Test 1 EVR670 Info PDF

International whaling Commission (IWC): Established in 1946 under the international convention for the regulation of whaling. Participation in the IWC and the moratorium are voluntary and are not bound by any amendments and therefore there is no enforcement. Purpose: 1. Safeguard future genera...

International whaling Commission (IWC): Established in 1946 under the international convention for the regulation of whaling. Participation in the IWC and the moratorium are voluntary and are not bound by any amendments and therefore there is no enforcement. Purpose: 1. Safeguard future generation of whale stocks 2. Protect whales from further over fishing 3. Achieve optimum level without causing widespread, economic, and nutritional distress Strategies: Established a temporary commercial wailing moratorium in 1986 Reviewed and revised schedules to establish: 1. Catch limits by species in area 2. Whale sanctuaries 3. Protection of calves and females accompanied by calves 4. Restrictions of hunting methods Scientific research Create an allocate funds for: o Scientific research o entanglement efforts o Ship strike mitigation o Ship conservation management plans o conservation management pl strategic plans for whaling watching Management Authorities: 88 governments in the United States acts as the depository nation Commercial whaling exemptions: 1. research— Japan previously 2. Object to current moratorium— Norway, Iceland, and Russia 3. Leave IWC— Japan in 2019  Limitations: Lack of inspection and enforcement powers Does not include regulation of small odontocetes Members could object or excuse themselves to parts of the law Scientific permits are abused by many nations Regulates indigenous/aboriginal harvesting Substance hunts (only needed to support life) Aboriginal/indigenous people have extreme respect for local resources and sustainability due to wailing being very important to their culture. Traditional food (muktuck/mattak) Can feed and provide resources to the communities. North American Nuance perform rituals and songs in honor of the animal spirit. Hunts will sometimes be coordinated with scientific research Regulated by strike limits (not landings) Prevent IWC member countries that conduct Aboriginal substance hunts: 1. Denmark (Greenland) 2. Russia (Chukotka) 3. St. Vincent in the Grenadines (Bequia) 4. United States a. Alaska b. Makah Tribe of Washington State (granted permission as recently as June 2024 to resume gray whale hunts) The IWC set catch limits for aboriginal, substance wailing. The catch limits are based on advice from the IWC’s scientific committee, using a strike limit algorithm to calculate safe catch limits. Convention on International Trade in Endangered species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Established in 1975 Key words: Trade: export, re– export, import, and introduction from the sea. Re-export: export of any specimen that has previously been imported Specimen: any animal/plant either alive or dead Purpose: International agreement between governments to ensure the international trade of specimens does not threaten their survival. Management authorities: Comprised of 183 parties o Each has their own management authority o Switzerland acts as the depository nation. every 2 to 3 year meetings to review implementation of convention, including: o Cons status of listed species o Amendment considerations does not supersede national laws A party can make unilateral statement (reservations) to not be bound to the convention regarding the trade of a particular listed species. Strategies: 38,700 species listed Appendix 1: includes all species threatened with extinction Appendix 2: not necessary, threatened with extinction, but may become so unless trade is strictly regulated. Appendix 3: include species protected, at least in one country in need cooperation of other parties to control trade. Permits:  Can get permits to trade species/specimens for scientific research, reintroduction, captive, bread, introduction from sea, manage care and display of animals, propagation of plants, personal ownership, etc. If alive, applicant must demonstrate species will be humanely shipped o Must meet international transport association (IATA) live animal regulations and CITES guidelines for transport. often need both import and export permits Export permits of species/specimens in Appendices 1 and 2 are only granted when ther is a Non-Detriment Finding (NDF) o Export will not be detrimental to survival of species or the role in the environment CITES Trade Database: Public access Managed by UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 7 million records of trade in wildlife 500,000+ being added per year Objectives: 1. Identify where trade might negatively impact wild populations 2. Accuracy of information 3. Review trends 4. Evidence of trade in fractions/inadequate enforcement Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) Enacted in 1972 Impetus: 1. Growing concern for decline of whales, even with protection from IWC 2. Public reaction to harvesting baby harp seals and pribilof fur seals via clubbing 3. Increase public awareness to the significant number of incidental dolphin mortalities as a result of commercial fishing (dolphin-tuna fishery. Management authorities: Only organization that can give permits in the U.S. Both governing body give permits and manage for the Endangered Species Act (ESA) and the MMPA. 1. Department of commerce a. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS): only manages cetaceans and pinnipeds (except walrus). 