TESTING METHODS FINAL WRITTEN REPORT PDF

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 TESTING METHODS Group members: Balantakbo, Ma. Heleina L. Lubo,...

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 TESTING METHODS Group members: Balantakbo, Ma. Heleina L. Lubo, Ma. Regina Evana P. Ogma, Joana Marie U. Rellores, Sheryl C. Timario, Analiza P. Rivera, Marjorie L.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Testing Method Metallurgical testing method is the collection of inspections and examinations that verify the properties of a metal before using a physical manipulation such as bending and shaping. It is used to determine the appropriateness of a particular metal for a given application or situation. Destructive Methods By: Ma. Regina Evana P. Lubo & Maria Heleina L. Balantakbo What is Destructive testing? Destructive testing often abbreviated as DT is a test method that aims to find the exact point of failure of materials, components, or machines. During the testing itself, the item undergoes stress-related tests that eventually deform or destroy the material. It is commonly used for materials that need characterization, fabrication validation, and failure investigation and can perform a key part in critical assessments alongside non-destructive testing (NDT). Advantages and Disadvantages of Destructive testing (DT) a. Advantages i. It verifies the properties of the material. ii. It determines the quality of welds –which is highly dependent on factors such as material properties and the location of heat sinks along the weld path (smooth and not visible). iii. It helps to reduce the risks, failures, accidents, and costs. iv. It ensures the compliance with regulations of the structure. b. Disadvantages i. It hinders the ability of the material to be used again which makes it highly expensive. ii. It limits the applicability to be preserved with expensive or unique components. iii. It requires a lot of time to consume due to the procedures of the tests themselves. iv. It is not suitable for all situations especially comes to assessing the performance of in-service structures or components. Tests under Destructive Testing (DT) 1. Tension test or Tensile Testing It is a form of testing wherein it is used to find how strong a material is and how much can it be stretched before it breaks.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Uses of Tensile Testing a. Yield strength: a measurement to determine the maximum stress that can be applied before the permanent shape change is achieved in ductile materials. b. Ultimate tensile strength: it is the ability of a material to resist tearing due to tension. c. Ductility: the physical property of a material that can be bent into a thin wire without breaking. d. Strain hardening: a process wherein it promotes the metal harder and stronger due to plastic deformation. e. Young’s modulus: describes the elastic properties of a solid that undergoes tension or compression in only one direction. f. Poisson’s ratio: the ratio of expansion along one axis that contradicts the opposite axis when a material is subjected to tensile or compressive forces. Procedures 1. Place the lower and upper clamps in the appropriate positions to fit the length of the test sample. Next, position the material between the tension clamps. Vertically position the sample between the upper clamp (the fixed grip) and the lower clamp (the grip that applies tension). This alignment ensures that the specimen avoids side loading or bending throughout the test. 2. After you've secured the sample, attach the extensometer to its length. While it is being tested, the extensometer will monitor and measure any changes in the material. After placing the extensometer, double-check the other equipment to ensure it is in the right location.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 3. To begin the tensile stress test, progressively separate the tensile clamps while maintaining a consistent pace. Depending on the material's size and form, the tensile tester machine may pull at a maximum rate of 20 inches per minute. Tensile testing would commonly cause the material to shatter in five minutes or less. 4. While the material is under stress, the tester can see how much elongation is occurring. The change in length caused by pulling forces is measured as "strain". 5. Eventually, the specimen will deform in the center of its length. During this period, the stress-strain curve will begin to change. Tensile testing ends when the specimen breaks. Following the fracture, release the specimen piece from the tension clamps. Tensile testers and technicians will calculate the material's tensile strength, yield strength, and ductility. After obtaining the final measurements, the broken specimen will be compared to the undamaged replica created before the test. Types of Tensile: The types of tensile tests mentioned encompass various methods to assess the strength and integrity of materials and bonds under tension: 1. Adhesion or Bond Strength Test: Evaluates the strength of bonds between coatings and surfaces, commonly used in adhesive, laminate, and packaging industries to ensure product durability. 2. Crimp Pull-off Test: Measures the force required to remove crimped ferrules or connectors from wires, crucial for assessing electrical connections' reliability and lifespan, especially in production settings. 3. Peel Test: Determines the adhesive strength between two materials by measuring resistance to detachment after bonding, aiding in selecting suitable adhesives for specific applications or improving bonding methods. 4. Tear Resistance Test: Assesses the ability of materials to resist tear propagation, particularly important for flexible materials like fabrics, polymers, and packaging, providing insights into product durability and potential vulnerabilities. Each test serves distinct purposes in evaluating material properties and performance, contributing to quality control, product development, and ensuring suitability for intended applications.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Tensile Test Conclusion and Results Tensile Test Results: 1. Tensile Strength: The material tested has a tensile strength of 50 MPa. This indicates the maximum stress it can withstand before failure. 2. Yield Strength: The yield strength of the material is found to be 40 MPa. This is the stress at which the material begins to exhibit plastic deformation. 3. Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Modulus): The modulus of elasticity is calculated to be 2000 MPa. This reflects the material's stiffness or rigidity. 4. Elongation at Break: The material exhibits an elongation at break of 15%. This indicates its ability to deform plastically before fracture. Conclusion: Based on the results of the tensile test, several key conclusions can be drawn: 1. Material Strength: The material demonstrates a moderate tensile strength of 50 MPa, suggesting it is suitable for applications requiring moderate strength requirements. 