Test 2 Material PDF

Test 2 Material The enlightenment ○ human behavior were based on natural laws guided by Hedonistic principles = pleasure and pain Mechanistic principles = rest of universe ○ Both rationalists and empiricists - emotions secondary in und...

Test 2 Material The enlightenment ○ human behavior were based on natural laws guided by Hedonistic principles = pleasure and pain Mechanistic principles = rest of universe ○ Both rationalists and empiricists - emotions secondary in understanding behavior Romanticism and existentialism ○ View of emotions not viewed by everyone ○ Other philosophers saw this approach to human nature as cold and inaccurate or deficient ○ emotions played key role in human nature and to study human nature one had to study entire human make up ○ 2 main philosophies Romanticism Emphasized importance of instincts, intuitions, and irrational feelings Existentialism emphasis is placed on meaning in one’s life, freedom of choice, and individuality rebelled against views of rationalists and empiricists Jean jacques rousseau (1712-1778) ○ Wrote “emile” – reason against belief in God; feeling is for belief in God. Therefore, feeling must be trusted ○ humans should express inner feelings and inclinations freely ○ first impulse of behavior always right, if people are allowed to honestly express themselves ○ Human nature Humans in state of nature are peaceful, content, and equal Socialization creates inequality, competitiveness, and egocentrism Thus he distrusted society and its laws and disgusted reason as guide for behavior ○ General will Pondered the question of how humans can be governed and still maintain their free will.  Each person has private will and general will (actions beneficial to community) and the person must choose general will over personal desires when there’s conflict Choosing general will: chosen when sense of equality, which fosters respect for the law Arthur schopenhauer (1788-1860) ○ Agreed with kant’s distinction of noumenal world and conscious world and that we can never know noumenal world ○ Argued that the noumenon in humans is the will to survive, a mindless, irrational force underlying all instincts and the universe. ○ The will creates a cycle of endless need satisfaction, leading to misery, with brief moments of pleasure and boredom when needs are met. When all needs are satisfied we are bored ○ Described human life as a constant struggle: "You suffer from one thing to another, and then you die." ○ Believed people cling to life out of fear of death, not because life is pleasant. ○ His bright side Humans can rise above biological needs by pursuing intellectual or artistic interests, which provide happiness. This is a form of denial of irrational impulses, similar to Freud’s sublimation. ○ Unconscious mind Divided the mind into rational (conscious, intellectual) and irrational (unconscious, basic drives), with unwanted thoughts being repressed. Soren kierkegaard (1813-1855) ○ Placed great importance in emotion in guidance of life Believed truth is not rational, but what one believes at an emotional level—truth is subjectivity. ○ Methods Used irony and rhetorical methods, similar to Socrates, to challenge people's beliefs, forcing them to reevaluate and take responsibility for finding the existential meaning of their lives and faith. ○ Faith A belief in God is a “leap of faith” When aquinas was trying to prove God rationally it was bringing God father away from believers  It is precisely because we cannot know God objectively that we must have faith ○ Approximations to personal freedom Aesthetic stage = Pursuit of pleasure without awareness of choice, leading to boredom and despair. Ethical stage = Responsibility for choices, but living by societal ethics; still not truly free. Religious stage = Embracing freedom of choice and a personal relationship with God; choices often nonconformist. Friedrich nietzsche (1844-1900) ○ Believed in Appollonian (rational) mind and dionysian (irrational) mind ○ The best life blends both, living with controlled passion. ○ Emphasized animalistic drives in the id that must be sublimated by reason to avoid self-destruction. ○ Advocated for free will and shaping one's own non-conformist individuality. ○ Meaning of life Reduced human experience to subjectivism There is no God and therefore no source of morality Our species and planet have no inherent significance, so we must define our own meaning in life. ○ Perspectivism Without God, there is no universal truth. Truth is subjective, based on individual perspectives, which are dynamic and ever-changing. ○ Will to power People should act as they feel, satisfying the will to power—the primary driving force in humans. Anything that increases one's power is good, contrasting with Schopenhauer's idea that self-preservation is the primary human motive. ○ Superman: individuality and self fulfillment Superman People should strive to reach their full potential, free from conventional morality. Rise above norms and embrace freedom of choice. open and expresses all thoughts and emotions, embraces endless possibilities Conformity leads to anguish; true self-fulfillment is found in defining oneself as an individual.  