearer to ribs Lumen Central opening within a tube of hollow organ as in artery, vein, intestine etc Meatus A natural passage of openings in ear canal, urethra etc Orifice Opening of a cavity, usually external as in nasal cavity, eyes etc Os Mouth or opening, may be external or internal; or bone Septum A wall/ membrane that divides two cavities Sinus Cavity or space in an organ as within bones, paranasal sinuses Sphincter Circular muscle that regulates an opening 52 FUNDUS 53 LUMEN 54  meatus sinus sinus 55 Pupillary Sphincter Muscle 56 Nasal septum 57 SEPTA OF THE HEART 58  QQQ: Name the cavity and organs in the cavity 1. Space located within the bones of the hip? 2. Space located within the skull? 3. Space located within the chest? 4. Space located within the abdomen? 5. Space located within the backbones? Cavity : Abdominal, cranial, pelvic, spinal, thoracic. Organs: Brain, heart, lungs, spinal cord, stomach, urinary bladder, uterus 59  Muscle separating the chest and the abdomen? Membrane surrounding the organs in the abdomen? Membrane surrounding the lungs in the chest? 60 Thank You 61 Cells, Tissues and Organs 1 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs ⚫ Objectives: ⚫ List the simplest to the most complex levels of an organism ⚫ Describe the main parts of a cell ⚫ Label a diagram of a typical cell ⚫ Name and give the functions of the 4 tissue types ⚫ Define basic terms pertaining to body tissue structure and function ⚫ Recognize and use roots and suffixes: cells, tissues and organs ⚫ Analyze case studies 2 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs Body Organization ⚫ Cells ⚫ Smallest Structural and functional unit ⚫ Tissues ⚫ Groups of similar cells with specialized functions ⚫ Organs ⚫ Tissues arranged together to perform a particular function ⚫ Body Systems ⚫ Organization of different organs to perform bodily functions ⚫ Organism ⚫ made up by many body systems together ⚫ E.g. the animal 3 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs  4 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 4 D (V). Lysosomes ⚫ Lysis → breakdown ⚫ Small sacs / bags of digestive enzyme known as lysosomal enzymes ⚫ Function ⚫ digest stored food ⚫ maintenance and repair of organelles ⚫ suicide agents for old or weak cells 5 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 5 Cell Structures Name Description Function Plasma membrane Outer layer of the cell Encloses the cell contents Regulates what enters and leaves the cell; Participates in many activities Microvilli Short extensions of the cell membrane Absorb materials into the cell Nucleus Large, dark-staining organelle near the Contains the chromosomes, the center of the cell hereditary units Nucleolus Small body in the nucleus Makes ribosomes Cytoplasm Colloidal suspension that fills the cell Site of many cellular activities. Consists of cytosol and organelles. Cytosol The fluid portion of the cytoplasm Surrounds the organelles Organelles Subunits of cell Perform various functions Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Network of membranes within the Rough ER sorts proteins and forms cytoplasm. Rough ER has ribosomes them into more complex compounds attached to it; smooth ER does not. Smooth ER is involved with lipid synthesis Ribosomes Small bodies free in the cytoplasm or Manufacture proteins attached to the ER; composed of RNA and protein 6 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs Cell Structures (contd.) Name Description Function Mitochondria Large organelles with folded Convert energy from nutrients into membranes inside ATP Golgi apparatus Layers of membranes Makes compounds containing proteins Sorts and prepares these compounds for transport Lysosomes Small sacs of digestive enzymes Digest substances within the cell Peroxisomes Membrane-enclosed organelles Break down harmful substances containing enzymes Vesicles Small membrane-bound sacs in the Store and move materials into or out cytoplasm of the cell in bulk Centrioles Rod-shaped bodies (usually two) Help separate the chromosomes near the nucleus during cell division Surface projections Structures that extend from the cell Move the cell or the fluids around the cell Cilia Short, hairlike projections from the Move the fluids around the cell cell Flagellum Long, whip-like extension from the Moves the cell cell 7 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs Terms relating to cells ⚫ word root: cyt/o = cell ⚫ cytology- the study of cells ⚫ cytologist- one who studies cells THE “PLASIAS” ⚫ Anaplasia- a change in the structure and orientation of cells, reverting to a more primitive form ⚫ Aplasia- a developmental failure resulting in absence of an organ or tissue ⚫ Dysplasia- abnormal development of cells, tissues, organs ⚫ Hyperplasia- increase in the number of cells of tissue/organ ⚫ Hypoplasia- under developed organ or tissue ⚫ Neoplasia- new and abnormal development of cells 8 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 8  APLASIA Aplastic anemia - a condition where bone marrow does not produce sufficient new cells to replenish blood cells. Pulmonary Aplasia 9 Cervical Dysplasia The outside of the cervix and the vagina are covered by a layer of flat cells called squamous or skin- like cells. There are many of these cell layers before the first flattened layer of cells with a nuclei. Normally at the bottom of the cell layers are the round, younger cells. As the cells mature, they rise to the surface and become flat. The skin-like covering is separated from the underlying structures by a basement membrane. 10 Cervical Dysplasia In mild dysplasia (CIN I) only a few cells are abnormal. Mild cervical dysplasia sometimes goes away without treatment. However many doctors will treat it at this early stage to prevent it from progressing. 11 Cervical Dysplasia In moderate dysplasia (CIN II) the abnormal cells involve about one-half of the thickness of the surface lining of the cervix. 12  Cervical Dysplasia In severe dysplasia (CIN III), also called carcinoma-in-situ, the entire thickness of cells is abnormal, but the abnormal cells have not yet spread below the surface or basement membrane. Carcinoma- in-situ literally means "cancer in place". This severity of dysplasia MUST BE TREATED because it will most often develop into invasive cancer. In all grades of dysplasia and carcinoma-in-situ all of the abnormalities are confined to the cells ABOVE the basement membrane of the cervix. 