Terms Used in Social Psychology.docx

Terms Used in Social Psychology Presented to: Mr. E. Fagon Lecturer Presented by: Psychiatric Nursing Group 1 Date: February 22, 2024 Objectives At the end of this presentation participants will be able to: 1. State what the other name is for fundamental attribution error. 2. State the differences b...

Terms Used in Social Psychology Presented to: Mr. E. Fagon Lecturer Presented by: Psychiatric Nursing Group 1 Date: February 22, 2024 Objectives At the end of this presentation participants will be able to: 1. State what the other name is for fundamental attribution error. 2. State the differences between the types of Hypotheses. 3. State the differences between Illusion of control and Illusion of transparency. 4. Define the term Informed consent. 5. Explain the difference between door-in-the-face technique and foot- in-the-door Fundamental Attribution Error According to Mcleod (2023) Fundamental attribution error (also known as correspondence bias or over attribution effect) is the tendency for people to overemphasize dispositional or personality-based explanation for behaviors observed in others while, underestimating the situation possibly associated with it. In other words, it is assumed that a person's action depends on what "kind" of person he or she is rather than on the social and environmental forces that influence the person. Group Polarization According to the American Psychological Association (2018) it is the tendency for members of a group discussing an issue to move toward a more extreme version of the positions they held before the discussion began. As a result, the group as a whole tends to respond in more extreme ways than one would expect given the sentiments of the individual members prior to deliberation. Hindsight Bias It is a psychological phenomenon that allows people to convince themselves after an event that they accurately predicted it before it happened. The tendency of overestimating one's ability to have foreseen the outcome of an event such as an experiment, a sporting event, or a military decision upon learning an outcome. Hindsight bias is colloquially known as the "I knew it all along phenomenon."   Hypothesis is a tentative statement or explanation that proposes a possible relationship between variables and is subjected to testing and verification It is a mere assumption or supposition which are to be proved or disproved It is essentially an educated guess Example 1. If we increase the amount of light during studying then the participants performance on the test scores will increase 2 If you stay up late then you will feel tired in the morning Types of Hypotheses Simple Hypothesis a. This shows relationship between one independent and one dependent variables Example: If you eat more vegetables, you will lose weight faster Complex Hypothesis a. This shows the relationship between two or more independent and two or more dependent variables Examples: Eating more vegetables, fruits and exercise daily leads to weight loss glowing skin and minimize risk of heart attack Illusion of Control Illusion of control describes how we believe we have greater control over events than we actually do. Even when something is a matter of random chance, we often feel like we're able to influence it in some way.. This cognitive bias is closely related to superstition and ritualistic behaviors. Example- You're going to watch your favorite football team with friends and you wear your lucky jersey because you believe it will increase the team's chance of winning. HEY LET'S Go THE MATCH TO STARTING JUST A MINUTE I NEED TO PUT ON MY LUCKY SOCKS I CAN'T WIN WITHOUT IT! Illusion of Transparency Is a cognitive bias that causes people to overestimate the degree to which their thoughts and emotions are apparent to others People who are feeling emotional distress assume that their distress is more obvious to others than it is in reality. Sheldon, K. M. (1999) Individuals experiencing this cognitive bias tend to believe that their internal experiences are more visible to others than they actually are Example-The illusion of transparency can cause people who feel nervous about public speaking to overestimate the degree to which their nervousness is noticed by the audience how much you think people know about how you feel how much people actually know Illusory Correlation This is when we observe a relationship between two variables (events, acts, ideas, etc.) when there isn't one in reality. This phenomenon is known as illustrative correlation. Example: An individual carries his lucky pen to exam and expects to pass without studying the content of the exam. Immune Neglect This is the tendency to overlook coping strategies and other aspects of the "psychological immune system" that can reduce future distress (Gilbert et al., 1998). Wilson and Gilbert (2003) suggest that people neglect the speed and the power of their psychological immune system, which includes their strategies for: I. rationalizing II. discounting, forgiving III. limiting emotional trauma Being largely ignorant of our psychological immune system (a phenomenon Gilbert and Wilson call immune neglect), we adapt to disabilities, romantic breakups, exam failures, tenure denials, and personal and team defeats more readily than we would expect. Ironically, as Gilbert and his colleagues report (2004), major negative events (which activate our psychological defenses) can be less enduringly distressing than minor irritations (which don't activate our defenses). Example: Extreme sadness when your pet is sick then dies. Impact Bias According to Bo Bennett (2023) Impact Bias is the tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of emotional responses to future events. It depicts our tendency to underestimate our psychological resilience and forget the wide