2. The Department of Interior a. United States Fish and Wildlife Service: Only manages Walrus, manatees, Sea Otters, and Polar Bears Organizations role with Marine Mammals on public display NOAA: o Issues permits for importing, marine mammals, and collecting them from the wild (unless stranded and rehabilitated) o Maintains the national inventory of marine mammals: which tracks, acquisitions, dispositions, transfers, and transports. o Regulates exports of marine mammals (and CITES) o Places non-releasable stranded marine mammals in public display facilities. o Permits are not required to maintain marine mammals in public display facilities, but a scientific research permit is required to conduct research on captive animals. o Species listed on ESA may not be held for public display or may require a scientific research or enhancement permit US Department of Agriculture (USDA) o Under the Animal Welfare Act and MMPA 1994 amendment, the USDA Animal Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has jurisdiction over animal care and maintenance for all marine mammals held for public display. o All facilities must be registered through USDA APHIS and have regular inspections. Key words: Stock; Group of marine mammals of the same species or smaller taxa in a common spatial arrangement, that interbreed when mature. Optimum Sustainable Population: Number of animals resulting in maximum productivity of the population/species, keeping in mind carrying capacity of the habitat and the health of the ecosystem. Take: Harass, hunt, touch, restrain, feed, capture, kill, or collect, including attempt to, includes collection of dead animals or parts. Includes, without limitation, any of the following: o The collection of dead animals, or parts thereof. o The restraint or detonation of a marine mammal, no matter how temporary o Tagging a marine mammal o The negligent or intentional operation of aircraft or vessel o The doing of any other negligent or intentional act which results in disturbing or molesting a marine mammal o Feeding or attempting to feed a marine mammal in the wild Incidental take: an unintentional, but not unexpected taking. Harass: any human activity, intended or not intended, that can cause an animal injury or change its behavior. Level A harassment: any act of pursuit, torment, or annoyance that has the potential to injure a marine mammal stock in the wild. Level B harassment: That have the potential to disturb, but not injure, a marine mammal or stock in the wild by disrupting behavioral patterns, including, but not limited to: Migration, breathing, nursing, breeding, feeding, or sheltering. Potential biological removal: maximum number of animals, not including natural mortalities, that may be removed from a stock, while allowing that stock to reach/maintain its OSP. Strategic stock: human – caused mortality exceeds PBR, stock is declining or is listed under ESA. Stranding: marine mammals are considered stranded when: o Dead on the beach or in the water o Alive on the beach and unable to return to water o Alive and out of habitat  o Free swimming with life-threatening injury/entanglement UME: a stranding that is unexpected; involves a significant die-off of many marine mammal populations; and demands immediate response. Species: include sub, species of fish, wildlife, or plant, and any distinct population segment which interbreeds when mature. Endangered species: species, which is in danger of extinction throughout all/significant portion of its range. Threatened Species: Species likely to become endangered within foreseeable future throughout all/significant portions of its range. Purpose: 1. Maintain marine mammal stocks at their Optimum Sustainable Population (OSP) 2. Maintain marine mammals stock as functioning elements of their ecosystem. Applies to all marine mammals within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): 200 national miles of shore. Strategy: 1. Moratorium on the “take” of marine mammals 2. Research Exemptions: Permits may be issued for: 1. Scientific research 2. Photography 3. Incidental take from commercial fishing operations 4. Subsistence/craft making for Alaskan natives 5. Taking in defense of self/others 6. Good Samaritan 7. National defense 8. Educational public displays Stock Assessments: Part of 1994 amendment Stock assessment reports required for all marine mammals Includes: Geographic range Minimum population estimate, current, and maximum net productivity rates Current population trends Annual human-caused mortality/serious injury Commercial fishery interactions (how often they are) Status of stock Estimate Potential Biological Removal (PBR) Reviewed at least every three years Some species or stocks can be considered depleted Regardless if they are ESA listed or not. Incidental take by commercial fishing operations: Goal: is to reduce incidental mortality/serious injury to zero Strategies: 1. Monitoring program (observation observer aboard vessels) 2. List of fisheries (Cat 1-3) 3. Take Reduction Plans (TRP): must be drafted for stock in which incidental mortality/serious injury exceeds PBR( (such as reduced gill nets) 4. Emergency regulations Marine mammal health and stranding response program: Part of 1992 amendment To respond to strandings, you need authorized via level of agreement or section 109(h)—state or federal agencies Purpose: help understand the population in the environment. NOAA makes final call. 1. Facilitate collection and decimation of marine mammal data and health trends 2. Correlate health of marine mammals with physical, chemical, and biological environmental parameters. 