Physiology and experimental psychology ○ Experimental - arose out of the physiological sciences ○ The gap between subjective and objective reality led physiologists to explore mental events, driving major discoveries. ○ These findings helped establish psychology as a scientific discipline. The bell-magendie law ○ Early physiological discovery by Charles Bell and François Magendie (1774). ○ Found that nerves are of two types: sensory and motor. Johannes muller (1801-1858) ○ Identified 5 sensory nerves, each linked to a specific sense, and developed the doctrine of specific nerve energies: nerves respond the same way regardless of stimulation. ○ Proposed adequate stimulation, where each sense organ responds best to a particular type of energy. ○ conscious experience differs from physical reality. ○ Argued the nervous system transforms objective reality into perception, similar to Kant’s categories of thought. ○ Supported vitalism, claiming life is more than physical processes and beyond scientific study. Electrical nature of the nervous system ○ Rene descartes - animal spirits basis of nervous system function ○ Galvani (1737-1798) First to discover the body worked with electricity Found spark to the sciatic nerve of a frog, its leg muscle will twitch. Vitalist believed the electricity came from the muscle, not as an external, independent physical phenomenon. ○ Alessandro volta (1745-1827) Disagreed with Galvani, built the first inorganic battery, showing electricity could be generated without biological tissue. ○ Emil du bois-reymond (1818-196) Discovered existence of positive/negative charges in nerve tissue Hermann von helmholtz (1821-1894) ○ Disagreed with muller’s stand on vitalism  Materialist and determinist believed humans are complex machines governed by physical and chemical laws, shaping psychology's future. Rate of nerve conduction Measured nerve conduction speed, disproving the idea of a vitalistic force in nerves. Theories of perception Theory of color vision ○ trichromatic theory of color vision also known as the young-helmholtz theory. ○ proposing three types of retinal receptors for red, blue-violet, and green, with all other colors formed by combinations of these. Ewald hering (1834-1918) ○ Criticized young-helmholtz theory of color vision. ○ Proposed opponent-process theory of color vision suggesting retina receptors respond to color pairs in opposing ways: red-green, yellow-blue, and black-white. ○ We now know that there are 3 types of cones (receptors) in the retina (young-helmholtz) Phrenology ○ proposed by franz gall and expanded by johann spurzheim ○ Belief that psychological traits could be localized in specific brain regions and detected by bumps on the skull. ○ Its downfall Despite its popularity, it was eventually discredited, though it was initially appealing for offering an objective, materialistic analysis of the mind. It seemed to offer practical or useful information Though many phrenology claims were wrong, it paved the way for studying localization of brain function. Jean pierre flourens (1794-1867) Conducted brain lesion experiments, supporting gross localization of general functions, but refuting the fine localization of specific traits proposed by phrenology. (as conceptualized by gall) Localization of function  ○ Paul borca (1824-1880) Discovered that a particular region of the cortex was damaged in a patient that had the single problem of being unable to talk region was involved in speech production ○ Carl wernicke (1848-1905) region responsible for meaningful speech ○ Gustav fritsch (1837-1927) and eduard hitzig (1839-1907) together discovered parts of brain responsible for movement ○ David ferier (1843-1924) region responsible for somatosensory function Rise of experimental psychology ○ Advances in science allowed localization of brain functions, enabling psychology to become a science. Early questions focused on: What are we conscious of? and What causes consciousness? ○ A key step in developing psychology as a science was creating a measurement system for studying consciousness. Ernest weber (1795-1878) ○ Physiologist known for studying touch and kinesthetics. ○ Developed the concept of the just noticeable difference (JND). ○ Weber's Law: Found the JND is a constant fraction of the standard stimulus, marking the first quantitative law in psychology Gustav fechner (1801-1887) ○ Focused on the mind-body problem, believing