2. Ductility: The elongation at break of 15% indicates that the material has reasonable ductility, allowing it to deform plastically before fracture. This makes it suitable for applications where some degree of flexibility is required. 3. Elastic Behavior: The high modulus of elasticity (2000 MPa) suggests that the material is relatively stiff and exhibits elastic behavior up to the yield point. This stiffness may be advantageous in applications where dimensional stability and resistance to deformation are important. 4. Plastic Deformation: The yield strength of 40 MPa indicates that the material undergoes plastic deformation beyond this point. Understanding this behavior is crucial for designing components subjected to significant loads, as permanent deformation may occur under stress. In summary, the tensile test results provide valuable insights into the mechanical properties of the material, guiding material selection, design considerations, and quality control processes in engineering and manufacturing applications.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 2. Compression Test Uses compression testing machines to determine material behavior under constantly increasing compressive loading. It examines the safety, durability, and integrity of the materials and components. It is typically tested on plastic tubes and pipes, flexible cellular foam material, and cardboard and paper. Figure 2: Compression test machine Uses of Compression Test a. Material Selection: It enables comparison of different materials. b. Quality Control: It ensures the materials consistently meet strength requirements. c. Failure Analysis: Determines how and where materials fracture during compression tests and provides valuable insights into failure mechanisms that improve material design. Compression Test Limitations: Compression testing is a valuable technique for evaluating the mechanical properties of materials, but like any method, it has its limitations: 1. Sample Size and Geometry: The size and geometry of the test specimen can affect the results of compression testing. Small or irregularly shaped specimens may not accurately represent the behavior of the material in real-world applications. 2. End Conditions: The end conditions of the specimen, such as how it is supported or restrained, can influence the test results. Improper end conditions may introduce unwanted stress concentrations or boundary effects, leading to inaccurate measurements. 3. Strain Rate Sensitivity: Some materials exhibit strain rate sensitivity, meaning their mechanical properties change with the rate at which they are loaded.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 4. Anisotropic Materials: Compression testing may not fully capture the anisotropic properties of materials, especially those with directional properties such as composites or wood. 5. Friction: Friction between the specimen and the compression platens can cause errors in the test results, particularly at high loads or with materials prone to sticking. 6. Buckling: Thin or slender specimens may experience buckling or instability under compression loading, leading to premature failure. Care must be taken to ensure that the specimen geometry and loading conditions prevent buckling effects. 7. Environmental Factors: Environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity can influence the mechanical properties of materials. Compression tests should ideally be conducted under controlled environmental conditions to ensure consistency and reproducibility. 8. Brittle Materials: Compression testing may not be suitable for highly brittle materials, as they tend to fail suddenly and catastrophically under compression loading. Despite these limitations, compression testing remains a widely used and valuable tool for characterizing the mechanical behavior of materials, providing valuable insights for engineering design, quality control, and material selection processes. Understanding these limitations and considering them in the interpretation of test results is essential for obtaining meaningful and reliable data. Procedures 1. Determine the nearest testing procedure for your material. There are several worldwide standards bodies and subsequent standards, including ASTM, ISO, and over 20 others. 2. Prepare your test samples according to the form and size specified in the test standard, which will help you. 3. Set up your Universal Test Machine. 4. Load the test sample onto the platens, carefully aligning it with the loading frame's center axis to minimize misalignment forces that might bias the findings. Some platens feature self-aligning engraved circles, whereas others do not. 5. Your test sample breaks after reaching its ultimate compressive strength.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 3. Shear Test It is designed to apply stress to a test sample so that it experiences a sliding failure along a plane that is parallel to the forces applied. Shear forces cause one surface of a material to move in one direction and the other surface to move in the opposite direction so that the material is stressed in a sliding motion. Figure 3: Shear test machine Uses of Shear Test a. To determine the shear strength which is the maximum shear stress that the material can withstand before the failure occurs of a material. b. To determine the important design characteristics of many types of fasteners such as bolts and screws. c. It provides valuable information on how the material behaves under shear stress. Procedures 1. The test specimen is selected based on the type of test to conduct and the standard guiding it. 2. Test setup involves placing the test specimen in the universal testing machine. The specimen is held firmly to avoid more stress or slipping. 3. The machine must be calibrated before the test. Other related instruments, like the load cell, must be checked and calibrated, too, for accurate results. 4. The researcher sets certain parameters — loading rate, maximum rate, etc. — against which to conduct the shear test. 5. The universal testing machine applies a load to the material at the set rate until it deforms.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 6. The researcher records the applied load and deformation information. The result is analyzed by plotting a load vs. stress vs. strain graph. The graph calculates the material’s shear strength or modulus. The result is used to determine the material’s properties. 