3. Response to UMEs Established: 1. Unusual Mortality Event (UME) response/investigation a. Working group  b. Funds 2. National Marine Mammal Tissue bank 3. Biomonitoring 4. Analytical quality assurance Animal Welfare Act (AWA) Management Authorities: Marine mammals on Public Display Signed into law 1966 Only federal law in the US that regulates treatment of animals in research, teaching, exhibition, testing, transport, and by dealers. Enforced by USDA and APHIS Requires minimum standards of care and treatment be provided for certain animals in managed care, research, etc. For marine mammals: o Regulates facilities o Husbandry o Space requirements o Water Quality o Swim/interaction programs o Transport o Care o Treatment o Handling Endangered Species Act (ESA) Purpose: provide a program for the conservation of endangered species and threatened species and their associated ecosystem. “Recover” listed species on the ESA and hopefully take off when recovered. USFWS has jurisdiction over 1681 US endangered and threatened plants and animals and 699 foreign species NMFs/Noaa fisheries has jurisdiction over 165 endangered and threatened marine species, including 66 foreign species (not jus marine mammals)  Petition process: 5 factors influence listing: 1. Destruction, modification, or curtail or species habitat/ranges 2. Over utilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes 3. Disease/predation 4. Inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms 5. Other natural/manmade factors affecting species continued existence Strategies: 1. Develop and implant recovery plans 2. Authorization to seek land purchases/ exchange for important habitat 3. Federal aid to state and commonwealth conservation departments 4. Prohibits the “ take” and interstate/international trade of listed animals and plants Permits: based on listing status Permits may be authorized for scientific research, species, enhancement, zoological/botanical exhibition, educational use, etc. Three types of permits: 1. Incidental take permits 2. Enhancement of survival permits 3. Recovery and interstate commerce Delisting to extinct: September 29, 2021 there were 23 proposed species delisting to extinct ESA success: Prevent the extinction of more than 99% of the species listed 54 species have been delisted due to recovery  56 species have been down listed from endangered to threatened Numerous species have avoided ESA listing due to the collaborative efforts Only 11 removed due to extinction since ESA was enacted International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Membership union IUCN-US is a charitable 501(c)(3) organization Mission: to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable. Composed of government and civil society organizations with over 1400 members and an input of 18,000 experts. 160+ countries active Red list created in 1964 o Powerful comprehensive information source/tool to inform in catalyze action for biodiversity, conservation and policy change o Divided into eight categories 1. not evaluated (NE) 2. Data deficient (DD)-not enough information on abundance or distribution to estimate its risk of extinction. 3. Least concerned (LC)- population is stable enough that it is unlikely to face extinction in the near future 4. Near threatened (NT)- close to qualifying, or likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future 5. Vulnerable (VU)- facing a high risk of extinction in the wild 6. Endangered (EN)-facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild 7. Critically endangered (CR)-facing extremely high risk of extinction in the wild 8. Extinct in the wild (EW)-no only to survive in captivity cultivation or well outside it’s natural range 9. Extinct (EX)- no reasonably doubt that the last individual has died o there are 134,425 assessed species o There are 37,480 threatens species with extinction o There are 160,000 target species which IUCN red list aims to assess o Read less is a quicker process than ESA  o List of criteria to determine status of species: 1. reduction in population size 2. Reduction in geographic range 3. Small current population size 4. Quantitive analysis of extinction possibility ESA Vs IUCN ESA and IUCN have different criteria to list species: the ESA did not use IUCN criteria in their determination of listing the cook, inlet beluga whale population. ESA: Provides listing for: o Species o Subspecies o Distinct population segment ▪ discrete from the rest of the species ▪ Has significance to the existence or genetic composition of the species ▪ Example: Cook Inlet beluga population Beluga species: not listed Cook Inlet population: listed Listed marine mammals: Cetaceans- 20 Pinnipeds- 7 Sirenians (4) Polar bear (1) Sea otters (2) IUCN: Can access sub species and sub populations After assessed at a species level. Beluga species: not threatened Cook Inlet population: critically endangered Florida Manatee Sanctuary Act: Enacted in 1978 Management authority: Florida, fish and wildlife conservation commission (FWC) Purpose: Mitigate watercraft, interactions and harassment of “Florida’s state Marine mammal” Protect manatee habitat from human activity and establish limited “ Safe Haven” Taken into account stakeholders Strategy: Habitat, speed zones ( e.g. Slow speed, minimum wake, no wake) Motorboat prohibited zones No entries Manatee protection plans (MMP) Began in 1989 15 key counties included in the Florida manatee sanctuary act Develops by the counties in cooperation with FWC and USFWS MPP’s our planning documents, not regulatory Work with stakeholders Aims: 1. Educate law-enforcement 2. Develop boat facility sitting strategies 3. Initiate habitat protection Permits: 1. Habitat restoration 2. Scientific or educational purposes 3. Enhancement of propagation/survival of manatees 4. Construction, maintenance, or repair – includes dredging and debris removal ” permitted activities may not, either intentionally or negligently, molest, harass, collide with, injure, or harm manatees”  With permit- special shall be operated and no greater than idle speed in motorboats prohibited or no entry zones. Penalties: MMPA: To report marine mammal violation, such as people feeding, attempting to feed or harassing marine animals in the vent call Noah fisheries enforcement hotline May leave information anonymously Noah Fisher’s office of law enforcement works closely with other federal and