13  With invasive cancer, the Cervical Dysplasia cells are not only abnormal throughout the entire thickness from the top to the basement membrane, but they invade the basement membrane. Invasive cancer is treated entirely differently than dysplasia and usually involves extensive surgery. The depth of invasion past the basement membrane is an important piece of information that will help make the decision on the proper treatment needed. Micro - invasive cancer, invasion less than 3 mm, may be treated differently and more conservatively than invasive cancer that goes 14 deeper. Hyperplasia Hyperplasia (or "hypergenesis") means increase in number of cells/proliferation of cells. It may result in the gross enlargement of an organ and the term is sometimes mixed with benign neoplasia/benign tumor. 15  MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY – increase in cell size Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle 16 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs NEOPLASIA – abnormal growth of body tissue; result is a NEOPLASM = TUMOR 17 Tissue ⚫ Tissue - groups of cells with similar function ⚫ Histology - study of tissues ⚫ Histologist- one who studies tissues ⚫ Tissue types 1. Epithelial 2. Connective 3. Muscle 4. Nervous 18 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 18 1. Epithelial Tissue ⚫ Covers and protects body structures ⚫ Covers, lines, protects, secretes, filters, diffusion, absorbs - organs, vessels, body cavities, etc. ⚫ Types: ⚫ Simple Epithelium: cells in single layer ⚫ Functions to absorb substances from one system to another as in respiratory, digestive tracts ⚫ Stratified: cells in multiple layers ⚫ Protects the deeper tissues, as in mouth and vagina 19 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 19 1. Epithelial Tissue Figure 4-5 Epithelial tissue. The cells in simple epithelium (A) are in a single layer and absorb materials from one system to another. The cells in stratified epithelium (B) are in multiple layers and protect deeper tissues. 20 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 2. Connective Tissue ⚫ Supports and binds body structures ⚫ Contains fibers + other non-living material between cells ⚫ May be: liquid (blood) fatty (protective padding) fibrous (tendons and ligaments) gel-like: cartilage (rings of trachea) solid (bone) 21 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 21  2. Connective Tissue (contd.) Figure 4-6 Connective tissue. Examples of connective tissue are.. (A) Adipose tissue, which stores fat; (B) Cartilage, which is used for protection and reinforcement; (C) Bone, which makes up the skeleton. 22 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 3. Muscle Tissue ⚫ My/o= muscle ⚫ Contracts to produce movements ⚫ Capable of producing movements through contraction and relaxation of its fibers. ⚫ Types: ⚫ Skeletal ⚫ Smooth ⚫ Cardiac 23 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 23 3. Muscle Tissue: types ⚫ Three types: 1. Skeletal (Striated)– Moves skeletal/ bones Attached to bone, responsible for movement Has visible cross-bands, striations; as called ‘Striated’ Voluntary 2. Smooth (Visceral)– Found in walls of hollow internal organs Digestive tract, arteries and veins, ureters Involuntary 3. Cardiac – Makes up muscle wall of the heart Involuntary 24 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 24 Skeletal (Striated) Muscle Tissue Smooth (Visceral) Cardiac 25 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 4. Nervous Tissue ⚫ Makes up brain, spinal cord, and nerves ⚫ Coordination and control of body ⚫ Transmission of electrical impulses ⚫ Neuron is the basic nerve cell Figure 4-8 Nervous tissue. The functional cell of the nervous system is the neuron (A). Neuron fibers join to form nerves (B). Nervous tissue also makes up the spinal cord and brain (C), where it is divided into gray matter and white matter. 26 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 26 Membranes ⚫ Simplest tissue ⚫ Mucous membranes ⚫ secrete mucus, a thick fluid that lubricates surfaces and protects underlying tissue ⚫ as in the lining of the digestive tract and respiratory passages ⚫ Serous membranes ⚫ secrete a thin, watery fluid ⚫ line body cavities and cover organs ⚫ These include the membranes around the heart and lungs ⚫ Fibrous membranes ⚫ cover and support organs ⚫ as found around the bones, the brain, and spinal cord 27 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 27 Terms related to tissues ⚫ Hist/o= tissue ⚫ Histology: The study of tissues (his-TOL-ō-je-) ⚫ Histotechnologist: who prepares tissue samples for microscopic examination ⚫ Biopsy: (bios=life, opsis= vision) removal and examination of living tissue to determine a diagnosis ⚫ In vivo: in the living body ⚫ In vitro: outside the body or in laboratory etc. ⚫ In situ: in its original place ⚫ Postmortem: after death 28 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs Organs ⚫ Made up of tissues arranged together to perform a particular function ⚫ Many organs are grouped to constitute a system ⚫ Term ‘viscera’ refers to internal organs ⚫ Organs: liver spleen stomach lungs 29 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 29 Organ Systems ⚫ Circulation: ⚫ Cardiovascular system, consisting of the heart and blood vessels ⚫ Lymphatic system, organs and vessels that aid circulation and help protect the body from foreign materials 30 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 30 Organ Systems (contd.) ⚫ Nutrition and fluid balance: ⚫ Respiratory system, which obtains the oxygen needed for metabolism and eliminates carbon dioxide, a by-product of metabolism ⚫ Digestive system, which takes in, breaks down, and absorbs nutrients and eliminates undigested waste ⚫ Urinary system, which eliminates soluble waste and balances the volume and composition of body fluids 31 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs 31 Organ Systems (contd.) ⚫ Production of offspring: ⚫ The male and female reproductive systems 32 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs Organ Systems (contd.) Coordination and control: ⚫ Nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, and including the sensory system. This system receives and processes stimuli and directs responses. ⚫ Endocrine system, individual glands that produce hormones. 