Term 3 History Notes (PDF)

The United Nations (UN) and Australia's Role in Post-War World Affairs: The UN was established in 1945 to replace the League of Nations, established after World War I. The League failed to maintain world peace due to the absence of powerful countries like Germany and the inability of members to...

The United Nations (UN) and Australia's Role in Post-War World Affairs: The UN was established in 1945 to replace the League of Nations, established after World War I. The League failed to maintain world peace due to the absence of powerful countries like Germany and the inability of members to take peaceful action. After World War II, the commitment was made to build an organisation dedicated to world peace and security. Australia's Role in UN Peacekeeping Operations: Dr Herbert Vere, or 'Doc', Evatt, led Australia's delegation to the San Francisco Conference in 1945, where the UN Charter was debated and adopted. Evatt championed the rights of smaller nations to have their say in the formation of the UN's key principles, policies, and powers. Australia's military forces have contributed to UN peacekeeping operations in 36 nations, including Indonesia, Cambodia, Rwanda, Somalia, and Timor-Leste. In 1999, Australia established and led a multinational peacekeeping force in East Timor. 88 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People in Australia: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people lived in well-established groups with distinctive cultures and traditions. The government's control and regulations led to a long struggle for equal pay and the establishment of reserves. In 1982, a group led by Eddie Koiki Mabo began their campaign for recognition of ownership rights over land. In 1992, Australia’s High Court handed down the historic Mabo decision recognising native title. Women's Voting Rights and the Mabo Decision: Women in Germany and Britain over the age of thirty were given the vote. In the United States, women gained the vote in 1920, while French women had to wait until after World War II. Australian women gained the vote with Federation in 1901. World War II and the Invasion of North Korea: The end of World War II led to fears of a communist world revolution, with tensions between North and South Korea escalating. The United Nations (UN) and Australia's Role in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: The UN was established on 24 October 1945 to promote world peace and security, focusing on preventing human rights violations. Australia was one of its 51 founding members and a member of the 18-nation commission that drafted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).  Dr. Herbert Vere ('Doc') Evatt, a key figure in Australian law and politics, played a significant role in the UDHR process. Evatt led Australia's delegation to the San Francisco Conference to establish the UN's mandate and create the Charter, which created the UN's six key organs. The UDHR included articles expressing commitment to economic and social rights, including property ownership, social security, work, rest and leisure, adequate living standards, and education. SOURCE 4 An extract from the 30 articles that comprise the Universal Declaration of Human Rights- Article 1. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights … Article 2. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour … Article 3. 0Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of a person. Article 7. All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law Article Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts 8. violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law. Article (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each 13. state Article The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection 16. by society and the State. Article (1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of 25. himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services … Article (1) Everyone has the right to education … 26. (3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children. Aboriginal Rights and the 1938 Day of Mourning and Protest: The British colonisation of Aboriginal land in 1788 led to displacement and loss of access to food, water, and sacred sites. Aboriginal people faced resistance from police and courts that did not recognize Aboriginal law and customs. Australian governments implemented 'protection' policies in the mid-19th century, segregating Aboriginal people from society and controlling their lives.  Policies included deciding where to live and work, limiting access to wages, forbidding the practice of Aboriginal traditions, limiting access to education, taking children, and denying them rights to other Australians. The federal government introduced the policy of assimilation in 1937, expecting Aboriginal people to conform to the attitudes, customs, and beliefs of the white majority. The 1938 Day of Mourning and Protest united Aboriginal people in a formal gathering demanding their civil rights and prompted Australians to consider whether 26 January was an appropriate date for a national celebration. Stolen Generations in Australia: A Historical Overview: Over 100,000 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent lost their family and land links, understanding of kinship, and education in their language, culture, and traditions. Indigenous children were often separated from their families by Australian state and territory governments, usually by force. State governments established laws, protection boards, police, and protection officers to enforce this policy. Indigenous children were often made wards of the state, eliminating the need for reasons for their removal. Governments targeted mixed-race children and expected them to assimilate with the white race. Children were removed by force, threat, deception, and trickery, with some never returning from their 'holiday' with a 'good white family'. Children of the Stolen Generations were more vulnerable than children generally, with 20-25% of children in adoptive and