state law enforcement agencies to enforce federal regulations and investigate violations when they occur If prosecuted, violators of MM PA could face: o Civil penalties up to $11,000 o Up to one year in prison plus criminal fines o Forfeiture of vessel involved, including penalties for the vessel up to 25,000 ESA/CITES: USDA and US fish and wildlife service are responsible for enforcing regulations specific to the import and export of plants regulated by CITES and ESA Provisions of ESA are enforced through citizens suits, as well as through civil and criminal penalties. o A criminal violation may result in imprisonment and a fine up to $50,000 o A civil violation of a major provision may result in $25,000 fine (knowing the violation) or a $12,000 fine. Rewards can be used to help investigations. It also helps to educate the public and receive more leads. Anthropogenic Sound Pollution Impacts of Anthropogenic Sound Sound introduced into the ocean by humans is detrimental to Marine mammals Mechanisms of injury unclear(high intensity leads to injury) Interference with ability to detect sound and can result in mass strandings Stress reduce Developmental, reproductive and or immune function Sources more pervasive and more powerful Don’t fully understand how Marine mammals respond to sound Characteristics of Sound: Sound propagation is efficient underwater(4x faster than air) Organisms use sound for communication, sensing, avoidance of predation, and navigation Air-sea interface is a barrier to sound-alters perception Natural Oceanic Noise: Very noise Highly variable Physical environment affects sound propagation Natural sources of noises: Wind, waves, and swell patterns Bubbles (popping) Currents and turbulence Earthquakes Ice cover and activity Marine life Sources: 1. Commercial Shipping Principal source of background noise in world’s ocean Large geographic areas  Shipping routs overlap critical marine mammal habitats Sources- propeller actions, propulsion machinery, and hydraulic flow Ocean shipping—efficient and strong economic incentives—No alternative World’s commercial fleet (2021)= 99,800 vessels of 100+ tons ~939 ports and 11 billion ton of goods per year 2. Seismic exploration use high intensity, sound to image earths crust Used for finding a monitoring reserves of oil and natural gas A raise of air guns— seismic reflection profiling 3. Sonar used to probe ocean to find information about objects in the water column, sea bottom, or within sediments Based on echoes and reflections Military and civilian use Commercial sonar used for fish, finding, depth sounding, and sub bottom profiling Military sonar used to target detection, localization, classification Different types of sonar: o Low frequency o Mid frequency-radar o High frequency-weapons 4. Explosions Nuclear devices tested underwater or around oceans o Limited 1963 o Comprehensive 1996 test band treaty Chemical explosions with oceanic research, construction, military testing(ship shock tests) 5. Industrial activities, offshore drilling, and construction Coastal power plants Pile driving Dredging Tunnel boring Power generating windmills Canal lock operations Method of underwater construction: o Caissons o Cofferdams  o Driven Piles o Off-site building, float and lower 6. Offshore wind energy development NOAA collaborations to reduce effects of offshore wind energy Major knowledge gaps conducting research now on effects on animals and ecosystems Short term effects: o Identifying key species groups for studies of effects of offshore wind sound exposure on fishes and invertebrates o Promote standardized collection of high-quality data o Develop a long-term, highly instrumented field site o Conducting multi method behavioral response, study to exam animal displacement o Conduct behavioral response studies to examine non-displacement changes o Conduct hearing sensitivity studies for selected species, including detection of particle motion, vibration and sound pressure o Examine sound mitigation options for fishes and invertebrates Long term: o ecological, community alteration on and around offshore wind Farms o Prediction of cumulative impacts of operational offshore wind facilities o Develop/adaptation of cumulative impact framework o Long-term intensive monitoring of sound at an offshore wind development site 7. Acoustic deterrent devices and pingers ADD (acoustic deterrent device)-effort to repel marine mammals from fishing activities. (Pingers-effort to reduce by catch) AHD(acoustic harassment device so)— reduce depreciation by marine mammals. 8. Small ships, boats, and personal watercraft Significant local source, but not significant contribution to global ocean sound Effects: Response depends on: o Sound pressure level  o Frequency o Duration o Novelty o Habituation o Physical behavioral state of animals o Ambient acoustics o Ecological features of the environment o Species o Life history stage o Food availability o Health o Hunger Current understanding is insufficient in Marine mammals and other species Annoyance of sound depends on range of factors. She said there’s a bunch of people there right now. Do you wanna go? We’re gonna eat and then we’ll head out. Will let you know if we’re on our way when we are on our way if you guys decide to leave just let me know. Effects on Marine Mammals: 1. Hearing Loss 1. Temporary (TTS) or permanent (PTS) threshold shift 2. Extensive lost depends on sound power, spectrum, hearing sensitivity of animals and duration of explosion 3. Can be due to direct physical damage of ear structure 4. Results in interference with communication, foraging, avoidance of predators, and potential for erratic behavior 2. Hearing development Increase noise may cause developmental problems for young 3. Masking Acoustic signals masked or covered up by anthropogenic noise Often the sounds of ships are in the same frequency, range of important vocal communication and fish and whales Results results in animals not being able to hear important communications for reproduction in foraging Animals may need to change their calls= cost energy! o Change: call rate, duration, frequency, range, loudness  Lombard effect= animals increase the intensity of their vocalization in increased noise. 