33 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs Organ Systems (contd.) ⚫ Body structure and movement: ⚫ Skeletal system, the bones and joints ⚫ Muscular system, which moves the skeleton and makes up organs. The muscular system and skeleton protect vital organs. 34 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs Organ Systems (contd.) Body covering: ⚫ The skin, or integumentary system, which functions in protection and also helps to regulate body temperature 35 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs Roots for Cells & Tissues Root Meaning Example Definition of Example morph/o form Amorphous without form cyt/o, cell Cytogenesis formation (-genesis) of cells cyte nucle/o nucleus Nucleoplasm substance that fills the nucleus kary/o nucleus Karyotype picture of a cell's chromosomes organized according to size hist/o, tissue Histologic pertaining to tissues histi/o fibr/o fiber Fibrosis abnormal formation of fibrous tissue 36 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs Roots for Cells & Tissues (contd.) Root Meaning Example Definition of Example reticul/o network Reticulum a network aden/o gland Adenoma tumor (-oma) of a gland papill/o nipple Papilla projection that resembles a nipple myx/o mucus Myxadenitis inflammation (-itis) of a mucus secreting gland muc/o mucus, Mucorrhea increased flow (-rhea) of mucus Mucous membrane somat/o, body, Chromosome small body that takes up color (dye) -some small body (chrom/o) 37 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs Roots for Cell Activities Root Meaning Example Definition of Example blast/o, immature cell, Blastocyte an early embryonic cell blast productive cell, embryonic cell gen origin, formation Histogenesis origin or formation of tissues phag/o eat, ingest Autophagy self-destruction of a cell's organelles phil attract, absorb Basophilic attracting basic stain plas formation, molding, Hypoplasia underdevelopment of an development organ or tissue trop act on, affect Chronotropic affecting rate or timing (chron/o) troph/o feeding, growth, Hypertrophy overdevelopment of tissue nourishment 38 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs Suffixes & Roots for Body Chemistry Word Part Meaning Example Definition Of Example Suffixes -ase enzyme Lipase enzyme that digests fat (lipid) -ose sugar Fructose fruit sugar Roots hydr/o water, fluid Hydrophilic attracting water gluc/o glucose Glucogenesis production of glucose glyc/o sugar, Normoglycemia normal blood sugar level glucose sacchar/o sugar Polysaccharide compound containing many simple sugars 39 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs  Key Terms Cell Basic structural & functional unit of living organism Cytology Study of cells Cytoplasm The fluid that fills the cell and holds the organelles Nucleus The cell’s control center; directs all cell activities based on information contained in its chromosomes Gene Hereditary unit composed of DNA and combined with other genes to form the chromosomes Organelles Specialized small structures in the cytoplasm of a cell Mitosis Cell division Tissue A group of cells that act together for a specific purpose Organ A part of the body with a specific functions. A component of body system ATP adenosine triphosphate. the energy compound of the cell; stores energy needed for cell activities DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, Genetic compound of the cell, makes up the gene RNA Ribonucleic acid. An organic compounds involved in manufacture of proteins within cells 40 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs Key Terms (contd.) Carbohydrates Organic Compounds That Include Sugars, Starch Glucose Simple sugar that circulates I the blood. Main energy source for metabolism Lipid A category of organic compounds that includes fat Protein A category organic compounds that include structural materials, enzymes and some hormones Enzyme Organic substance that speeds rate of chemical reactions. Most of them are proteins Mucus A thick fluid secreted by cells in membranes and glands that lubricates and protects tissues Histology Study of tissues Homeostasis A steady state; a condition of internal stability and constancy Metabolism The sum of all the physical and chemical reactions that occur within an organism 41 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs  Supplementary Terms Amino acids [a-ME-nō]: The nitrogen-containing compounds that make up proteins Anabolism [a-NAB-ō-lizm]: The type of metabolism in which body substances are made; the building phase of metabolism Anaplasia- a change in the structure and orientation of cells, reverting to a more primitive form Aplasia- a developmental failure resulting in absence of an organ or tissue Catabolism [ka-TAB-ō-lizm]: The type of metabolism in which substances are broken down for energy and simple compounds Collagen [KOL-a-jen]: A fibrous protein found in connective tissue Colloid - substance that consists of particles dispersed throughout another substance Cortex [KOR-tex]: The outer region of an organ Dysplasia- abnormal development of cells, tissues, organs Glycogen [GLĪ-kō-jen]: A complex sugar compound stored in liver and muscles; broken down into glucose when needed for energy Hyperplasia- increase in the number of cells of tissue/organ Hypoplasia- under developed organ or tissue Hypertrophy - is the increase in the volume of an organ or tissue due to the enlargement of its component cells Interstitial [in-ter-STISH-al]: Between parts, such as the spaces between cells in a tissue Medulla [me-DUL-la]: The inner region of an organ; marrow (root: medull/o) Neoplasia- new and abnormal development of cells 42 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs  Supplementary Terms Nucleoplasm - highly viscous liquid that surrounds the chromosomes and nucleoli Parenchyma [par-EN-ki-ma]: The functional tissue of an organ Parietal [pa-RĪ-ētal]: Pertaining to a wall; describes a membrane that lines a body cavity Soma [SŌ-ma]: The body Stem cell: An immature cell that has the capacity to develop into any of a variety of different cell types. A precursor cell. Visceral [VIS-er-al]: Pertaining to the internal organs; describes a membrane on the surface of an organ 43 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs Parietal and Visceral pleura Lung Parenchyma 44 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs THANK YOU 45 Chapter 4. Cells, Tissues & Organs Diseases 1  Contents & Learning Objectives ◼ Major categories of diseases. ◼ Common types of infectious organisms ◼ Common responses to disease. ◼ Define and give examples of neoplasia. ◼ Word parts pertaining to diseases. ◼ Major terms describing types of diseases. ◼ Major manifestations of diseases. ◼ Case studies. 