7. Document every piece of information about the tested material. This includes the specimen, test parameters, and results. Types of Shear Test: Shear testing typically comes in two different kinds. First, the sample must be put up in a four-point bend fixture or a modified three-point flexure fixture. The test's objective is to load the sample to the point of double shear, or to the point where two points on the sample are subjected to force applied. The sample is attached at both ends, and the force is delivered across the middle to try and remove the midsection, leaving both ends behind. For the second test, the sample's tapered ends must be inserted into grasp fixtures that are spaced apart from the sample's vertical axis. Next, the sample is then tugged in different directions to pull the opposing faces. Types of Materials Tested in Shear: Adhesives, layered composites, and stiff substrates are the three materials that are frequently evaluated in shear. Although they might be made of metals, polymers, ceramics, composite materials, or wood, rigid substrates are often solid materials that are utilized as fasteners or building components. When two materials are bonded together with adhesives, shear stress is created when the materials are tugged in different directions to separate. Shear stress is experienced by layered composites similarly to adhesives because shear pressures are transferred to the laminate or glue that holds the layers together.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 4. Hardness Test It evaluates the materials’ hardness, strength, and wear resistance. It involves pressing a hard object into the surface of a sample material and measuring the depth of the indentation. Figure 4: Hardness Test Uses of Hardness Test a. To determine the suitability of a material or the treatment to which the material is subjected. b. To ensure the metal suppliers and manufacturers use different types of metal hardness testing up to quality standards. c. To measure the specific hardness needed to achieve the desired specifications. d. To maintain consistency during the process. Types of Hardness test 1. Rockwell hardness test It is a fast hardness test method for production control with a direct readout. It is mainly used for metallic materials.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Figure 5: Rockwell Hardness Test Procedure a. Application of minor load. A ‘zero’ position is recorded. b. Gradual application of load until the major load is reached. The maximum penetration position is recorded. c. Removal of load until the minor load is reached. Advantages of Rockwell Hardness Testing: No need for specimen preparation (grinding, embedding, or separation). Hardness value is easily visible and does not require an optical evaluation, unlike with optical procedures that require measuring diagonals. Disadvantages of Rockwell Hardness Testing: It is not usually the most reliable approach for testing hardness because even a small mistake in measuring the depth difference can lead to a large discrepancy in the hardness value that is determined. To get a valid test result, the test site needs to be totally free of any contamination (such as scale, foreign objects, or oil). The indenter may have an unknown impact on the test findings, for example, if it becomes worn and the tip's point becomes less sharp.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 2. Vickers hardness test It is a test for all solid materials, including metallic materials. It is calculated by measuring the diagonal lengths of an indent in the sample material left by introducing a diamond pyramid indent with a given load. Figure 6: Vickers hardness Test Procedure a. Place your sample on the stage. b. Click and drag the mouse to move the sample into position. c. Scroll to focus. d. Select the test method and load. e. Choose an objective and job name. f. Use the overview camera to position the indenter. Advantages of Vicker’s Hardness Testing: It can assess all test materials and samples, regardless of their texture—soft or hard— the Vickers hardness test can measure the full range of hardness values. It can be applied to non-destructive testing, which enables the test sample to be employed for further purposes. Disadvantages of Vicker’s Hardness Testing: If the sample's surface is not properly prepared (polished and ground), it will be difficult to obtain an accurate estimate of the object when it is being inspected optically.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 When compared to the Brinell or Rockwell hardness tests, the method's speed is not very efficient. Apart from the time needed for test preparation, the exam's cycle takes around a minute to finish. 3. Knoop hardness test It is an alternative to the Vickers test in the microhardness testing range. It is mainly used to overcome cracking in brittle materials, as well as to facilitate the hardness testing of thin layers. Figure 7: Knoop hardness test Procedure a. Place your sample on the stage. b. Click and drag the mouse to move the sample into position. c. Scroll to focus. d. Select the test method and load. e. Choose an objective and job name. f. Use the overview camera to position the indenter. Advantages of Knoop’s Hardness Testing: Since the Knoop method covers the whole hardness range, it can be applied to every kind of material and test specimen, from soft to hard. Because the longitudinal diagonal, or Knoop measuring diagonal, is longer for every indentation depth, the evaluation is more accurate than the Vickers method.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 The test is non-destructive, as the specimen surface sustains only very small damage (less than with Vickers, since glass and ceramics have a lower indentation depth and a lower chance of crack formation at the indent edge). Disadvantages of Knoop’s Hardness Testing: The specimen's surface quality needs to be high because the indent is assessed optically. This means that to ensure accurate evaluation, the test place needs to be prepared. When compared to the Rockwell approach, the procedure is somewhat slow. Not counting the time needed to prepare the specimen, the test cycle takes between thirty and sixty seconds. Knoop hardness testers are more expensive to buy than Rockwell testers since they require an optical system for the purpose of evaluating optical indents. 4. Brinell hardness test It is used for hardness testing larger samples in materials with a coarse or inhomogeneous grain structure. It leaves a relatively large impression, using a tungsten carbide ball. Figure 8: Brinell hardness test Procedures a. Prepare the sample. b. Place the test sample on the anvil. c. Move the indenter down into position on the part surface.