foster homes and 10% in institutions being victims of sexual assault. Civil Rights Movement: African Americans faced discrimination in the 1950s, including separate entrances, areas in theatres, buses, and access to 'whites only' facilities. The Jim Crow laws enforced this segregation. The Civil Rights Movement led to protests against racist policies that denied civil rights to African Americans. In 1956–7, Montgomery, Alabama, had a successful 381-day boycott to desegregate its buses, with the slogan 'Don’t ride the bus today, don’t ride it for freedom'. Martin Luther King, president of the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA), called on African Americans to boycott the city’s buses, leading to financial losses but a Supreme Court ruling in favour of the MIA’s case for desegregation. King and other clergy members established the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957, which began a campaign of 'direct action' to increase national consciousness of the denial of civil rights to African Americans. The success of this campaign inspired activists to devise similar methods to desegregate public facilities across the southern states, including the Freedom Rides. Southern states, where over 50% of African Americans lived, continued to segregate interstate buses, trains, and stations, even though the ICC and the US Supreme Court ruled this to be illegal under federal law. The first Freedom Ride began on 4 May 1961, with 13 activists travelling south through Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi.  The first Freedom Ride was met with violence from a mob in Alabama, Montgomery, and Jackson, Mississippi, where authorities agreed to protect freedom riders from mob violence as long as they could continue to arrest them for defying local Jim Crow laws on segregation. The Civil Rights Movement and its Impact on Australia: The US government initially hesitated to enforce federal law over state laws due to international media reports of Freedom Rides and violent responses. The International Civil Rights Commission (ICC) ordered bus companies to introduce desegregation in September, leading to the desegregation of all buses and public spaces. Martin Luther King led demonstrations in Albany, Georgia in 1961, resulting in some integration of facilities but local authorities' retaliation. In 1963, King and the SCLC began protest marches in Birmingham, Alabama, resulting in police brutality and calls for anti-discrimination laws. The death of activist Medgar Evers in Jackson, Mississippi, led to African Americans organising a march to Washington DC. Younger, more radical supporters, like Malcolm X, the Black Power movement, and the Black Panthers, began questioning the effectiveness of King's non-violent protest tactics. Riots broke out in cities like Chicago, Cleveland, Dayton, Milwaukee, and San Francisco in 1966 and 1967, resulting in the shooting of nearly 83 African Americans. The Civil Rights Movement demonstrated the value of uniting people, non-violent methods, media coverage, leadership roles, and public pressuring governments to recognize and protect African Americans' rights. Australia's Indigenous peoples found much to support and inspire them in the US Civil Rights Movement, observing similarities between African Americans and Indigenous Australians. Civil rights campaigners in Australia adopted the non-violent methods of the US Civil Rights Movement, but were aware of the dangers of such campaigns. Charles Perkins: A National Figure and Role Model for Aboriginal Australians: Charles Perkins' Education and Career~ Born in Alice Springs in 1936, Perkins began his education in Adelaide. Played professional soccer in England from 1957 to 1960. Moved to Sydney in 1962 and became captain and coach of the Pan Hellenic Club. Became a founding member of Student Action for Aborigines (SAFA) at the University of Sydney. The Freedom Ride of 1965~ Perkins led about 28 others on a 14-day, 3200-kilometre Freedom Ride of rural New South Wales. The ride aimed to raise awareness of discrimination against Aboriginal people and redress it.  The ride targeted towns such as Walgett, Moree, and Kempsey, which were reputed for being racist. Activists' Concerns~ The riders were concerned with Aboriginal people's living and health conditions, forced living on reserves outside country towns, and denied access to facilities. They also aimed to overturn blatant discrimination in rural communities. Media Coverage and Influence~ Perkins organised television coverage of the Freedom Ride, bringing images of racist behaviour into Australia. This led to national and international pressure for reform. The Freedom Ride and the 1967 Referendum~ The Freedom Ride resulted in the removal of discrimination against Aboriginal people from the Constitution. Protest in Moree Over Aboriginal Rights Ban: In 1955, Moree's council by-law prohibited Aboriginal people and those with a mixture of Aboriginal blood from using local artesian baths and swimming pools. The town also refused to allow Aboriginal patients to share hospital facilities with white patients and insisted on Aboriginal burial in a separate cemetery section. SAFA's protest began with a demonstration outside the council building, gaining permission to take eight children to the pool. The manager refused to sell entry coupons, stating 'darkies not allowed in'. After an hour, the manager, four police, and the local mayor clarified that Aboriginal children were allowed in as long as they were 'clean'. The protest led to the children leaving Moree, believing their protest had overturned the ban. 1967 Australian Referendum: The Role of Indigenous Australians: The 1967 referendum was a significant event in Australian history, with 90.77% of voters voting 'yes'. The referendum aimed to remove discriminatory sections of the Constitution, which often denied Aboriginal people rights. The result was a public recognition of Australia's Indigenous peoples and marked a shift from their exclusion to inclusion within the Constitution. The referendum resulted in the federal government making laws for Aboriginal people, which would take precedence over state government laws. The result increased momentum for change among Aboriginal Australians and improved Australia's international image by removing discriminatory sections from its Constitution. Despite the symbolic importance, the referendum had little practical benefit for Aboriginal people, as inequalities continued in pay, working conditions, and land rights. Political parties united to achieve the 'yes' vote did not commit to improving health, housing, employment, and education benefits for Aboriginal people. Aboriginal Activists' Struggle for Land Rights in Australia: Four Aboriginal activists established an Aboriginal embassy in Canberra in 1972, protesting Prime Minister William McMahon's stance on land rights.  