range of emotions we experience. Impact Bias can lead to poor decision making, as individuals might avoid beneficial actions due to overestimated negative emotional consequences, or pursue harmful ones because they overestimate the positive ones. Impact Bias for example would be in the case of Politics, someone might anticipate being forever distraught if their favored candidate doesn't win an election or someone expecting to be extremely lonely after a friend moves away, forgetting that they have the ability to make new connections. Individualism Individualism is the belief that each person is unique, with their own set of values, goals, aspirations. It emphasizes personal freedom and self- reliance, advocating that individuals should have liberty to shape their own paths. (Christensen. T, December 2023) Individualism Is a philosophy that views people first and foremost as distinctive individuals than members of a group. It emphasizes the importance of independence, individuality, and autonomy. (Carroll. P, Sanchez. D, 2022). It is a principle that guides many of our institutions (Callero, L.P. 2023). It affects the way we live our lives in numerous ways. For example, educational institutions from grade school to college are implemented to enhance individual achievement in a competitive system of evaluation. A Further example is how a person choose his/her own fashion style by not following the norm is lauded as an individualist. Informed Consent This is the process by which researchers working with human participants describe their research project and obtain the subjects' consent/permission to participate in the research based on the subjects' understanding of the project's methods and goals. (American Psychological Association, 2013). · Learned Helplessness This is the phenomenon that occurs when a series of negative outcomes or stressors cause someone to believe that the outcomes of life are out of one's control. (Nickerson Charlotte, 2023). They have "learned" that they are helpless in that situation and no longer try to change it, even when change is possible. For example, a smoker may repeatedly try and fail to quit. He may grow frustrated and come to believe that nothing he does will help, and therefore he stops trying altogether. Locus of Control This refers to the extent of which a person preserves the control they have over their own lives and actions as opposed to external contributions life. Internal Locus of Control refers to the perception that life is controlled solely by yourself. External Locus of Control refers to the perception that life is a collection of external factors such as destiny, or mere coincidence. (Lopez-Garrido, 2023) Internal Locus of Control I can determine my future! My passion and hard work hep I am in control of my life and destiny I make things happen External Locus of Control There is nothing I can do about my future. Why bother trying what ever is meant to happen will happen I go with the flow, luck, fate and religion control my future. Things happen to me trying? Matching Phenomenon Also referred to as Matching Hypothesis posits that persons will most likely be attracted to someone of a a desirability similar to their own. This is not limited to just physique but also extends to age, beauty and wealth. The theory was developed by Elaine Hatfield et. al. in 1966. Matching Phenomenon negates the adage: "opposites attract. Mere- Exposure Effect According to Cornell and Drew (2024), the Mere Exposure Effect is a psychological phenomenon, where people tend to develop a preference for things that they are exposed to repeatedly. The Mere exposure effect describes our tendencies to develop preferences for things simply because we are familiar with them. It is also known as the familiarity principle. Example: When you hear a song on the radio for the first time, you may dislike it. However, after you have listened to it many times, you may experience a shift in conscious cognition towards that song and actually enjoy it more. After a while, you might prefer the song or think of it as your favorite. The mere exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things that they are exposed to repeatedly. OVERVIEW The mere exposure effect suggests that repeated exposure to a stimulus, such as an advertisement, increases familiarity and influences people's preferences and attitudes toward that stimulus. This effect can occur even individuals are not consciously aware of the influence it has on their preferences. It is thought to stem from a cognitive bias where the brain perceives familiar things as safe. EXAMPLES Prominence of a Shop: People are likely to prefer a shop they see regularly on their route to work over a shop they rarely see, all else being equal. In Advertising: A key principle in advertising is that repeated exposure to a commercial increases liking of the product advertised, which then leads to increased sales. Mirror -Image Perception. This is the human tendency to see oneself (especially while in the throes of conflict) as the opposite of the person with whom they are having a conflict. They are mutual and reciprocal views of others. Example: Two neighbors are having an argument about some disruptive neighborhood problem. In this case, both neighbors may see themselves as the good and reasonable one while the other is disruptive and argumentative. Two groups at war may both simultaneously view themselves as the just, moral heroes in the scenario while viewing the others are amoral, cruel and evil. Discrimination Discrimination may be defined as an unfair or prejudicial treatment of people and groups based on characteristics such as race, gender, age, or sexual orientation. Discrimination can also be interpreted as a negative action towards an individual as a result of one's membership in a particular