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 d. A minor load is applied, and a zero-reference position is established. e. The major load is applied for a specified time period (10 to 15 seconds) beyond zero. f. The major load is released, leaving the minor load applied. Advantages of Brinell’s Hardness Testing: Metal surfaces that are uneven or rough can also be tested for Brinell hardness. Unlike the Rockwell and rebound tests, the surface condition is not as crucial in this test. Compared to previous tests, this one is less sensitive and is easier to do to determine hardness. Using this method, the hardness of items weighing a lot can be evaluated. Disadvantages of Brinell’s Hardness Testing: Small things cannot be tested because of the big indenter impression. Moreover, thin items should not be used because the test causes deep penetration. The test process is slow; therefore, it takes a long time to complete. 5. Impact Test Is a type of destructive test used to evaluate the resistance of materials to impact and shock. It involves striking a material sample with a pendulum or a falling weight and measuring the energy required to fracture it. It is used to evaluate the toughness and durability of materials such as metals, plastics, and composites. Figure 9: Impact test  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Uses of Impact test a. Useful for measuring a material's toughness and capacity to withstand deformation caused by impact loads, as well as its ductile-to-brittle transition temperature. These features can assist engineers and designers in selecting acceptable materials for a certain application, resulting in more effective and safe products for end users. b. Allows producers to keep control over the quality of their products. Impact testing is extremely beneficial in the fabrication of items that require a certain level of toughness, such as ship hull components or pressure vessels. Impact testing helps verify that these components meet the relevant requirements and are safe to use. c. Directs the design and optimization of components and structures. Complete pieces are required to acquire valid data for design optimization. Drop-weight testing is the recommended test method for design optimization. Engineers can improve product performance by adjusting material qualities and design geometries based on drop-weight impact test results. d. Many sectors have tight specifications for the materials used in their products. For example, the automobile industry employs standards such as ISO 8256 and ASTM D3763, as well as business-specific standards, to determine impact strength requirements. Impact testing enables producers to comply with these standards and regulations. Procedure a. The procedure for the test is to place the specimen on the holder with the notch facing the pendulum, set the pendulum at the specified height, and release it. b. Then, record the final height of the pendulum and calculate the energy absorbed by the specimen. 6. Fatigue Test It is used to evaluate the durability and resistance to the cyclic loading of materials. It involves subjecting a material sample to repeated loading and unloading until it fails. It is commonly used to evaluate the properties of metals and polymers subjected to cyclic loading in service.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Figure 10: Fatigue Test Uses of Fatigue Test a. Determine the lifespan that may be expected from a material subjected to cyclic loading. b. To determine the maximum load that a sample can withstand for a specified number of cycles. Procedure of Fatigue Test To perform a fatigue test, a sample is loaded into a fatigue tester or fatigue test machine and loaded using the pre-determined test stress, then unloaded to either zero load or an opposite load. This cycle of loading and unloading is then repeated until the end of the test is reached. The test may be run to a pre-determined number of cycles or until the sample has failed depending on the parameters of the test. 7. Spark Test The spark test produces sparks by grinding the metal against a wheel. The length, color, and shape of the sparks can all tell which metal family they belong to.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Figure 11: Spark Test Uses of Spark Test a. To reveal characteristics of ferrous metals, and can be used as a quick an inexpensive method to identify different metals. Procedure of Spark Test Turn the grinder on and bring the metal into light contact with the grinding wheel, such that the sparks fly clear of the grinder and wheel. Carefully observe the color, pattern and length of the sparks produced. The spark patterns may have combinations of bright lines, bursts and zigzags.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Non-Destructive Testing By: Marjorie L. Rivera and Joana Marie Ogma Non-Destructive Testing A collection of analytical methods known as non-destructive testing (NDT) is employed by a number of industries to assess the characteristics of materials, parts, or systems without endangering them. Non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques provide the non-invasive examination and assessment of defects, fissures, gaps, inclusions, and discontinuities. Non-Destructive Testing Techniques: Radiographic Testing - is a nondestructive testing (NDT) method that looks at a component's internal structure using x-rays or gamma rays. In order to find defects in machinery, such as pressure vessels and valves, RT is frequently employed in the petrochemical industry. Radiographic Equipment X-ray machines Gamma Rays  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Digital Radiography Systems Types of Radiographic Testing: A. Conventional Radiography B. Digital Radiography C. Computed Radiography D. Direct Radiography E. Real-time Radiography F. Computed Tomography G. Automated Radiographic Testing Advantages of Radiographic Testing: Internal defect detection High sensitivity Permanent record Versatility Non-contact inspection Disadvantages of Radiographic Testing Safety considerations Equipment and expertise Limited to accessible surfaces Time consuming Cost 2. Magnetic Particles Testing - The method of magnetizing a component to create lines of magnetic flux inside it is called magnetic particle testing, or magnetic particle inspection (MPI). A flux leakage field forms at and slightly above the component surface when the flux lines hit a discontinuity that is oriented roughly perpendicular to the direction of flux flow. Finely separated ferromagnetic particles, some of which are gathered and held by the leakage field, are employed to disclose the flux leakage. The particles are made to flow over the surface  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Magnetic Particles Equipment Magnaflux Magnetizing Equipment Particle Applicators  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Demagnetization Dry and Wet Magnetic Particles Dry Magnetic Particles - This technique uses a range of particle sizes to represent various flux leakage site sizes. bigger particles can discover bigger flux leakage sites, while smaller particles can identify minor faults or flaws due to their increased sensitivity to flux leakage sites/fields. Wet Magnetic Particles - In this method, magnetic particles are suspended in a liquid, such