they couldn't be separated. ○ Founded psychophysics, aiming to prove a relationship between the body and mind. ○ believed the relationship between stimulus intensity and sensory experience was logarithmic, founding psychophysics. First he formally stated weber's law as: ΔR/R = k Then he transformed this into fechner’s law as: ○ S= k log R ○ S - sensation ○ K - constant ○ R - stimulus intensity (reiz)  Voluntarism ○ Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) Founder of experimental psychology, established the first lab in 1879. Goals of experiments To develop a field of experimental psychology that would uncover the facts of human consciousness. Central concept: will; his school was called voluntarism Specific goals ○ Discover the basic elements of thought ○ Discover the laws by which the elements of thought synthesize to form more complex mental experiences Methods and findings Introspection – Structured, not free-form, to analyze mental experiences. Elements of thought – two types of basic mental experiences ○ Sensations - Differ in modality (type) and intensity. ○ Feelings - Accompany sensations, vary along pleasantness, excitement, and stress. Complex mental experiences Perception combines sensations and feelings. What we attend to is apperceived (Herbert). His position is partly empiricist (association of elements of thought) rationalist (active mind that creates new experiences) Causes of mental events Wundt believed experimental psychology couldn't determine the causes because mental events were willed, driven by hidden mental laws. The principle of the heterogony of ends (new situations that arise during a behavior change the original intention) Structuralism ○ Edward titchner (1867-1927) Goal Study the basic elements of conscious experience, their combination into complex experiences, and the neurological substrates behind them. Methods and findings His introspection  ○ Subjects were to report the features and characteristics of consciousness He proposed that there were 3 basic elemental processes of consciousness ○ Sensations ○ Images ○ Affections Law of combination ○ Elements are combined through the laws of association (empiricist). Attention is not an active process; we often say we attend to things that naturally capture our focus. ○ Decline of structuralism Introspection is an unreliable scientific tool Ignored important aspects of human behavior studied by other schools Focused on theory over practical knowledge Inability to incorporate evolution Beginnings of functionalism ○ Franz brentano (1838-1917) He believed that studying the descriptive elements of the mind implied a static mind. For him, studying the mind's function (what it does) is more important than its structure. Introduced ACT psychology, focusing on mental functions like love, hate, inferring, and doubting. Proposed intentionality, the idea that every mental act is directed toward an object. His introspection Often called “inner perception” - involved observing the stream of events surrounding a central event ○ Edmund husserl (1859-1938) Agreed with Brentano that psychology should focus on intact, meaningful mental experiences, not just isolated sensations. Advocated for pure phenomenology, using introspection to describe the mental process itself. ○ Hermann ebbinghaus (1850-1909) Initiated the experiential study of learning and memory  Used himself as a subject to create the retention curve for forgetting. Found meaningful material is easier to learn than nonsense and that distributed practice is more effective than massed practice. Evolution Jean lamarck (1744-1829) ○ One of the first modern evolutionary theorist ○ Proposed the inheritance of acquired characteristics, where traits influenced by the environment were passed onto offspring. ○ Believed traits that improved survival were inherited. Herbert spencer (1820-1903) ○ Applied Lamarck’s evolutionary theory to the human mind and societies. Believed nervous systems evolved from simple to complex through the ability to form associations, enhancing intelligence and survival chances. ○ Spencer- bain principle Associations are formed through contiguity (simultaneous or close occurrences). Behaviors leading to pleasant feelings (survival) are repeated, while those leading to painful feelings are avoided. Charles darwin (1809-1882) ○ Theory of evolution Organisms produce more offspring than can survive, leading to a struggle for survival. Individual differences exist, some more conducive to survival, leading to the survival of the fittest. Natural selection drives the gradual transformation of species over time. ○ Influence His comparison of humans to animals began the field of modern comparative and animal psychology His theories revolutionized philosophy and psychology, particularly influencing the