2  Definition and models of health ◼ Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely an absence of disease or infirmity“ and the ability to lead a "socially and economically productive life" 3  Definition and models of health ◼ Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely an absence of disease or infirmity“ and the ability to lead a "socially and economically productive life" 4 1. Biomedical concept : germ (agent) basis is in the "germ theory of disease“. 2. Ecological concept : viewed health as a dynamic equilibrium between man and his environment, and disease a maladjustment of the human organism to environment. 3. Psychosocial concepts: Contemporary developments in social sciences revealed that health is not only a biomedical phenomenon, but one which is influenced by social, psychological, cultural, economic & political factors of people concerned. 4. Holistic concept: The holistic model is a synthesis of all the above concepts. It recognizes the strength of social, economic, political and environmental influences on health. 5 ◼ Which of these can cause a disease? A. Enzyme deficiency B. Infection C. Carcinogen D. Aging E. Allergen 6  Types of Diseases “Any disorder of normal body function” 7 major categories: 1. Infectious diseases: ◼ Caused by certain harmful microorganisms and other parasites that live at the expense of another organism. ◼ Disease-causing organism is described as a pathogen. ◼ Pathogens may be viruses, bacteria, fungi (yeasts and molds), protozoa (single-celled animals), and worms. 2. Degenerative diseases: ◼ Resulting from wear and tear, aging, or trauma (injury) that can result in a lesion (wound) and perhaps necrosis (death of tissue). ◼ Examples: arthritis, cardiovascular problems, and certain respiratory disorders such as emphysema. ◼ Structural malformations such as congenital malformations, prolapse (dropping), or hernia (protrusion) may also result in degenerative changes. 3. Neoplasia: ◼ Abnormal and uncontrolled growth of tissue. 4. Immune disorders: ◼ Failures of the immune system, allergies, and autoimmune diseases, in which the body makes antibodies to its own tissues. 7  Types of Diseases (contd.) 5. Metabolic disorders: ◼ Metabolism= Anabolism (construction) + Catabolism (breakdown) ◼ Resulting from lack of enzymes or other factors needed for cellular functions. ◼ Many hereditary disorders fall into this category. ◼ Malnutrition caused by inadequate intake of nutrients or inability of the body to absorb and use nutrients also upsets metabolism. 6. Hormonal disorders: ◼ Underproduction or overproduction of hormones or by inability of the hormones to function properly. ◼ Example: Diabetes Mellitus (due to underproduction of Insulin) 7. Mental and emotional disorders: ◼ Affect the mind and adaptation of an individual to environment. ◼ Etiology: cause of a disease ◼ although many diseases have multiple causes. ◼ Acute disease: sudden, severe and of short duration. ◼ Chronic disease: of long duration and progresses slowly. ◼ Emergency Medical Technician (EMT): health profession that deals with the immediate effects of acute disease. 8 Can you think of any other type of disease classification? 9 ◼ I have cough and cold since yesterday and I am feeling feverish and having generalized body ache. What type of inflammation do I have? A. Acute B. Chronic 10  Naming of Few Diseases ◼ Diseases get their names in a variety of ways. ◼ Some are named for the places where they were first found ◼ Lyme disease: tick borne bacterial disease for village of Lyme, Connecticut, New London, US ◼ Japanese encephalitis: viral infection ◼ Some are named for the people who first described them ◼ Cooley anemia: inherited blood disease, Thalassemia ◼ Crohn’s disease: an inflammatory bowel disease ◼ Hodgkin’s disease: of the lymphatic system. ◼ Many diseases are named on the basis of the symptoms they cause. ◼ Tuberculosis: small lesions known as ‘tubercles’ in the lungs and other tissues. ◼ Skin anthrax: black lesions [name from anthracite coal] ◼ Sickle cell anemia: RBC become distorted into a crescent/sickle shape ◼ Bubonic plague causes painful and enlarged lymph nodes called ‘buboes’. ◼ Lupus erythematosus, a systemic autoimmune disorder, Latin term for ‘wolf’, because the red rash on the face gives patients a wolf-like appearance. ◼ Yellow fever, scarlet fever, and rubella (German measles) are named for colors associated with the pathology of these diseases. ◼ Scarlet= bright red ◼ Rubella= little red 11 Bubo 12 ◼Find the name of the viral disease whose infections in children in the U.S. has been on the rise in 2019. 13  Infectious Diseases ◼ Caused by pathogens: ◼ Viruses ◼ Bacteria ◼ Fungi (yeasts and molds) ◼ Protozoa (single-celled animals) ◼ Worms (helminths) ◼ They can enter the body through several routes, including ◼ damaged skin ◼ respiratory tract ◼ digestive system ◼ urinary ◼ reproductive tracts. ◼ An infected person's bodily discharges may contain organisms that spread infection through the air, food, water, or direct contact. ◼ Microorganisms often produce disease by means of the toxins (poisons) they release. ◼ The presence of harmful microorganisms or their toxins in the body is termed sepsis. 