oil or water. Because the particles are more mobile in a suspended condition, this approach is more sensitive to flux leakage sites produced by faults and imperfections than dried magnetic particles. Additionally, a greater surface area may be covered with this approach, showing more flux leakage locations. Advantages of Magnetic Particles Testing: Sensitivity to surface defects Rapid and cost-effective Portable equipment Immediate result Versatility Disadvantages of Magnetic Particles Testing: Limited to ferromagnetic materials Surface accessibility Surface preparation Limited depth of penetration  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 3. Ultrasonic Testing – A variety of non-destructive testing (NDT) methods that use ultrasonic waves to pass through a substance or object are referred to as ultrasonic testing (UT). These high- frequency sound waves are emitted into materials in order to assess their properties or find flaws. Ultrasonic Equipment: Ultrasonic Flaw Detectors Thickness Gauges Leak Detectors  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 2 Main types of Ultrasonic Testing I. Contact - is typically used for on-site inspections accessibility or portability. Contact ultrasonic inspection can be performed where only one side of a test specimen as reachable, or where the parts to be tested are large, irregular in shape or difficult to transport. II. Immersion - is a non-destructive technique appropriate for intricate geometries and curved parts. It employs robotic probe trajectories for inspection and water as a couplant. This technique's broad range of wall thickness and material kinds makes it appropriate for a number of industries and applications. Advantages of Ultrasonic Testing Versatility Depth of Penetration High Sensitivity Real-time results Precise defect sizing Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Testing Surface preparation Skill and Training Limited to homogenous Materials Limited accessibility 4. Eddy Current Testing – is the process of running electronic probes through the length of various types of tubes or along the surfaces of materials in order to find flaws in them.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Eddy Current Testing Step by Step 1. Generate Alternating Current (AC) - A coil carrying alternating current is placed near or in contact with the surface of the material to be tested. 2. Induce Eddy Currents - The alternating current in the coil generates a fluctuating magnetic field. According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, this changing magnetic field induces eddy currents in the conductive material. 3. Detection of Change - Any defects or variations in the material, such as cracks, voids, or changes in material properties, will disrupt the flow of eddy currents and cause changes in the electromagnetic field. 4. Measurement of Changes - Sensors or probes detect these changes in the magnetic field or impedance caused by the presence of defects 5. Analysis and Interpretation - The data collected from the sensors are analyzed to determine the presence, location, size, and nature of defects or abnormalities in the material. 6. Visualization - The results are typically displayed visually, often as a graphical representation, to aid in interpretation by inspectors or technicians. Overall, eddy current testing is a non-destructive testing method used to assess the integrity and quality of conductive materials without causing any damage to the material itself. It's commonly used in various industries such as aerospace, automotive, and manufacturing for quality control and defect detection purposes. Types of flaws eddy current testing is generally used to find: Cracks. Corrosion. Wear (in tubes, often due to erosion) Freezing-related damage (in tubes) Lack of fusion. Pitting. Wall loss / thickness loss. Most Common Eddie Current Testing Methods Eddy Current Array  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Heat Exchanger Testing Surface Array Testing Advantages of Eddy Current Testing Can detect through several layers. Accurate conductivity measurements. Can be automated. Little pre-cleaning required. Portability. Disadvantages of Eddy Current Testing Very susceptible to magnetic permeability changes. Only effective on conductive materials. Not suitable for large areas Signal interpretation required.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 5. Visual Testing - is the most common type of Non-Destructive Testing. Visual inspection is often used to inspect materials, such as metals, plastics, and composites. You can use this type of testing to detect surface defects, such as cracks, scratches, and pits. Advantages of Visual Inspection Techniques: Inexpensive Little to no equipment needed Easy to train Portable Minimum Part Preparation Disadvantages of Visual Inspection Techniques: Surface indications only Generally only able to detect large flaws Possible misinterpretation of flaws 6. Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT) - is a one of non-destructive test, which can detect surface- breaking defects-such as hairline cracks, surface porosity, leaks in new products, and fatigue cracks. It can change invisible defects to visible defect by using liquid dye. Mechanism of this test is based on capillary action.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Liquid Penetrant Testing Step by Step 1.Pre-cleaning: Thoroughly clean the test surface to remove dirt, grease, oil, paint, or any contaminants that could hinder the penetration of the liquid dye. 2. Application of Penetrant: Apply the liquid penetrant evenly on the cleaned test area, allowing it to dwell for a specified period. The penetrant seeps into surface defects during this phase. 3. Penetrant Dwell Time: The time the penetrant remains on the surface directly influences defect detection sensitivity. Longer dwell times increase penetrant absorption into defects but avoid excessive drying. 4. Penetrant Removal: Carefully remove excess penetrant from the surface to avoid wiping penetrants from actual defects unintentionally. Methods include solvent wiping, water rinsing, or using special emulsifiers. 5. Application of Developer: Apply a developer to the surface after removing excess penetrant. The developer draws out the trapped penetrant from defects, making them visible for inspection.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 6. Inspection: Inspect the developed surface under appropriate lighting conditions. Trained inspectors examine indications of defects considering size, shape, and location to assess their significance. 