McMahon's government denied land rights and compensation to Indigenous peoples, allowing only 'worthwhile' economic or social leases. The government also allowed mining on Aboriginal reserves. Mabo and Others v. The State of Queensland (1992): The High Court ruled in favour of the Meriam Islanders in Mabo and Others v. The State of Queensland (1992), overturning the legal fiction that Australia was terra nullius when the British took possession of it in 1788. The decision recognized Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as the original owners of Australia and some might still retain native title to traditional lands. Native Title and Land Rights: Native title is the recognition of Indigenous people’s traditional rights to land from before 1788, not land ownership. Indigenous Australians can apply to the National Native Title Tribunal to investigate and mediate native title claims. Land rights are linked to claims people make to governments to be recognized as the legal owners of a particular area. HREOC's Report on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children's Separation: HREOC initiated a national inquiry into the separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families in 1995. The report, 'Bringing Them Home', was presented in federal parliament in 1997. The report outlined the policy's rationale, negative impact, and ongoing grief and loss experienced by individuals and communities. The report found that forcible removal of children violated Australia's legal standards, international human rights obligations, and common values. The report identified racism as the underlying motive for the removal, with those who took children 'for their own good' believing their families could not care for them or that Indigenous culture had nothing to offer. The report recommended that authorities should formally apologise to the Stolen Generations, help Indigenous people reunite with their families, publicly recognize past injustices, and establish a national compensation fund. The Commonwealth Government pledged $63 million towards implementing HREOC's suggestions, but rejected the recommendation of a compensation fund. The report sparked widespread discussion on the Stolen Generations' experiences and the need for a national apology. In 1999, the Commonwealth Government expressed regret for past injustices but did not apologise, taking nine years for a formal apology at a federal level. Kevin Rudd's Apology to Stolen Generations: Labor Party leader Kevin Rudd, Prime Minister of Australia, delivered an apology to the Stolen Generations on 13 February 2008. The apology was broadcast live on television and outdoor screens across Australia. In March 2008, the Commonwealth Government committed to 'closing the gap' between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians in health, life expectancy, education, and employment opportunities.  The Apology and this policy seemed to signal a significant shift in the Commonwealth Government's relationship with Indigenous Australians. 4.13 Review (definitions): Assimilation: a policy that forces people to conform to the attitudes, customs and beliefs of the majority of the population Black Power: a movement promoting African Americans’ control of their own political and cultural organisations with the goals of promoting pride in their race and achieving equality Boycott: a form of protest that punishes people by imposing a ban or refusing to have contact with them or their businesses Civil disobedience: a campaign refusing to obey laws that are considered unjust Civil rights: the political and social rights and freedoms that anyone in a given society is entitled to as a member of that society Civil Rights Movement: a program of protest and civil disobedience undertaken by African Americans and their supporters in the 1950s and 1960s to overcome racist policies that denied them their civil rights Desegregate: to remove segregation of public places and organisations Jim Crow laws: laws that enforced segregation between whites and blacks in transport and public facilities and even outlawed marriage between the two racial groups Native title: legal recognition of the existence of Indigenous people’s law and land ownership before 1788 Protection: a government policy from c.1869 to 1937 that segregated Aboriginal people from Australian society and became the means of controlling their lives Reconciliation: policy of recognising past injustices towards Indigenous Australians and fostering understanding of how past events, policies and attitudes have shaped Indigenous and non-Indigenous relationships Referendum (plural referenda): a vote in which the people are asked whether they agree to a proposed law, change to a law or a change to Australia’s Constitution Segregation: the policy of separating racial groups so that whites could retain power over African Americans Self-determination: a group or people’s right to exercise independent control of their own destiny and development Terra nullius: latin term meaning ‘the land of no-one’. According to eighteenth-century law, a land that had no owner could be lawfully taken over by the people of another land. Ward of the state: someone whose legal guardian is the state, the court or a public welfare agency