14 ◼ Bacilli have a shape of A. Comma B. Cork screw C. Round D. Rod 15  Infectious Organisms Type of Organism Description Examples of Diseases Caused BACTERIA simple microscopic organisms, which bak-TĒ-rē-a can produce disease; singular, bacterium (bak-TĒ-rē-um) cocci round bacteria; pneumonia, rheumatic fever, food KOK-sī may be pairs (diplococci), poisoning, septicemia, urinary tract in clusters (staphylococci), infections, gonorrhea chains (streptococci), and other formations; singular, coccus (KOK-us) bacilli rod-shaped bacteria; typhoid, dysentery, salmonellosis, ba-SIL-ī singular, bacillus (ba-SIL-us) tuberculosis, botulism, tetanus vibrios short curved rods cholera, gastroenteritis VIB-rē-ōz spirochetes corkscrew-shaped bacteria that move Lyme disease, syphilis, SPĪ-rō-ke-tz with a twisting motion relapsing fever, Vincent disease chlamydia extremely small bacteria that, like conjunctivitis, trachoma, kla-MID-ē-a viruses, grow in living cells, but are pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), and susceptible to antibiotics other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) rickettsia extremely small bacteria that grow in typhus, Rocky Mountain spotted fever ri-KET-sē-a living cells but are susceptible to Antibiotics 16  Infectious Organisms (contd.) Type of Organism Description Examples of Diseases Caused VIRUSES submicroscopic infectious agents that colds, herpes, hepatitis, measles, varicella VĪ-rus-es can live and reproduce only within living (chickenpox), influenza, AIDS cells FUNGI simple, nongreen plants, some of which candidiasis, skin infections (tinea, FUN-jī are parasitic; includes yeasts and molds; ringworm), valley fever singular, fungus (FUN-gus) PROTOZOA single-celled animals; dysentery, Trichomonas infection, malaria prō-tō-ZŌ-a singular, protozoon (prō-tō-ZŌ-on) HELMINTHS worms trichinosis; infestations with roundworms, HEL-minths pinworms, hookworms 17  Bacteria http://classes.midlandstech.edu/carterp/courses/bio225/chap04/lecture2.htm In shape, bacteria are: ◼ Round, or cocci, ◼ Rod-shaped, or bacilli, ◼ Curved, including vibrios and spirochetes, Bacilli, rod-shaped bacteria. (A) Drawing of bacilli. (B) Photomicrograph of bacilli Cocci, round bacteria, Gram-stained. (A) Curved bacteria. (A) Vibrios are short curved rods. Cells growing in pairs, diplococci. (B) Cells (B) Spirochetes are spiral-shaped. (C) Spirochetes in chains, streptococci. (C) Cells in clusters, shown in a photomicrograph. staphylococci. (D) Streptococci viewed under a microscope in a photomicrograph 18  Bacteria (contd.) ◼ May be named according to their shape and arrangements they form. ◼ They also are described according to the dyes they take up when stained in the laboratory. ◼ The most common laboratory bacterial stain is the Gram stain, with which ◼ gram-positive organisms stain purple ◼ gram-negative organisms stain red 19  Acid fast Staining Acid-fast bacilli are bright red after staining. Also known as the Ziehl–Neelsen staining, is a bacteriological stain used to identify Mycobacteria Tuberculosis 20  Responses to Disease A. Inflammation: ◼ A common response to infection and to other forms of disease is inflammation. ◼ When cells are injured, they release chemicals that allow blood cells and fluids to move into the tissues. ◼ This inflow of blood results in the four signs of inflammation: ◼ heat ◼ pain ◼ redness ◼ Swelling Aca Calor, dolor, rubor, and tumor ◼ suffix -itis indicates inflammation ◼ Inflammation is one possible cause of edema, a swelling or accumulation of fluid in the tissues ◼ Other causes of edema include blockage of fluid, heart failure, and imbalance in body fluid composition. Edema. (A) A normal foot showing veins, tendons, and bones. (B) Edema (swelling) obscures surface features. 21  Responses to Disease (contd.) B. Phagocytosis: ◼ Process to get rid of invading microorganisms, damaged cells, and other types of harmful debris. ◼ Certain WBCs are capable of engulfing these materials and destroying them internally. ◼ Phagocytic cells are found circulating in the blood, in the tissues, and in the lymphatic system. ◼ The remains of phagocytosis consist of fluid and WBCs; this mixture is called pus. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z7lwGWDz5hQ https://www.youtube.com/wat ch?v=_gSsVrrUtrw Phagocytosis. (A) A phagocytic white blood cell squeezes through a capillary wall to engulf a bacterium. (B) Lysosomal enzymes destroy the bacterium, and the waste products are eliminated. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qvGVoxdy-yM 22  Responses to Disease (contd.) C. Immunity: ◼ ‘defense against infectious disease’ ◼ Inborn Immunity: (Innate/ Built-in) ◼ Based on a person's genetic makeup and do not require any previous exposure to a disease organism. ◼ E.g. Inflammation and phagocytosis ◼ Mechanical barriers, such as intact skin and mucous membranes ◼ Body secretions, such as stomach acid and enzymes in saliva and tears ◼ Adaptive Immunity: (Acquired) ◼ That we acquire during life from exposure to infective organisms. ◼ Specific for particular diseases ◼ Either developed by natural exposure or by the administration of vaccines. ◼ System responsible: cells in the blood, and lymphatic system ◼ Cells recognize different foreign invaders and get rid of them by direct attack and by production of circulating antibodies that help to destroy them. ◼ This system also monitors the body continuously for abnormal and malfunctioning cells, such as cancer cells. ◼ It may overreact to produce allergies, and may react to one's own tissues to cause autoimmune diseases. 23  Neoplasia ◼ Neoplasm: an abnormal and uncontrolled growth of tissue—a tumor or growth. Benign neoplasm: does not spread, or metastasize, to other tissues, although it may cause damage at the site where it grows. Malignant neoplasm : that metastasizes to other tissues , and is commonly called cancer. ◼ Carcinoma: A malignant tumor that involves epithelial tissue If the tumor arises in glandular epithelium, it is an adenocarcinoma (the root aden/o means “gland”); a cancer of pigmented epithelial cells (melanocytes) is a melanoma. ◼ Sarcoma: A neoplasm that involves connective tissue or muscle ◼ Cancers of the blood, lymphatic system, and nervous system are classified according to the cell types involved and other clinical features. ◼ CYST: Often mistaken for a malignancy is a cyst, a sac or pouch filled with fluid or semisolid material that is usually abnormal Cyst in the breast but not cancerous. ◼ Common sites for cyst formation are the breasts, the sebaceous glands of the skin, and the ovaries. ◼ Causes of cyst formation include infection or blockage of a duct. 24 Neoplasia: Benign Vs Malignant Capsule: covers the tumors cells. Invasion: intrusion on and destruction of adjacent tissues Infiltration: the diffusion or accumulation of substances which is not normal to it or in excess a mounts Differentiation: process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type Anaplasia: increased capacity for multiplication Metastasis: spread from one to another organ/ tissue 25 ◼ A 53 year old woman notices a breast lump of 2 cm size. Her axillary lymph node is enlarged and when the lymph node was biopsied there were cancer cells. She has: A. In situ cancer B. Malignant tumor C. Benign tumor 26  Terminology: Key Terms ◼ Acute: Sudden, severe; having a short course ◼ Benign [bē-NI-N]: Not recurrent or malignant; favorable for recovery; describing tumors that do not spread ◼ Carcinoma: A malignant neoplasm composed of epithelial cells (from Greek root carcino, meaning “crab”) (adjective: carcinomatous) ◼ Chronic: Of long duration; progressing slowly ◼ Cyst: A filled sac or pouch that is usually abnormal. Used as a root meaning a normal bladder or sac, such as the urinary bladder or gallbladder (root cyst/o, cyst/i). ◼ Edema [e-DĒ-ma]: Accumulation of fluid in the tissues; swelling. Adjective edematous (e- DĒ-ma-tus) ◼ Etiology [ē-tē-OL-ō-je-]: The cause of a disease ◼ Gram stain: A laboratory staining procedure that divides bacteria into two groups: gram- positive, which stain blue, and gram-negative, which stain red ◼ Hernia [HER-nē-a]: Protrusion of an organ through an abnormal opening; a rupture (see Fig. 6-7, next slide) ◼ Inflammation [in-fla-MĀ-shun]: A localized response to tissue injury characterized by heat, pain, redness, and swelling ◼ Lesion [LĒ-zhun]: A distinct area of damaged tissue; an injury or wound ◼ Malignant [ma-LIG-nant]: Growing worse; harmful; tending to cause death; describing tumors that spread (metastasize) ◼ Metastasize [me-TAS-ta-sīz]: To spread from one part of the body to another; characteristic of cancer (noun: metastasis) ◼ Exudate [EKS-ū-da-t]: Material that escapes from blood vessels as a result of tissue injury 27 Hernia [HER-nē-a]: Protrusion of an organ through an abnormal opening 28 29 Front View – Before Ventral Oblique View – Before Ventral Side View – Before Ventral Incisional Hernia Repair Incisional Hernia Repair Incisional Hernia Repair This patient was in a motor vehicle collision and suffered significant trauma to the abdomen. Upon conclusion of an exploratory laparatomy, closure of the patient’s abdomen was not possible due to wound severity so the trauma surgeons placed multiple skin grafts directly over his intestines. Years later, the patient suffered an inability to generate intra-abdominal force with physical lifting, going to the bathroom, and/or other activities requiring exertion of the abdominal muscles. This inability to generate intra-abdominal force is known as a “loss of abdominal domain” wherein the abdominal cavity is unable to contain the intestines and other abdominal contents. 30 Operation Performed: The patient then underwent ventral incisional hernia repair with removal of the skin grafts and abdominal wall closure utilizing the “Components Separation” technique with muscle advancement flaps. Alloderm was then placed on top as an “onlay graft” in order to provide additional support. The following photos are before and six months following the patient’s reconstructive surgery. 31  Terminology: Key Terms (contd.) ◼ Necrosis [ne-KRŌ-sis]: Death of tissue ◼ Neoplasm: An abnormal and uncontrolled growth of tissue, namely, a tumor; may be benign or malignant. From prefix neo- meaning “new” and root plasm meaning “formation.” The root onc/o and the suffix -oma refer to neoplasms. ◼ Parasite: An organism that grows on or in another organism (the host), causing damage to it ◼ Pathogen: An organism capable of causing disease (root path/o means “disease”) ◼ Phagocytosis: The ingestion of organisms, such as invading bacteria or small particles of waste material by a cell; ingested material is then destroyed by the phagocytic cell, or phagocyte (root phag/o means “to eat”) ◼ Prolapse: A dropping or downward displacement of an organ or part; ptosis ◼ Pus: A product of inflammation consisting of fluid and white blood cells (root: py/o) ◼ Sarcoma: A malignant neoplasm arising from connective tissue (from Greek root sarco, meaning “flesh”) (adjective: sarcomatous) ◼ Sepsis: The presence of harmful microorganisms or their toxins in the blood or other tissues (adjective: septic) ◼ Toxin: A poison (adjective, toxic) (roots: tox/o, toxic/o) ◼ Trauma: A physical or psychological wound or injury ◼ Ascites [a-SĪ-te-z]: Accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity 32 RECTAL PROLAPSE UTERINE PROLAPSE 33  Roots for Disease Root Meaning Example Definition of example alg/o, algi/o, pain algesia condition of having pain algesi/o carcin/o cancer, carcinoma carcinoid resembling a carcinoma cyst/o, cyst/I filled sac or pouch, cystic pertaining to or having cysts cyst, bladder Lith calculus, stone lithiasis stone formation onc/o Tumor oncogenic causing a tumor path/o Disease pathogen organism that produces disease py/o Pus pyoderma pus-containing skin disease pyr/o, fever, fire pyrexia fever pyret/o scler/o Hard sclerosis hardening of tissue tox/o, Poison endotoxin toxin within bacterial cells toxic/o 34  Prefixes for Disease Prefix Meaning Example Definition of Example brady- slow bradycardia slow heart (cardi-) rate dys- abnormal, painful, dystrophy abnormal nourishment (troph/o) of difficult tissue mal- bad, poor malabsorption poor absorption of nutrients pachy- thick pachycephaly abnormal thickness of the skull tachy- rapid tachypnea rapid breathing (-pnea) xero- dry xeroderma dryness of the skin 35  Suffixes for Disease Suffix Meaning Example Definition of Example -algia, -algesia pain neuralgia pain in a nerve (neur/o) -cele hernia, localized dilation gastrocele hernia of the stomach (gastr/o) -clasis, -clasia breaking karyoclasis breaking of a nucleus (kary/o) -itis inflammation cystitis inflammation of the urinary bladder (cyst/o) -megaly enlargement hepatomegaly enlargement of the liver (hepat/o) -odynia pain urodynia pain on urination (ur/o) -oma tumor lipoma tumor of fat cells -pathy any disease of nephropathy any disease of the kidney (nephr/o) -rhage, -rhagia bursting forth, hemorrhage profuse flow of blood profuse flow, -rhea flow, discharge pyorrhea discharge of pus -rhexis rupture amniorrhexis rupture of the amniotic sac (bag of waters) -schisis fissure, splitting retinoschisis splitting of the retina of the eye 36 SEVERE RACHISCHISIS ENCEPHALOCELE 37  Words for Disease Used as Suffixes Word Meaning Example Definition of Example dilation, expansion, widening vasodilation widening of blood vessels (vas/o) dilatation ectasia, ectasis dilation, dilatation, gastrectasia dilatation of the stomach (gastr/o) Distension gas-trek-TĀ-sē-a edema accumulation of fluid, cephaledema swelling of the head Swelling sef-al-e-DĒ-ma lysis separation, loosening, dialysis separation of substances by passage through dissolving, destruction (dia-) a membrane malacia softening osteomalacia softening of a bone (oste/o) necrosis death of tissue cardionecrosis death of heart (cardi) tissue ptosis dropping, downward blepharoptosis drooping of the eyelid (blephar/o;) displacement, prolapse (See Fig. 6-8, next slide) blef-e-rop-TŌ-sis sclerosis hardening phlebosclerosis hardening of veins (phleb/o) fleb-ō-skle-RŌ-sis spasm sudden contraction, cramp arteriospasm spasm of an artery stasis suppression, stoppage menostasis suppression of menstrual (men/o) flow stenosis narrowing, constriction bronchostenosis narrowing of a bronchus (air passageway) toxin poison nephrotoxin substance poisonous or harmful for the kidneys 38 Figure 6-8 Blepharoptosis (dropping of the eyelid). Ptosis means a downward displacement.  