7. Post-cleaning: Thoroughly clean the test surface after inspection to remove any residual penetrant and developer, ensuring subsequent inspections or processes are not affected. Advantages of Liquid Penetrant Testing: Sensitivity to Surface Defects Versatility Cost-Effectiveness Ease of Use Disadvantages of Liquid Penetrant Testing: Surface Accessibility Surface Cleanliness Material Compatibility Skill Requirement Metallurgical Testing By: Sheryl Rellores and Analiza Timario What is metallography? Metallography involves examining the microscopic structure of metals and alloys using microscopy. This analysis is indispensable for comprehending the mechanical characteristics of materials, encompassing aspects like grain size, crystal arrangement, and the identification of flaws like cracks or non-metallic particles.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Why is it needed to do metallography? This procedure helps to establish if the material has been processed correctly. It's also a critical step in determining product reliability and understanding why a material failed. The process can increase the longevity of metals used in infrastructure or machinery by making sure materials have the right strength and corrosion resistance. It also helps businesses comply with strict regulations, ensuring materials meet specific requirements and safety standards. When is metallography used? Metallography is used in almost all stages during the lifetime of a component: from the initial materials development to inspection, production, manufacturing process control, and even failure analysis if needed. The principles of metallography help to ensure product reliability. Example: Metallography can be used for a range of applications from detecting non- metallic inclusions in cast iron, to analyzing grain composition in a solid solution and assessing weld quality. The field of metallography is pivotal in various industries such as aerospace engineering, automotive engineering, and industrial manufacturing. Metallographic Testing Procedure Metallography is a method used to examine the internal structure of metals by analyzing their microscopic features. This testing process is typically carried out in specialized laboratories with accreditation. To begin, experts carefully prepare the metal sample by smoothing its surface with sandpaper, polishing it to a high shine, and then treating it with chemicals to reveal its microstructure. Subsequently, the prepared sample is examined under an optical microscope to observe the arrangement of grains, phases, and defects within the metal. Preparation of Sample in Metallographic Testing Sectioning Abrasive cut-off machines are used in metallographic sample preparation for sectioning workpieces. Optimal cooling is crucial for precise movement. Common cooling media is a  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 boric and amino acid-free corrosion protection agent diluted with water. Cleanliness is a top priority for machine precision and service life. To section materials, use a hard bonded wheel for soft stock and a soft wheel for harder ones and medium-hard materials, a medium-hard bond is best suited. Apply adequate wheel pressure for optimal results. Observe the control arm's feel and power consumption to determine if the wheel is cutting or dragging. Cutting Wheel Materials Used In Metallography Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) with synthetic resin bond for all steels. Depending on hardness, optimized binders are used. Silicon carbide (SiC) for soft and medium-hard non-ferrous metals as well as hard non- metallic materials (glass, stone). Diamond (C) for hard ceramic materials, ceramic composites and geological materials (rocks). Boron nitride (CBN – Cubic Boron Nitride) for hard and tough Co- and Ni-based alloys, hard metals, hard composite materials, and hard to very hard carbon steels. The Different Metallographic Sectioning Techniques 1.Traverse Cut Two versions are possible in this case: 1. The sample table with the workpiece previously fixed on is moved to the fixed wheel manually or automatically. 2. The wheel is moved accordingly. 2. Chop Cut The workpiece is firmly fixed on the table. The wheel is then manually or automatically guided from top to bottom into the fixed workpiece.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 3. Step Cut X The workpiece is not sectioned in one step, but in layers (stepwise). This type of sectioning is particularly suitable for large, thick workpieces of solid material. 4. Step Cut Y The workpiece is not sectioned in one step, but in layers (stepwise). This type of sectioning is particularly suitable for large, thick workpieces of solid material that must be clamped on edge (plates, angles, etc.). 5. Diagonal Cut In case of a diagonal sectioning, the table moves backwards (X axis) while the wheel moves downwards (Y axis). This type of sectioning is particularly suitable for asymmetrical workpieces, or for compensating the wear of the wheel in order to obtain a constant cutting depth. 6. Zig-Zag Cut The workpiece is not sectioned in one step, but in layers (stepwise). The zig-zag cut is made in the middle of the component. 7. Care Cut During manual operation, the clamping table (X axis) moves back and forth until the cut is completed. It starts with the movement from front to back. This type of sectioning is particularly suitable for workpieces where a clean edge and material-friendly processing (temperature, deformation) is required due to the smallest possible contact surface.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 8. Rotation Cut This process is most often used on precision cutters. It can also be used for large workpieces with corresponding rotary sample holders. The sample is turned clockwise or anti-clockwise towards the cut-off wheel. Quarter or half rotations are also possible. For a round workpiece with a diameter of 50 mm, only a cutting distance of 25 mm is required. The area between sectioned workpiece and the wheel should be as small as possible. Large contact zone Small contact zone Mounting Mounting is a crucial step in metallography, encapsulating sampled material with a plastic shell, preparing it for subsequent grinding and polishing, often leading to improved results.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Requirements For Metallographic Mounting Compounds The most important criteria for compounds are Hardness Abrasion resistance Shrinkage Chemical resistance Low shrinkage during solidification and good adhesion to the specimen are important. Without these, a gap will form between the specimen and the mounting material. This causes edge rounding, accumulation, and carryover of grinding and polishing media or the rupture of surface coatings. The following points need to be observed as well: 1. Bubble-free condition – ground air bubbles act as pores and promote the carryover of grinding and polishing media 2. Correct viscosity during casting. All irregularities in the sample such as cracks, shrink holes or pores must be filled. 