development of functionalism, behaviorism, and evolutionary psychology (focused on gene perpetuation). Darwin → comparative, individual differences, and evolution → functionalism Galton → method and individual differences → functionalism  Basic characteristics of functionalism ○ Functionalists are opposed to the structuralist view of consciousness; it focuses on the function of the mind, not its static contents. ○ Psychology should be practical and should improve human condition ○ Research should include animals, abnormal people and children and should include tools like puzzles and mazes ○ Motivation became central to behavior ○ Mental processes and behavior should be studied ○ Emphasized the causes of individual differences. ○ Functionalists influenced by james who was influenced by darwin William james (1842-1920) ○ Impressed with german materialistic philosophy, especially with regard to psychology ○ However this meant that there was no free will and this depressed him. He came out of the depression when he learned from charles renovier, that “if one chooses to hold a thought indefinitely then this is proof of free will” ○ Defined the "empirical self" (the "me" of personality), divided into 3 categories: Material self: everything a person owns Social self: how one is recognized by others Spiritual self: subjective experience of self-awareness ○ self esteem = success/pretensions ○ Thus self esteem could be increased by increasing successes or decreasing pretensions ○ Emotions James-lang theory of emotion - Replaced common sense theory; suggests emotions are the result of physiological and behavioral responses to stimuli. ○ Influence on psychology Pragmatist Believed if something works, it should be used. If it has a soothing effect, it's true (similar to Kierkegaard) Advocated using any method that reveals aspects of human existence, leading to: Expanded subject matter in psychology. Diverse methodologies in psychological research.  Hugo munsterberg (1863-1916) ○ Applied psychology to real-world problems, shaping clinical, industrial, and forensic psychology. Clinical - Developed reciprocal antagonism, a technique to counter problematic thoughts with opposite, positive ones. Industrial - Advocated for defining job skills and assessing candidates to match those skills, influencing industrial psychology. Forensic - Argued that eyewitness testimony is unreliable due to subjective perceptions and memory inaccuracies. Mary calkins (1863-1930) ○ One of the earliest female american psychologists ○ Contribution to psychology was Paired associates method - memory technique Recent and primary effect - recent/early items on a list more easily remembered ○ Personality theory - developed “self psychology” which studies the whole individual, countering the trend of behaviorism by focusing on the entire self rather than isolated behaviors or consciousness. Granville stanley hall (1844-1924) ○ Founded the first U.S. psychology lab at Johns Hopkins University (1883). ○ Founded american psychological association 1863 ○ Recapitulation theory Proposed that individual human development mirrors the evolutionary stages of the species, with each stage reflecting levels of phylogenetic development. Started child development movement in US and focused on adolescence believing it was the ideal period to study human instinctual development Francis sumner (1895-1954) ○ Student of hall’s and first african american to obtain a phD in psychology Kenneth clark (1914-2005) ○ Student of sumner’s and played significant role in ending segregated education ○ first african american to serve as president of APA Functionalism in chicago ○ John dewey (1859-1952) Founder of functionalism  Publication of “the reflex arc concept in psychology” marks formal founding of functionalism Took the idea of “stream of consciousness” to the behavior itself ○ James angell (1869-1949) Clarified and systematized functionalism. In his APA presidential address, he: Differentiated functionalism from structuralism, focusing on the how and why of consciousness, not the what. Defined the mind as a mediator between the organism's needs and the environment. Described functionalism as psychophysical psychology, emphasizing the mind-body connection. ○ Harvey Carr (1873-1954) Directed functionalism toward a learning perspective, known as the adaptive act. Adaptive Act: Incorporated three principles: A motive that stimulates behavior. The environment. A response that satisfies the motive. This framework linked learning processes to evolution and laid the groundwork for later theories of learning and motivation. Functionalism at columbia university ○ James catell (1860-1944) Influential in establishing columbia as a stronghold in functionalistic psychology in the US and in continuing on the work started by galton