4. Non-auditory physiological impacts Common is stress response (fish and marine mammals) Increase cortisol (stress hormone) effects: o Immune function o Ability to response to other natural stressors o Health o Survival Impacts include: o Physiologic stress o Neurosensory effects, o Effects on balance o Tissue damage (acoustic resonance) o Bends (Increase gas such as nitrogen in tissues and blood) o Blast-trauma injury Acoustic resonance can lead to amplification of pressure in air cavities 5. Behavioral Impacts Complex and not well understood Documented responses vary widely May depend on internal factors o Hearing sensitivity o Behavioral state o Past exposure o Individual noise tolerance o Habituation/desensitization, o Age o Sex o Presence of offspring External factors o Sound moving o Stationary o Novel habitat affecting sound transmission o Location of exposure o proximity to shore o confined o context of sound  Can also play into foraging decisions made by marine mammals and depend on prey availability, Hunger, body condition, perceived risk Can cause organisms to leave/avoid important feeding or breeding habitats Can interfere with marine mammal echolocation and navigation Requires long-term monitoring 6. Mass strandings Associated with high-intensity sonar during naval operations and airguns during seismic reflection profiling Predominantly beaked whales, mostly Cuvier’s (81% of acoustic related stranding 121 mass strandings of black whales 1960-2004 Bodies show no apparent pathogenic disease but do have hemorrhaging (acoustic fats of head, ears and spaces in the brain and along acoustic pathways), disorientation, acute impacts, bleeding from eyes, increased heart rate vs. bradycardia Not a lot of physiological research 7. Habituation and tolerance of noise 1. Loss of responsiveness to noise over time 2. Poorly understood 3. EXAMPLES: o Harbor seals and aHDs at aquaculture facilities o Harbor porpoise and pingers o NARW and vessels Management in US NOAA Ocean Noise strategy o call to effective in comprehensive understanding in management of ocean noise impacts on marine life in the years 2016 to 2026 o Includes: ▪ Science and research ▪ Management ▪ Decision support tools ▪ Outreach Whaling, management and fisheries interactions History of hunting Valuable in cold climates due to high protein, predictability, easy prey, warmth, high value diet, and cultural practices Norwegians first to hunt whales-4000 years ago (may have been earlier) Japan-calling Mari mammals for many thousands of years Used watch towers to look for northern right whales (Basques in Bay of Biscay) Native people in the arctic hunted marine mammals for 2000- 3000 years Whaling gained popularity in northern Europe during middle ages in Renaissance North America started wailing around the mid-1700s— harder to find whales at this time Exact impact on small scale commercial wailing is unknown during 1600 to 1800s. Large scale commercial wailing started mid 1800s to the 1900s Wailing in the US hit its peak in mid 1800s with gun loaded, harpoons, and steam ships Estimated more whales hunted in early 1900s than the previous four centuries combined Kerosene petroleum in other fossil fields became more popular and reliable than whale oil so the industry plummeted Early 1970s US listed eight whales as endangered species and outlawed wailing in 1971(IWC 1946) 1986 IWC moratorium- Norway and Iceland part of but object it Japan left IWC Whaling today: o authorized by MMPA in the US and regulated by international commission o Regulated by strike limits which are data driven o Sometimes Hans will be coordinated with scientific research o Important to culture Whales used for: Meat, skin, blubber, and organs was eaten as an important source of protein, fats, vitamins, and minerals Baleen was used to weave baskets, fishing lines, roofing, material, corsets, hoop skirts Whale oil from blubber of right and bowhead whales and spermaceti sperm whales for oil lamps Ambergris was a perfume fixative made from excretion of sperm whale digestive systems Effects of Whaling: Contributed to the extinction of: o Atlantic gray whale (early 1700s) o Stellar sea cow (1768) o Caribbean monk seal (1950s) o Japanese sea lion (1970s) Haunted to extinction: o Blue whale o Minke whale o Finn whale o Humpback whale o Eastern Pacific gray whale o North Atlantic right whale-endangered Culling/ hunting small cetaceans: Japanese drive hunts killed to reduce numbers for competition o 1960s about a 500,000 small citations killed Iki Island (1976-1986) largest cull ever recorded- response to decrease yellowtail No international body that monitors or manages hunting of small citations  No law leads to unsustainable practices IWC has sub committed but limited influence Commercial hunts were traditionally for food Health concerns when pilot whale and Faroese consumed o Mercury affects fetal development of nervous system and the immune system o PCB concentrations may increase risk of type two diabetes o Pilot whale is no longer recommended for human consumption Background: Management= conservation and encouragement of natural resources, such as game, fish, and wildlife Typically involves a compromise between protecting a resource and a social economic benefit Most management strategies intend to ensure the long-term persistent of resources Some economic benefits is equal tourism in captivity Public awareness: Concern about populations in individual animals Believe that animals, like people