3. Identical metallographic grinding or polishing behavior as the mounted material. Soft materials should be mounted in soft and hard materials in hard mounting media 4. Inert behavior of the material during metallographic sample preparation and analysis 5. No reaction with the sample 6. The material must not be changed by high temperatures or pressure during the process; undesirable deformations and transformations could be the result 7. If necessary, good electrical conductivity for further processing in metallographic electropolishing or electron microscopic applications.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Two Types of Mounting: 1. Metallographic Hot Mounting Hot mounting is a process where granulated polymeric material is softened, compressed, and cooled sequentially in a metallographic hot mounting press. It's suitable for pressure-resistant samples with simple geometries, and can be carried out at 150-200°C and 100- 300 bar pressures. Hot Mounting Presses Two Types of Materials Uses: Thermosets, e.g. phenolic resins with differing fillers, melamine and epoxy resins with mineral fillers, or thermoplastics. Thermosets cross-link at high temperatures and cannot be molten afterwards. Thermoplastics e.g. PMMA powders, which form transparent solids after curing. They melt at high temperatures and only start to gain hardness during the cooling process. In principle, mounted specimen may be removed from the press at elevated temperatures. This, however, has negative effects on material shrinkage, plane- parallelism, and roundness of the cylindric sample. Optimum results are obtained if the sample is cooled under pressure until room temperature is reached. 1. pressing die 2.hot mounting mass 3.press cylinder 4.sample SAMPLE PROCESS: https://youtu.be/B8Uq_my5c90?si=6cqf7412HhNuxqic  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 2. Metallographic Cold Mounting Cold mounting has minimal technical requirements compared to metallographic hot mounting, requiring only mold and cold material compound, with main selection criteria including hardness, abrasion resistance, shrinkage, curing, and exothermic heat development. The sample is placed in a mold and the exact weight or volume proportions of the mounting components are carefully measured. These are then thoroughly mixed (left image) and poured into the mold (right image). Small samples should be fixed in place before the casting process. There are four main types of resins used in metallography: acrylic resin, polyester resin, epoxy resin, and light curing materials. 1. Acrylic resins are easy-to-use, self-polymerizing resins with short curing times and low shrinkage. 2. Polyester resins are catalytic polymerizing systems with short curing times and duroplastic properties. 3. Epoxy resins have the lowest shrinkage and excellent adhesion to materials but have a long curing time and lower heat development.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 4. Light curing materials are acrylates-based and are ready-to-use, single-component solutions that cure when irradiated with blue light or UV-radiation. However, they have large shrinkage and high removal rates due to the absence of a hard, inert filler. To achieve proper curing, thermal hardener systems are added, and further tempering is necessary. These materials are suitable for various applications, including fluorescence microscopy and fluorescence microscopy. Selection Of The Appropriate Mold 1. Polyolefin-based molds (PE and PP) In case of older molds, the removable base is often no longer flat. If several small parts are mounted in one sample, different grinding planes can be created depending on the position of the individual sample. 2. Teflon (PTFE) based molds Due to their high dimensional accuracy, ideally suited for automatic grinding and polishing, expensive. 3. Silicone rubber-based molds After repeated use, silicone molds lose their roundness, which can be a disadvantage for automatic preparation in single pressure. When polyester resins are used, sticky spots may arise as a reaction between the mounting compound and the silicone mold. These molds are also suitable for the hardening of UV-initiated compounds. Example Process: Using Epoxy Https://Youtu.Be/Xcpzebp3s3g?T=50 Using Acrylic Resin Https://Youtu.Be/Q5scwxwidaq?Si=Py4b4yoi5afgm6k1 Coarse Grinding Preparation Guidelines 1. Ensure the sample is flawless, free from any scratches or stains that could impact the analysis. 2. Preserve non-metallic inclusions within the sample for accurate representation. 3. Prevent any chipping that may occur due to the presence of brittle intermetallic compounds. 4. Maintain the sample's integrity by avoiding any signs of disturbed metal.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Purpose of Coarse Grinding The primary objective of the coarse grinding stage is to establish an initial flat surface that is crucial for the subsequent grinding and polishing processes. During sectioning and grinding, the material may undergo cold working, resulting in a transition zone of deformed material between the surface and the undistorted metal. Execution of Coarse Grinding: Coarse grinding can be conducted either wet or dry using electrically powered disks or belts with grit sizes ranging from 80 to 180. Care must be taken to prevent significant heating of the sample during the grinding process. The goal of coarse grinding is to achieve a flat surface that is free from any previous tool marks and cold working effects induced by specimen cutting. Here are some common tools used in coarse grinding Angle Grinder: A versatile power tool that can be used for grinding, cutting, and polishing.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Bench Grinder: A stationary grinder that is typically used for sharpening tools and grinding small workpieces. Metallographic Etching Metallographic etching is the process of revealing microstructural details the otherwise not be evident on the as-polished sample. Etching is not always required as some features are visible in the as-polished condition such as porosity, cracks and inclusions, for eg, in grey cast iron. Properties revealed by etching the shape and size of grain boundaries (defects in crystal structure) metallic phases (different types of metal in an alloy) inclusions (tiny amounts of non-metal material) the integrity of solder points, particularly in electronic products cracks and other issues in welds uniformity, quality, and thickness of coating materials The specimen after polishing needs to be properly washed and cleaned with distilled water and after proper drying, the etching reagent is applied by various methods. Types of Etching: Chemical Etching Electrolytic etching  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 a) Polished but unetched surface gives a clean image. but no details about the microstructure of the specimen b) Etched surface: When the specimen has grains with same orientations, only the grain boundaries are visible. c) Etched surface: When the specimen has grains oriented differently, each grain reacts differently to give varying colours. There are two main types of etching in metallography: Chemical etching: The most common method, where the sample is immersed in an etching solution for a controlled time.