group (Allport, 1954; Dovidio & Gaertner, 2004). An example of same is the denial of acceptance to a group based on one's race. Discriminatory behavior can range from mild behavior such as avoidance to major violence including hate crimes. Frustration-Aggression Principle Frustration-aggression theory, more commonly known as the frustration-aggression hypothesis, ranks among the most seminal and prolific theories in research on aggression. This theory was conceptualized by Dollard et al. (1939) It outlines "that the occurrence of aggressive behavior always presupposes the existence of frustration and, contrariwise, that the existence of frustration always leads to some form of aggression". Frustration' is used to refer not only to the process of blocking a person's attainment of a reinforcer but also to the reaction to such blocking. Consequently, 'being frustrated' means both that one's access to reinforcers is being prevented by another party (or possibly by particular circumstances) and that one's reaction to this thwarting is one of annoyance. It was soon recognized that the initial claims that aggression is always based on frustration and that Miller (1941) was quick to retract the latter part of the proposal and it was rephrased to read "Frustration produces instigations to a number of different types of response, one of which is an instigation to some form of aggression". An example of this theory is being stuck in traffic on your way to an important meeting. As one becomes frustrated, they might start honking the horns aggressively or yelling at the driver, expressing their frustration in an aggressive manner. Door In The Face Technique This is a technique used to get compliance from others (to get them to behave in a way you want) in which a large request is made knowing it will probably be refused so that the person will agree to much smaller request. The real objective is to get the person to agree to the small request, which is made to seem very reasonable because it is compared to such a large, seemingly unreasonable request. In essence, the large request gets you the "door in the face" when you ask it. Example: When a friend ask to borrow a large sum of money from you to which you say no, only to ask for a smaller sum which you agree (APA, 2018). Sleeper Effect The sleeper effect is a delayed attitude change. Technically, the sleeper effect is a phenomenon where a message that you originally discount, because of a "discounting cue," becomes more persuasive over time. It happens like this: you hear something from a low-credible source, you dismiss the idea, but over time you start to believe it or become persuaded. This occurs when a persuasive message has an impact but is delayed until after sometimes it becomes more favorable, (Kleinnljenhuls, 2020). Example: A television commercial convincing persons to buy an item that is originally not appealing. Then after sometime you feel the need to get said item. Social Comparison Social Comparison Theory suggest that people value their own personal and social worth by assessing how they compare to others. Introduced by Len Fisher in 1954, the theory describes the comparison process people utilize to evaluate their action, accomplishment and opinions in contrast to those of other people. We compare ourselves to others in our social world whether by comparing our looks to those of celebrities we see in the media or our talents to those of our coworkers. Upward Social Comparison This takes place when we compare ourselves ourselves with those we believe are better than us, which focus on the desire to improve our current status or level ability. Social- Exchange Theory Social Exchange Theory is a concept based on the idea that social behavior is the result of an exchange process. According to this theory people weigh the potential benefit and risk of their social relationship. When the risk outway the reward they will terminate or abandon the relationship. This notion of social behavior was identified by American Sociologist George Homans in 1958. Cost versus Benefit. Cost involve things you see as negative,such as having to put money, time and effort into a relationship,example if you have a friend who always borrows from you and does not pay back. This is seen as a high cost.. Benefits are things you get out of the relationship,such as fun, friendship and companionship. Your friend might be a freeloader but brings a lot of fun and excitement to your life. Social Loafing It is identified as where individuals exert less effort when working in a group than feel they would if working alone. This happens because individuals in a group less responsible for the outcome and believe that their individual effort is not necessary for the group's success. Social loafing is often seen in situations where individuals are assigned individual tasks, but the overall outcome is determined by the collective effort of the group. Group process loss that occurs when people do not work as hard in a group as they do when they are alone. (Karau & Williams, 1993). When working alone, many people tend to put in more effort as against when working in a group.. Foot-in-the-door technique The phenomenon is the tendency for people to comply with a large request after first agreeing to a small request. As you can then imagine, the technique is used to get compliance from others (to get them to behave in a way you want) in which a small request is made first in order to get compliance for a larger request. This technique refers to a persuasion attempt in which we first get the target to accept a rather minor request, and then we ask for a larger request. Freedman an Fraser (1966). For example Mary ask a taxi driver for a lift to Cross Roads from Hal- Way Tree. The driver says yes, then Mary requests to be taken Downtown instead.