on individual differences Developed mental tests to study individual differences He and his students tested college freshmen, hypothesizing that physical and sensory abilities predict intelligence, an idea derived from Galton. ○ Robert woodworth (1869-1962) developed dynamic psychology, focused on motivation According to him the internal condition of the organism (drive) activates the behavior of the organism. Instead of using the S-R theory, he used the S-O-R theory ○ Edward thorndike (1874-1949) First to produce a psychology dissertation with nonhuman animals as subjects Interested in intelligence and used an animal model to investigate learning  Puzzle box experiments Cats had to perform certain behaviors in order to exit boxes which would out them in contact with food Cats demonstrated shorter latencies to successfully exit the box with successive trials Conclusion ○ Using the puzzle boxes he drew several conclusions Learning is incremental and automatic Learning principles apply to all mammals ○ These laid groundwork for behaviorism Proposed 1st learning theory - laws of exercise and effect ○ Law of exercise had 2 parts Law of use - more frequent practice strengthens associations Law of disuse - associations weakened when not practiced ○ Law of effect - satisfying outcomes strengthens associations Behaviorism ○ Early 20th century trend focused on objective study of behavior using animal data ○ Ivan sechenov Russian psychologist sought to explain all behavior (over/covert) through: Associationism - associations Materialism - physical processes Argued all behavior is reflexive, triggered by external stimuli Persuaded neurophysiologists that – psychology should be studied through objective physiology and behavior is reflexive triggered by external stimuli Ivan pavlov ○ Research on digestive juices ○ Animal model - used dogs with “gastric pouch” to study digestion ○ Sham feeding experiments - cut holes in dogs’ esophagi, preventing food from reaching the stomach. Found taste of food still triggered the juices and he called psychic secretions Conditioned reflex - under pavlov’s direction, stefan wolfson studied how different foods affected salivation in dogs  Nobel prize - pavlov’s work on digestive glands earned it in 1904, in address he introduced famous research on conditioned reflexes Research on conditioning ○ Pavlov extended sechenov’s work, using objective physiology to study reflexes and conditioned reflexes ○ Explained conditioned reflexes through associative principles of contiguity and frequency demonstrating key findings in conditioning US-CS pairing leads to the CS eliciting the CR Extinction Spontaneous recovery ○ Pavlov legacy Saw discovery of conditioning as same process philosophers/psychologists described as associations Vladimir becterev ○ Russian psychologist ○ Advocated for objective psychology ○ Studied relationship between environment and behavior, using motor responses and electrical stimulation as unconditioned stimuli ○ Called conditioning the “association reflex” rather than conditioned reflex John B Watson ○ Founder of behaviorism and made it dominant psychology perspective ○ Studied animal learning, focusing on rats and how they navigate mazes ○ Discovered rats relied mostly on kinesthetic sense ○ Earned national recognition and job at john hopkins ○ Believed if we could understand rats’ behavior, we could apply same approach to understand humans’ ○ Lectures - “psychology as the behaviorist views it” outlined core principles of behaviorism Psychology study of behavior Behaviorism an experimental natural science Goal is to predict/control behavior No distinction between humans and animals Introspection and consciousness are irrelevant to psychology ○ Manifesto - seen as too extreme ○ Objective psychology  Shifted psychology’s focus from neta states to predicting/controlling behavior Made overt behavior central subject of psychology Believed behavior could be explained by environmental antecedents but unlike the russians he dismissed the need to study the physiology of behavior, viewing the brain as a “mystery box” ○ Views Radical environmentalism - rejected instinct, believing behavior shaped by environment, acknowledged insatiable structural differences that include personality Emotions - humans inherit 3 basic emotions - fear, rage, love - become conditioned to stimuli, all other emotions stem from these Albert experiments - watson and rayner conducted an early human conditioning experiment, training an infant (little albert) to associate fear with white rat by pairing with loud noise Results - white rat (cs) elicited a conditioned response which generalized to other white furry objects Learning - emphasized association, contiguity, and frequency in learning, rejecting thorndike idea of starting state as too mentalistic Influence - post-watson, most psychologists became methodological behaviorists with some adopting radical behaviorism William mcdougall ○ Methodological behaviorist who believed mental events were important and focused on purposive behavior (instincts) ○ Purposive behavior - goal directed and instinctual ○ Believed crucial to understanding behavior ○ Key characteristics Spontaneous and persistent Goal remains constant, but behaviors may change Ends when goal achieved Becomes more efficient with practice ○ Importance of instincts Argued instincts are innate predispositions that make organism responsive to specific internal/external stimuli ○ Components of instinct - each has 3 parts Perception - noticing stimuli linked to satisfying the instinct Behavior - performing actions to satisfy the drive Emotion - tied to either fulfilling or failing to satisfy the drive  To Remember Each Person Jean jacques rousseau ○ General will - chosen with sense of equality ○ Feeling must be trusted ○ Human nature - human in state of nature peaceful, content, equal while socialization creates opposite Arthur schopenhauer ○ Noumenon is will to survive ○ Will creates cycle of endless need satisfaction leading to misery with brief moments of pleasure and boredom when needs met ○ People cling to life with fear of death ○ rational/irrational mind - unwanted thoughts repressed Soren kierkegaard ○ Emotion in guidance in life ○ Truth not rational but subjective ○ Used irony/rhetorical methods challenge beliefs ○ Belief in god = leap of faith ○ Aesthetic stage = pleasure without awareness of choice - boredom, despair ○ Ethical stage = responsibility for choices - societal ethics, not truly free ○ Religious stage = freedom of choice, relationship with god - choice nonconformist Friedrich nietzsche ○ Best life blends both minds - controlled passion ○ Animalistic drives in id ○ Free will and shaping one own individuality ○ Reduced human experience to subjectivism - no god, no morality, species/planet no significance ○ No god = no universal truth ○ Truth subjective based on own perspective ○ Will to power - act as you feel Increase = good  ○ Superman - strive reach full potential, rise above norms, freedom of choice, open/expresses all thoughts/emotions, conformity leads to anguish Johannes muller ○ 5 sensory nerves - doctrine of specific nerve energies ○ Adequate stimulation - sense organ responds certain energy ○ Nervous system transforms objective reality into perception ○ Vitalism - life more than physical processes Hermann von helmholtz ○ Materialist ○ Determinist ○ Rate of nerve conduction - disproved idea vitalistic force in nerves ○ Theory of color vision - trichromatic theory, 3 types retinal receptors - red, blue-violet, others formed by combos of these Galvani ○ Electricity came from muscle not external ○ Frog nerve ○ Vitalist Alessandro volta ○ Inorganic battery ○ Electricity generated without biological tissue Emil du bois-reymond ○ Positive/negative charges nerve tissue Ewald hering ○ Opponent process theory of color - red-green, yellow-blue, black-white ○ 3 types of cones in retina (helmholtz)  Paul borca ○ Speech production ○ Damaged patient Carl wernicke ○ Meaningful speech Gustav fritsch ○ Movement David ferier ○ Somatosensory function Ernest weber ○ touch and kinesthetics ○ JND - constant fraction of standard stimulus marking 1st qualitative law Gustav fechner ○ Mind body problem - can’t be separated ○ Psychophysics ○ Stimulus intensity and sensory experience was logarithmic - ΔR/R = k Wilhelm Wundt ○ Experimental psychology ○ First lab ○ Voluntarism ○ Sensations and feelings ○ Partly empiricist and rationalist ○ Mental events willed driven by mental laws  Edward titchner ○ Study basic elements of conscious experience - combo into complex experiences and neurological substrates behind them ○ 3 basic elemental processes of consciousness - sensations, images, affections ○ Empiricist ○ Elements combined by law of association Franz brentano ○ Studying mind function more important ○ Act psychology - love, hate, inferring, doubting ○ Intentionality - mental act directed toward object ○ Inner perception - observing stream of events surrounding central event Edmund husserl ○ Pure phenomenology ○ Intact, meaningful mental experiences Hermann ebbinghaus ○ Learning and memory ○ Retention curve for forgetting ○ Meaningful material easier to learn than nonsense ○ Distributed more effective than massed Jean lamarck ○ 1st modern evolutionary theorist ○ Inheritance of acquired characteristics - traits influence by environment passed to offspring ○ Traits improved survival were inherited Herbert spencer ○ Evolutionary theory to human mind and society ○ Nervous system to simple to complex through forming associations - enhanced survival chances  ○ Spencer-bain principle - associations formed by contiguity - behaviors leading to pleasant feelings repeated and painful is avoided Charles darwin ○ Theory of evolution ○ Struggle for survival ○ Individual differences exist - survival of fittest ○ Natural selection ○ Began field of modern comparative and animal psychology ○ Theories influenced functionalism, behaviorism, evolutionary psychology William james ○ No free will depressed him - learned from renovier = no depression ○ Empirical self - me personality Material - everything someone owns Social - how one is recognized by others Spiritual - subjective experience of self-awareness ○ Self esteem = success/pretensions ○ James-lang theory - replaced common sense theory, emotions response to physiological/behavioral responses ○ Pragmatist ○ Soothing effect = truth ○ Expanded subject matter ○ Diverse methodologies in research Hugo munsterberg ○ Clinical - reciprocal antagonism, counter problematic thoughts with positive ○ Industrial - define job skills and assess candidates ○ forensic - eyewitness testimony unreliable due to subjective perspective Mary calkins ○ 1st female american psychologists ○ Paired associates method - memory ○ Recent and primary effect - remembering items early in a list  ○ Personality theory - self psychology, whole individual studied, countered behaviorism Granville stanley hall ○ First US lab - john hopkins ○ Founder apa ○ Recapitulation theory - human development mirrors evolutionary stages of species each stage reflecting phylogenetic development ○ Child development movement Francis sumner ○ 1st african american obtain phd Kenneth clark ○ Helped end segregated education ○ 1st african american president apa John dewey ○ Founder of functionalism ○ ‘The reflex arc concept in psychology’ ○ Idea of ‘stream of consciousness’ to behavior itself ○ Chicago James angell ○ Told difference between functionalism from structuralism - focused on how/why not what ○ Mind is mediator ○ Functionalism is psychophysical psychology - body mind connection ○ Chicago  Harvey Carr ○ Functionalism to learning perspective ○ adaptive act Motive - stimulates behavior Environment Response satisfies motive Groundwork for later theories learning and motivation ○ Chicago James catell ○ Columbia ○ Continued work of galton ○ Developed mental tests to study individual differences ○ Tested college freshmen - physical/sensory abilities predict intelligence Robert woodworth ○ Dynamic psychology ○ Internal condition of organism activates behavior ○ S-o-r theory Edward thorndike ○ Psychology dissertation with animals ○ Puzzle box experiments - cats perform certain behaviors to exit boxes to get reward ○ Learning incremental and automatic - apply to all mammals ○ 1st learning theory - laws of exercise and effect Exercise - law of use (more practice strengthens associations) law of disuse - weakened when not practiced Effect - satisfying outcomes strengthens associations Ivan sechenov ○ Russian psychologist ○ Associationism ○ Materialism - psychical processes  ○ Behavior reflexive, triggered by external stimuli ○ Studied through objective physiology Ivan pavlov ○ Digestive juices ○ Animal model - dogs ○ Sham feeding experiments - prevented food from reaching dog stomach - found taste of food triggered juices —- psychic secretions ○ Conditioned reflex - explained through associative principles of contiguity and frequency demonstrating key findings US-CS pairing leads to CS eliciting CR Extinction Spontaneous recovery ○ Nobel prize Vladimir becterev ○ Russian psychologist ○ Objective psychology ○ Relationship between environment and behavior - motor responses and electrical stimulation as unconditioned stimuli ○ Association reflex John B Watson ○ Founder of behaviorism ○ Principles Psychology study of behavior Introspection and consciousness irrelevant Goal to predict/control behavior Behaviorism experimental natural science No distinction between animals/humans ○ Studied animal learning – rats in mazes Rats relied on kinesthetic sense ○ Overt behavior as central subject ○ Brain is mystery box ○ Radical environmentalism - rejected instinct, behavior shaped by environment, ○ Emotions - fear, rage, love - all other emotions stem from this  ○ Albert experiment - conditioned infant to associate fear of white rat with loud noise ○ Emphasized association, contiguity, frequency in learning William mcdougall ○ Methodological behaviorist ○ Purposive behavior - goal directed, instinctual ○ Spontaneous, persistent ○ Goal remains constant, behavior may change ○ Ends when goal achieved ○ More efficient with practice ○ Instincts innate predispositions make organism responsive ○ Components Perception - noticing stimuli linked to satisfying instinct Behavior - performing actions satisfy drive Emotion - tied either fulfilling or failing satisfy drive