have intrinsic rights Dedicated community and non-governmental organizations Whale watching: o Coincide with decrease in marine mammal exploitation o Non-consumptive utilization o 2 billion in annual estimated commercial worth o 13, million people a year o Marine mammals are “worth” more alive vs dead Fisheries Management Definitions: Fisheries: geographic area that is associated with a population of aquatic organisms, which are harvested for their commercial or Recreational value Biological fish stock: group of fish of the same species that live in the same geographic area in mix enough to breed with each other when mature  Management stock (fish): may referred to a biological stock or a multi species complex that is managed as a single unit Landing: catches of marine fish landed in foreign or domestic ports Stock assessments: collect data on stocks key to fisheries management National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS): federal agency with NOAA responsible for management, conservation, and protection of living marine resources in the US. Sustainable use: If a population decreases in size, then it is expected that the resource will increase, this should lead to an increase in growth, reproduction, and survival. Population could theoretically be harvested continuously without causing detriment to the population. Harvest Control Rules (HCR): HCR: procedures to manage a natural resource that entail what action should be taken depending on the status of the resource being exploited Environmental risks and economic benefits associated with particular HCR cannot be evaluated with certainty Uncertainty comes from: o No biological system is completely predictable o Inevitable observational air with estimating population size o Model uncertainty— mathematical models are approximations o Implementation error-management procedures rarely have the precise affects that were intended Different models are used to account for uncertainty and data are used to inform management strategies and set quota with success and failure to improve models. Fisheries: maximum sustainable yield (MSY) Maximum level at which a natural resource can be routinely exploited without long- term depletion Considerations include 1. Growth rate 2. Population size  3. Harvesting efforts Profit determined by: o Value of resource o Cost of harvesting/processing resources (not used in marine mammals) Marine mammals: Potential Biological Removal (PBR) The HCR used to manage marine mammal population is PBR under the MMPA MMP A’s goal is to prevent depletion, which is when a population is below maximum net productivity level HCRs allows some animal to be taken and still prevent depletion PBR permits removal of only a very small fraction of the population o Needs to consider different age classes and sexes Management: OSP: optimal sustainable population= population size that result in maximum productivity population or species PBR- maximum number of animals that can be removed from a stock while allowing for OSP drives management PBR= 0.5Rmax x Nmin x Fr Nmin= Min estimated stock size Defined as the value at the 20th percentile of the distribution of estimated abundance 20th percentile act as a conservation buffer, which is shown through simulations to provide a high-level of confidence that the management objectives can be achieved in spite of uncertainty in the parameters used estimate abundance Rmax= max theoretical net productivity rate maximum potential population growth rate: may be estimated for individual stocks Default =0.04 for cetaceans Default= 0.12 for pinnipeds Fr=recovery factor Used as a conservative buffer against various possible biases or assumption violations Ranges: 0.1 -1.0 Default (halved again to be more conservative) = 0.5 Endangered species (depending on estimated abundance)= 0.1-0.3  Stocks that exceed PBR= “strategic stock” Category 1 fisheries- takes > 50% PBR of any stock per year Category 2 fisheries- Takes 1-50% PBR of any stock per year Category 3 fisheries- Takes 90% of large predatory fish Operational/ direct interactions: Bycatch non-target portion that is discarded Non-bycatch- non-target portion that is utilized Lack of reporting on a global scale Citation by catches reported to IWC Formal reporting system for the US due to the MMPA  On board observer program= only accurate reporting system Electronic monitoring in models recent Gear types o Drift and set guild nets o Long lines o Purse seine o Bottom trawl o Plegic trawl o Pot and traps US statistics in 1990 to 1999-loss of 6215 marine mammals per year half of them were pinnipeds and half of them cetaceans Global estimate 500,000 to 650,000 killed annually Management strategies: Gear modifications: alarm systems, safety net technologies, reducing by catch. Entanglements In discarded gear/marine debris (cryptic mortality) Commercial fishing and aquaculture gear (active nets/ traps and derelict/ghost nets) Discarded monofilament line Miscellaneous trash Humpback whale entanglements: commercial gear commonly entangles mysticets with 50% of them are entangled at least once in their lifetime due to their size, morphology, And life history. Vessel strikes Watercraft interaction causing injury watercraft collisions are the primary threat to large whales and manatees, but all marine mammals are susceptible All vessels, regardless of size type or used can negatively impact marine mammals Sharp Trauma and blunt forces trauma North Atlantic right whale in decline due to migration patterns and shipping routes overlapping  Management: slowing speed to 10 knots or less, required reports in designated habitats, slow zones, dynamic management areas (DMA) Depredation Marine mammals remove or damage catch Little quantitive data on extent, impact, or economic cost cost Potential increase foraging success, but also greater risk of injury Documented