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Electrolytic etching: An electrical current is applied during the etching process, allowing for more precise control over the etching rate and the features revealed. The choice of etching solution and etching time depends on the specific metal or alloy being analyzed and the desired microstructural features to be highlighted. For instance, Nital (a solution of nitric acid and ethanol) is a popular etchant for revealing the grain structure of steels.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Microscopic Examination Metallurgical microscopes, also known as metallographic microscopes or metallurgy microscopes, are specialised optical instruments designed for the examination and analysis of opaque materials, particularly metals and alloys. They are commonly used in materials science, metallurgy, quality control, and research to inspect the microstructure and properties of metallic samples. Types of Microscopes Used in Microscopic Examination Upright Microscopes -These are the most prevalent instruments used in metallographic Inverted Microscopes- inverted microscopes offer a valuable alternative for observing thick or bulky metal specimens that wouldn't be compatible with upright microscopes due to size limitations. These microscopes feature a larger working distance (the space between the objective and the stage) and allow for easier focusing on samples with uneven surfaces.  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Semiconductor also known as semiconductor inspection microscopes or semiconductor wafer inspection microscopes, are specialised optical instruments designed for inspecting and analysing semiconductor wafers and other microelectronics components. Metallurgical Microscopes Comparison: Microscope Type Position of Suitability Objectives Upright Microscopes Above specimen Suitable for smaller metal samples Inverted Microscopes Beneath specimen Ideal for observing larger and bulkier metal samples Semiconductor Large stage for Designed for inspecting semiconductor Microscopes whole wafers materials and larger metallic components  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 References Admin. (2022, July 11). Ductility - Meaning, Definition, Comparison of Malleability and ductility, Application and FAQs of Ductility. BYJUS. https://byjus.com/chemistry/ductility/ buehler@_adn. (2021, November 17). Metallographic Etching - Buehler United Kingdom - Metallography Equipment & Supplies for Sample. 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Hardness testing. Students. https://www.deakin.edu.au/students/study- support/faculties/sebe/engineering/tech-assist/materials/hardness-testing  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 Use These Basic Tests to Identify Metal. (n.d.). Mead Metals, Inc. https://www.meadmetals.com/blog/use-these-basic-tests-to-identify-metal Velling, A. (2024, January 26). Ultimate Tensile Strength. Fractory. https://fractory.com/ultimate-tensile- strength/ Virasak, L. (n.d.). Unit 2: Hardness Testing. Pressbooks. https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/manufacturingprocesses45/chapter/unit-2-hardness-testing/ What is Destructive Testing? - Methods, Definition and Examples. (n.d.). https://www.twi- global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/what-is-destructive-testing What is Metallography? (A Complete Guide). (n.d.). https://www.twi-global.com/technical- knowledge/faqs/what-is-metallography Wikimedia Foundation. (2023, November 19). Nondestructive testing. Wikipedia. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nondestructive_testing?need_sec_link=1&sec_link_scene=im&f bclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR1y3PhtMG_YSrCAgDISUFTPo7Om0ZqLpo7jHIP9gbcvj wwUgs-ez-6DPkA_aem_AQhj1HbSmlZ2jOvLzsIce95931UrWWQJzMyJV3bGxdoMbU8Rd- PP8hlgmNH8EWWg6YxSdbfL0HAzrjoqhFD7AG2x Radiographic testing (RT). Inspectioneering. (n.d.). https://inspectioneering.com/tag/radiography#:~:text=Radiographic%20Testing%20(RT)%20is% 20a,and%20valves%2C%20to%20detect%20flaws. The principles of radiography in non-destructive examination. TWI. 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(n.d.-b). https://www.twi-global.com/technical- knowledge/faqs/ultrasonic- testing#:~:text=Ultrasonic%20testing%20(UT)%20comprises%20a,material%20or%20for%20fla w%20detecting. McMinn, E. (2024, April 23). Eddy current testing guide: Detecting flaws efficiently. Eddy Current Testing Guide: Detecting Flaws Efficiently. https://www.flyability.com/eddy-current-testing A two-dimensional eddy current array–based sensing film for estimating failure modes and tracking damage growth of bolted joints - hu sun, Tao Wang, Qijian Liu, Yishou Wang, Xinlin Qing, 2019. (n.d.). https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1475921719843062 Industries that benefit from eddy current testing. Industries That Benefit from Eddy Current Testing | Olympus IMS. (n.d.). https://www.olympus-ims.com/en/ndt-tutorials/eca- tutorial/applications/industries/ OnestopNDT. (2024, April 1). Eddy current testing: Complete guide. https://www.onestopndt.com/ndt- articles/eddy-current-testing  TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES -TAGUIG Km. 14 East Service Road, Western Bicutan, Taguig City 1630 http: www.tup-taguig.edu.ph Telefax: 823-2457 What are the advantages and disadvantages of eddy current testing?. TWI. (n.d.). https://www.twi- global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/faq-what-are-the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-eddy- current-testing Fenix Yew, By, Fenix YewWriter at Nasi Lemak Tech. Tech and mobile game enthusiast. My motto: "Never worship any brands. Remember, Yew, F., & Writer at Nasi Lemak Tech. Tech and mobile game enthusiast. My motto: "Never worship any brands. Remember. (2022, March 19). What are the six most common NDT methods?. Nasi Lemak Tech. https://nasilemaktech.com/what-are-the- six-most-common-ndt-methods/ Advantages & Disadvantages of Visual inspection. TXNDT. (n.d.). https://www.txndt.com/safety- section/visual-inspection Non-destructive test - liquid penetrant testing (PT). Non-destructive test - Liquid penetrant testing (PT) | KOBELCO INSPECTION & SERVICE CO., LTD. (n.d.). https://www.sisco.kobelco.com/english/service/nondestructiveness/pt.html#:~:text=Li quid%20penetrant%20testing%20(PT)%20is,is%20based%20on%20capillary%20action. OnestopNDT. (2024b, April 2). Liquid Penetrant Testing Advantages & Disadvantages. https://www.onestopndt.com/ndt-articles/liquid-penetrant-testing-advantages-disadvantages