Prefixes and Roots for Infectious Diseases Word Part Meaning Example Definition of Example Prefixes staphyl/o grapelike staphylococcus a round bacterium that forms cluster staf-i-lō-KOK-us Clusters strept/o twisted chain streptobacillus a rod-shaped bacterium that strep-tō-ba-SIL-us forms chains Roots bacill/i, Bacillus bacilluria bacilli in the urine (-uria) bacill/o bas-i-LŪ-rē-a bacteri/o Bacterium bacteriostatic stopping (stasis) the growth of bak-te-r-ē-ō-STAT-ik Bacteria myc/o fungus, mold mycotic pertaining to a fungus mī-KOT-ik vir/o Virus viremia presence of viruses in the vī-RĒ-mē-a blood (-emia) 40  Supplementary Terms: General Terms Pertaining to Disease ◼ Acid-fast stain: A laboratory staining procedure used mainly to identify the tuberculosis organism ◼ Communicable: Capable of passing from one person to another, such as an infectious disease ◼ Endemic [en-DEM-ik]: Occurring at a low level but continuously in a given region, such as the common cold ◼ Epidemic [ep-i-DEM-ik]: Affecting many people in a given region at the same time; a disease that breaks out in a large proportion of a population at a given time ◼ Exacerbation [eks-zas-er-BĀ-shun]: Worsening of disease; increase in severity of a disease or its symptoms ◼ Iatrogenic [ī-at-rō-JEN-ik]: Caused by the effects of treatment (from root iatro-, meaning “physician”) ◼ Idiopathic [id-ē-ō-PATH-ik]: Having no known cause (root idio means “self-originating”) ◼ In situ [in SĪ-tu-]: Localized, noninvasive (literally “in position”); said of tumors that do not spread, such as carcinoma in situ (CIS) ◼ Normal flora [FLŌ-ra]: The microorganisms that normally live on or in the body. These organisms are generally harmless, and often are beneficial, but they can cause disease under special circumstances, such as injury or failure of the immune system. ◼ Nosocomial [nos-ō-KŌ-mē-al]: Describing an infection acquired in a hospital (root nos/o means “disease,” and comial refers to a hospital). Such infections can be a serious problem, especially if they are resistant to antibiotics; for example, there are now strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant S. aureus (VRSA), which cause troublesome infections in hospital settings. ◼ Opportunistic [op-por-tū-NIS-tik]: An infection that occurs because of a host's poor or altered condition ◼ Pandemic [pan-DEM-ik]: Describing a disease that is prevalent throughout an entire region or the world. ◼ Remission [rē-MISH-un]: A lessening of disease symptoms; the period during which such lessening occurs ◼ Septicemia: Presence of pathogenic bacteria in the blood; blood poisoning ◼ Systemic: Pertaining to the whole body 41 ◼ A 55 year old AIDS patient has pneumonia caused by pneumocystis carinii. This is: A. Nosocomial infection B. Iatrogenic infection C. Epidemic infection D. Opportunistic infection E. Idiopathic infection 42  Supplementary Terms: Manifestations of Disease ◼ Abscess [AB-ses]: A localized collection of pus ◼ Adhesion [ad-HĒ-zhun]: A uniting of two surfaces or parts that may normally be separated ◼ Anaplasia [a-na-PLĀ-jē-a]: Lack of normal differentiation, as shown by cancer cells ◼ Cellulitis [sel-ū-LĪ-tis]: A spreading inflammation of tissue ◼ Effusion [e-FŪ-zhun]: Escape of fluid into a cavity or other body part ◼ Fissure [FISH-ur]: A groove or split ◼ Fistula [FIS-tū-la]: An abnormal passage b/w two organs or from an organ to the surface of the body ◼ Gangrene [GANG-gre-n]: Death of tissue, usually caused by lack of blood supply; may be associated with bacterial infection and decomposition ◼ Hyperplasia [hī-per-PLĀ-jē-a]: Excessive growth of normal cells in normal arrangement ◼ Hypertrophy [hī-PER-trō-fe-]: An increase in size of an organ without increase in the number of cells; may result from an increase in activity, as in muscles ◼ Induration [in-dū-RĀ-shun]: Hardening; an abnormally hard spot or place ◼ Metaplasia [met-a-PLĀ-jē-a]: Conversion of cells to a form that is not normal for that tissue (prefix meta- means “change”) 43  Supplementary Terms: Manifestations of Disease ◼ Polyp [POL-ip]: A tumor attached by a thin stalk ◼ Purulent [PUR-ū-lent]: Forming or containing pus ◼ Suppuration [sup-ū-RĀ-shun]: Pus formation 44 Five day old Abscess 45 46 47 GANGRENE ASCITES Tracheoesophageal fistula is a congenital anomaly in which there is a connection between the trachea and the esophagus. This is a life-threatening problem requiring immediate intervention. Saliva and gastric secretions may be aspirated into the lungs through the abnormal opening in the trachea. Normal swallowing and digestion of food cannot occur with the abnormal esophagus. 48 Anal Fissure 49 Uterine polyp Colon polyp 50  Abbreviations ◼ CA: Cancer ◼ CIS: Carcinoma in situ ◼ FUO: Fever of unknown origin (Also PUO: pyrexia of unknown origin) ◼ MRSA: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus ◼ Staph: Staphylococcus ◼ Strep: Streptococcus ◼ VRSA: Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus 51  Case Study 6-1: Esophageal Spasm ◼ B.R., a 53-year-old woman, consulted with her primary physician because of occasional episodes of dysphagia with moderate to severe tight, gripping pain in her midthorax. ◼ She reported that the onset was sudden after ingestion of certain foods or beverages, beginning retrosternally and radiating to the cervical and dorsal regions. ◼ The pain was not relieved by assuming a supine position or holding her breath. B.R. also stated that she felt like her heart was racing and that she might be having a heart attack. ◼ She denied any dyspepsia, vomiting, or dyspnea. ◼ Her doctor suspected acute esophageal spasm or possibly a paraesophageal hiatal hernia and referred B.R. to a gastroenterologist for a gastroscopy and esophageal manometry study (pressure measurement). ◼ She also underwent a barium swallow study under fluoroscopic imaging. 