series economic, last for fisherman, which can lead to retaliation Occurs now in both coastal and pelagic waters Examples: o Harbor seals in Ireland-45% of salmon and gillnet fisheries o Cape for seals in Africa- mob purse seine nets -annual culling Ecological/biological interactions Competition For target species (most common) Competition over limited resources More complex, less obvious, difficult to study Concerns about consequences for fisheries prevail Mammals eat a lot o South African fur seals~ 2,000,000 tons of food per year and population is growing o Marine mammals in the Pacific consume~ 150,000,000 tons of food per year, which exceeds human annual fish harvest by 3x o Fish consumption cetaceans= commercial fisheries harvests Overfishing Loss of prey Marine mammal populations are losing access to prey due to fisheries interactions 1. Steller sea lion in Alaska  continuous decline in 1970s listed as endangered in 1997 on ESA Fisheries in west and central Aleutian Island are likely to jeopardize continued existence (junk food theory) 2. Southern resident killer whales 2019 estimate= 78 (20% decline in five years) Reproduction and mortality are related to abundance of Chinook salmon (loss in prey) 3. California sea lions Mothers unable to find enough food to support lactation *CASE STUDY* Harp seals Canada 1990s collapse of cod fisheries in the Atlantic o Harp seals were blamed for it not recovering 1980 harps seal populations have been increasing o Seals consume 20,000 tons of polar cod per year o Seals consumed + 54,000 tons of Atlantic cod per year So economic implications were huge for the lack of recovery of cod, stocks due to seals, but there is no information to support seals to blame Canada‘s fisheries minister increased and encouraged total of seals 1996 was the largest reported seal hunt since 1970s were 242,000 harp seals and 25,000 hooded seals were killed Manage-hunting techniques and prohibited white coats The decline in cod population was never investigated for overfishing being the cause 2016 to 2023 400,000 harp seal quota o Was under this quota every year o 2020 only 440 were killed due to Covid Indirect food web Target species of fisheries is predator or prey of some important component of marine mammal diet Fishing practice/activity Fishing practice has negative impact on habitat or behavior of marine mammal, resulting in decreased access to prey. Habitat degradation- bottom trawling  o Heavy rollers, chains and wooden doors-penetrate up to 6 cm o Wipes everything out o Short term gain for fisheries o Long-term loss of fish when change habitat o Gray whale and walrus decrease Use of explosives or cyanide Noise pollution-impacts poorly understood but major cause for concern o May interfere with Echolocation of feeding cetaceans o Made to tear cetaceans from feeding *CASE STUDY* Dolphin-tuna Fishers Intentional circling of dolphins to catch tuna Dolphins mean increase tuna Started in 1970s Major factor and driver of the MMPA in 1972 Difficulties to set law when regulatory decisions need to be made when there is not enough scientific data. Laws need scientific data Purse seine net deployed up to 1 mile long and 600 feet deep Nylon nets and power block (1950s) were cheaper, synthetic, and left a lot of ghost nets. 1959-1972 o Mortality estimates= 350,000-650,000 annually 1970s o Mortal= 200,000-300,000 annually o US fleet responsible for 80% mortality at the time 1972 o Laws were enacted(MMPA) o NMFS created permit systems o Two year exemption led to 689,000 more deaths o Needed to determine species composition in stock structure of entire ETP (Eastern tropical Pacific) 1974 o Couldn’t get enough data, but needed to establish permits with mortality quota  o Issued one year permits (American tuna boat association permit) o Required on board observers in the US o Required porpoise safety panels-Medina panel o Back down procedures, strictly enforced-all live animals must be released o All live animals release had no consideration of the status and health of the animal 1975 o 95% of the dolphins release successfully back down 1977 o Issued three year general permits with annual dolphin mortality quotas 1982 1984-annual quota of 20,500 o 1980 US fleet= 94 vessels o 1984 US fleet= 44 vessels 1981 o Research-separate dolphins from tuna, technology to locate large tuna, without dolphins, fishing gear, other than purse seines 1984 to 1986 o Closed fishery once quota was reached o Required nations importing tuna into US to follow rules o Including intermediary nations o Must take onboard observers if requested 1992 o Move towards moratorium to hold other countries accountable 1990 US Dolphin Protection Consume Information act: o Empower the consumer o Dolphin safe certification program o Three major US canners ceased purchase of tuna caught by in circling dolphins o Misleading laws-not a lot of regulation, label can be misleading. o Label due to no dead dolphins being caught, but didn’t mean that live dolphins were not caught and released Dolphin safe fishing not safe for all animals o currently, most marine mammals scientist, no longer considered dolphin mortality to be biologically significant to dolphins Dolphin-set School-set Log-set/FAD-set Set Around dolphins Around tuna school Around driftwood Dolphin bycatch High Very low Very low Tuna bycatch Low (200 lbs) High (2000lbs) Very high (20,000lbs) Shark, billfish, sea Low High High turtle bycatch Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) A defined region designated and managed for long-term conservation of marine resources, ecosystem services, or cultural heritage Nearly 1000 MPAs within US coastal, oceanic, and great lakes (including national Marine, sanctuaries and marine national monuments, national parks, national wildlife refugees, state parks, locally protected areas) 1. Conservation focus-influences