52  Case Study 6-2: HIV Infection and Tuberculosis ◼ T.H., a 48-year-old man, was an admitted intravenous (IV) drug user and occasionally abused alcohol. Over 4 weeks, he had experienced fever, night sweats, malaise, a cough, and a 10-lb weight loss. He was also concerned about several discolored lesions that had erupted weeks before on his arms and legs. ◼ T.H. made an appointment with a physician assistant (PA) at the neighborhood clinic. On examination, the PA noted bilateral anterior cervical and axillary lymphadenopathy and pyrexia. T.H.'s temperature was 39°C. The PA sent T.H. to the hospital for further studies. ◼ T.H.'s chest radiograph (x-ray image) showed paratracheal adenopathy and bilateral interstitial infiltrates, suspicious of tuberculosis (TB). His blood study results were positive for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and showed a low lymphocyte count. Sputum and bronchoscopic lavage (washing) fluid were positive for an acid-fast bacillus (AFB); a PPD (purified protein derivative) skin test result was also positive. Based on these findings, T.H. was diagnosed with HIV, TB, and Kaposi sarcoma related to past IV drug abuse. 53  Case Study 6-3: Endocarditis ◼ D.A., a 37-year-old man, sought treatment after experiencing several days of high fever and generalized weakness on return from his vacation. D.A.'s family doctor suspected cardiac involvement because of D.A.'s history of rheumatic fever. The doctor was concerned because D.A.'s brother had died of acute malignant hyperpyrexia during surgery at the age of 12. D.A. was referred to a cardiologist, who scheduled an electrocardiogram (ECG) and a transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE). ◼ D.A. was admitted to the hospital with subacute bacterial endocarditis (SBE) and placed on high-dose IV antibiotics and bed rest. He had also developed a heart murmur, which was diagnosed as idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis (IHSS). 54  Case Study Questions Multiple choice. Select the best answer and write the letter of your choice to the left of each number: _____ 1. The cervical region is the region of the a. heart b. uterus c. neck d. leg e. head _____ 2. A word that has the same meaning as dorsal is a. anterior b. posterior c. caudal d. inferior e. superior _____ 3. In referring to tissues, the term interstitial means a. around cells b. under cells c. between cells d. through cells e. within cells _____ 4. The term axillary refers to the a. bladder b. abdomen c. wrist d. armpit e. groin _____ 5. The term pyrexia refers to a(n) a. fever b. stone c. tumor d. spasm e. poison 55 _____ 6. Dyspepsia refers to indigestion. Dysphagia and dyspnea refer to difficulty with a. breathing and coughing b. swallowing and urinating c. walking and chewing gum d. swallowing and breathing e. sleeping and breathing _____ 7. Paraesophageal and paratracheal refer to the esophagus and trachea. a. under b. superior to c. near or beside d. in between e. Within _____ 8. The endocardium is the tissue lining the heart's chambers. Endocarditis refers to a(n) of this lining. a. narrowing b. inflammation c. overgrowth of tissue d. cancerous growth e. Thinning _____ 9. D.A.'s heart murmur was caused by a stenosis, or of the heart's aortic valve. a. narrowing b. inflammation c. overgrowth of tissue d. cancerous growth e. Thinning _____ 10. The term for a condition or disease of unknown etiology is a. stenosis b. hypertrophic c. chronic d. acute e. idiopathic 56 Fill in the blanks: 11. The word in the case studies that means “protrusion of an organ through an abnormal body opening” is a(n). ______________________________ 12. Adenopathy is any disease of a(n). ______________________________ 13. Tuberculosis is caused by a rod-shaped bacterium described as a(n). ______________________________ 14. A malignant neoplasm arising from muscle or connective tissue is a(n). ______________________________ 15. A potentially fatal disease condition characterized by a very high fever is called ______________________________. Give the meaning of the following abbreviations: 16. HIV ______________________________ 17. PPD ______________________________ 18. ECG ______________________________ 19. AFB ______________________________ 57  DRUGS 1 Objectives  Difference between over-the-counter (OTC) and prescription drugs.  Adverse side effects of drugs.  Drug interaction  Generic name and Trade name of a drug.  Word parts pertaining to drugs.  Major categories of drugs and how they act.  Common routes for drug administration.  Forms in which liquid and solid drugs are prepared.  Abbreviations 2 Drugs  “A substance that alters body function”.  Traditionally, drugs have been derived from natural plant, animal, and mineral sources.  Today, most are manufactured synthetically by pharmaceutical companies.  Few hormones and enzymes, produced by genetic engineering.  Many drugs, described as over-the-counter (OTC) drugs, are available without a signed order, or prescription.  Others require a health-care provider's prescription for use.  Responsibility for the safety and efficacy of all drugs sold ✓ in the United States lies with the Federal Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which must approve all drugs before they are sold; ✓ in Canada with Health Canada. 3 Adverse Drug Effects  An unintended effect of a drug or other form of treatment is a side effect.  Most drugs have potential adverse side effects that must be evaluated before they are prescribed.  In addition, there may be contraindications, or reasons not to use a particular drug for a specific individual based on that person's medical conditions, current medications, sensitivity, or family history.  While a patient is under treatment, it is important to be alert for signs of adverse effects such as digestive upset, changes in the blood, or signs of allergy, such as hives or skin rashes.  Anaphylaxis is an immediate and severe allergic reaction that may be caused by a drug. It can lead to life-threatening 4 respiratory distress and circulator