many fundamental aspects of site, including its design, location, size, scale, management strategies, and potential contribution to surrounding ecosystems a. Addresses one or more conservation focuses i. Natural heritage (most national Marine, national parks, national wildlife refugees, and many state and MPAs) b. Cultural heritage (some designated areas given to maintain group and societies that are of indigenous communities and cultural values) 2. Level of protection- MPAs fairies widely in level and type of legal. Six levels of protection for management zones, and MPA. 3. Permanence of protection- not all MPAs are permanent protected in sight differ, and how long the protections remain in effect a. Permanent: MPA or zones who is legal authorities, provide some level of protection in sight for generation after generation unless reversed by legislation b. Conditional: Finite duration of the zones, but can persist administratively overtime 4. Constance of protection- not all MPAs provide year-round protection to the protected habitat and resources a. Year round- MPA or zones that provide constant protection to the site throughout the year (national park, refugees, monuments, and sanctuaries) b. Seasonal: MPA is or zones that protect specific habitats and resources, but only during a fixed season or periods where human uses may disrupt,  ecological sensitive seasonal processes such as spawning, breeding, or feeding aggregations. 5. Scale or protection-MPAs very in the ecological scale of protection they provide, conservation targets can range from entire ecosystems in their bio physical processes to focal habitats, species, or other resources deemed to be of economic or ecological importance. a. Ecosystem: intended to protect all components and processes of the ecosystem within its boundaries b. Focal resource: specifically target a particular habitat, species complex, or single resource. Global MPAs MPAs can be found across the world and can very in classification type and restrictions. Global MPAs our guided by principles established by the IUCN *CASE STUDY* Vaquita: smallest porpoise in the world Prey: small fish, crustaceans, squids, octopuses Behavior: shy travel in pairs Habitat: endemic to northern Gulf of California Reproduction: sexual maturity 3-6 years, 1-2 year interbirth interval, 1 calf at a time (10-11 month gestation) Population: about 10 Not doomed to inbreeding depression due to a long history of smaller populations Threats: Entanglement in fishery gillnets for totoaba fish Totoaba: Harvested for swim bladder Delicacy/medicinall in china  1kg=$80,000 Gillnets used since 1930s originally for sharks and totoaba – then for other species Illegal poaching Major contributor of income, employment, cultural identity, social, relevance, and food security in coastal communities Conservation and management: Conservation Timeline 1958 Vaquita discovered 1975 Gillnets banned in Vaquita hot spots 1977 Listed under CITES Appendix 1 1985 Listed under US ESA 1993 Biosphere Reserve established 1994 Listed on Mexican list of species 1997 Mexico created international committee for the recovery of the Vaquita (CIRVA) 1997 1st population estimate:567 2005 Vaquita refuge created 2007-2018 Mexican investment in a variety of conservation strategire 2017 Vaquita CPR 2019 Survey found 10 individuals (3 calves) Conservation Challenges: Perspectives: Local community and fishers in Mexico o Misinformation o Money from illegal trade is substantial o Limited/corrupt enforcement o Criminal involvement o Livelihoods Consumes in China o Chinese Bahama criticallly endangered for harvesting swim bladders tured to Totoaba o Medicinal properties “thought to help” ease joint pain, pregnant pain, and boost fertility International trade and trafficking o U.S. started commercial fishing in 1920 o U.S. main exporter of swim bladders o Need DNA sequencing to tell if totoaba o US (2018) Banned importation and fish product caught in gillnets in Vaquita range Mexican investments: Vaquita conservation program for sustainable development in 2007 Action program fo the conservation of species (2008-2015) Plan for the comprehensive care of the Upper Gulf of California (2015) Government of Mexico declared extraction of endanger species a criminal felony 2017 Mexican involvement (2018-present) New administration-compensation stopped to fishers Efforts to remove active and abandoned gillnets between conservation groups, local fishers, and Mexican Navy Administration published agreement and guidelines for Vaquita protection in 2020 o Ban Gillnets o Require fishers to surrender nets within 60 days  o Mandatory inspections on all boats and every trip o Specific zone rules for zero tolerance area Weakness: IUU (Illegal, underreported, Underregulated) fishing: o Failure to embrace long-term investment necessary for successful community engagement and economic development o failure to consider consequences of conservation policy on local communities o Lack of inter don’t understand-agency and limited institutional capacity o Lack of enforcement o Weak fisheries management o Corruption, inequality, impoverishment, and crime o Pressure from outside Mexico-demand from international markets Other conservation strategies Research on population and threats Education and outreach Remove nets from ocean- using concrete blocks with hooks Create blue labels for seafood Totoaba aquaculture Attempted to capture house Vaquitas in managed care Strengthen fisheries management with clear definition of access rights and provide rights relative to level of impact from restrictions Improve enforcement and coordination agencies Build solutions with communities Invest in human capital and educational and business opportunities Cautiously use market tool to reduce demand Invest in economic opportunities that counter attraction of illegal activities