English (Secondary) - Theme 46 - BOE 1993 - PDF

# Inglés (Secundaria), Tema 46 (BOE 1993) ## Ecoem Formación - Curso 2023/2024 ## 46 **LA CONFIGURACIÓN HISTÓRICA DE LOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DE AMÉRICA: DE LA INDEPENDENCIA A LA GUERRA DE SECESIÓN. NOVELAS DE REFERENCIA: THE SCARLET LETTER, THE RED BADGE OF COURAGE.** ## IGST46 ## A. READER ### 1. IN...

# Inglés (Secundaria), Tema 46 (BOE 1993) ## Ecoem Formación - Curso 2023/2024 ## 46 **LA CONFIGURACIÓN HISTÓRICA DE LOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DE AMÉRICA: DE LA INDEPENDENCIA A LA GUERRA DE SECESIÓN. NOVELAS DE REFERENCIA: THE SCARLET LETTER, THE RED BADGE OF COURAGE.** ## IGST46 ## A. READER ### 1. INTRODUCTION ### 2. THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE - **2.1. Backgrounds** - 2.1.1. The First Settlements - 2.1.2. The government of the colonies - **2.2. The war** ### 3. THE NEW FEDERATION ### 4. THE CIVIL WAR ### 5. REPRESENTATIVE NOVELS - **5.1. Nathaniel Hawthorne: The Scarlet Letter.** - 5.1.1. Plot Summary - 5.1.2. Structure - 5.1.3. Symbolism - 5.1.4. Themes - 5.1.5. Motifs - **5.2. Stephen Crane: The Red Badge of Courage.** - 5.2.1. Themes - 5.2.2. Motifs - 5.2.3. Symbols ### 6. DIDACTIC TRANSPOSITION ### 7. CONCLUSION ## B. REFERENCES ### 8. LEGISLATIVE REFERENCES. ### 9. BIBLIOGRAPHY ### 10. WEBLIOGRAPHY ## C. SUMMARY / CONCEPT MAP ### 11. SAMPLE SUMMARY. ### 12. CONCEPT MAP. # THE HISTORICAL CONFIGURATION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: FROM INDEPENDENCE TO THE CIVIL WAR. REFERENCE NOVELS: THE SCARLET LETTER, THE RED BADGE OF COURAGE. ## 1. INTRODUCTION. The USA started its consolidation as a nation after becoming independent from Britain on July the 4th, 1776. But the way towards complete emancipation and consolidation was not easy. America had to resolve the great differences among the states of the Union, especially those concerning the problem of slavery, which created great tension between the northern and the southern states leading to the secession of the latter in 1860 which precipitated the American Civil War in 1861. All these historical events, their causes and consequences are now going to be dealt with in depth with the purpose of giving an overview of the rise of the country. In the same way we will analyse, as a frame of reference of this time, two important novels: Hawthorne's _The Scarlet Letter_ and Stephen Crane's _Red Badge of Courage_. ## 2. THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. ### 2.1. BACKGROUNDS. ### 2.1.1. THE FIRST SETTLEMENTS. John Adams, second President of the United States, declared that the history of the American Revolution began as far back as 1620. "The Revolution," he said, "was effected before the war commenced. The Revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people.” The principles and passions that led the Americans to rebel ought, he added, "to be traced back for two hundred years and sought in the history of the country from the first plantation in America." The founding of Saint Augustine (in what is now Florida) by the Spanish in 1595 marked the beginning of European colonisation. England too became interested in colonising America and both countries became engaged in wars which ended with the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. After this Spanish defeat, the British gained naval supremacy in the Atlantic and with it the possibility of colonising North America. The first permanent English settlement in North America was Jamestown (1607) and the period known as The Colonial Period in North American history began. After this very first colony, others followed, most of them located on the north-east coast. These colonies were of two types and they remained so at the beginning of the 18th century: 1. Those created by religious dissenters, Puritans, who set up what is called the New England settlement. They first arrived in North America in 1620 on board the ship "Mayflower" on the coast of Massachusetts. Generally known (and revered by the Americans) as the Pilgrim Fathers, they were the first to immigrate in large numbers to North America. Those people were characterised by a very strict way of life based on religion, hard work, discipline, culture and education. 2. Those created by wealthy merchants interested in tobacco production. ### 2.1.2. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE COLONIES. Up to 1763, Great Britain had formulated no consistent policy for her colonial possessions and there was a general feeling of indifference towards the colonies' existence on the British part. The guiding principle was the confirmed mercantilist view that colonies should supply the mother country with raw materials and not compete in manufacturing. But this policy was poorly enforced, and the colonies had never thought of themselves as subservient. Rather, they considered themselves chiefly as commonwealths or states, much like England herself, having only a loose association with the authorities in London. **Mercantilism:** It can be defined as the economic policy of the commercial age preceding the Industrial Revolution. This policy was based on state intervention: the government encouraged domestic industry, regulated production, controlled trading companies, placed tariffs on the importation of merchandise from other countries and tried to find new places for raw materials and markets through colonialism. At infrequent intervals, sentiment in England was aroused and efforts were made by Parliament or the Crown to subordinate the economic activities and governments of the colonies to England's will and interest - efforts to which the majority of the colonists were opposed. The remoteness afforded by a vast ocean allayed fears of reprisal the colonies might otherwise have had. Added to this remoteness was the character of life itself in early America. From countries limited in space and dotted with populous towns, the settlers had come to a land of seemingly unending distance. On such a continent, natural conditions stressed the importance of the individual. The colonists -inheritors of the traditions of the Englishman's long struggle for political liberty -incorporated concepts of freedom into Virginia's first charter. This provided that English colonists were to exercise all liberties, franchises, and immunities "as if they had been abiding and born within this our Realm of England." They were, then, to enjoy the benefits of the _Magna Carta_ and the Common Law. **Magna Carta** (Latin for "Great Charter", literally "Great Paper"), also called Magna Carta Libertatum ("Great Charter of Freedoms"), is an English charter originally issued in 1215. Magna Carta was the most significant early influence on the long historical process that led to the rule of constitutional law today. It was originally created because of disagreements between Pope Innocent III, King John and his English barons about the rights of the King. Magna Carta required the king to renounce certain rights, respect certain legal procedures and accept that the will of the king could be bound by law. As a practical matter, however, the overt parting of the ways between England and America began in 1763, more than a century and a half after the founding of Jamestown. The colonies had grown vastly in economic strength and cultural attainment, and virtually all had long years of self-government behind them. Their combined population now exceeded 1,500,000 -a six-fold increase from 1700. The implications of the physical growth of the colonies were far greater than mere numerical increase would indicate. The 18th century brought a steady expansion from the influx of immigrants from Europe, and since the best land near the seacoast had already been occupied, new settlers had to push inland beyond the fall line of the rivers. Traders explored the back country, brought back tales of rich valleys, and induced farmers to take their families into the wilderness. Although their hardships were enormous, restless settlers kept coming, and by the 1730s frontiersmen had already begun to pour into the Shenandoah Valley. ## 2.2. THE WAR. After the Lexington confrontation, we find the 2nd Continental Congress (1775) also in Philadelphia. All the colonies sent representatives: Pennsylvania was represented by Benjamin Franklin, Virginia by Thomas Jefferson etc. In this Congress it was decided to create a continental Army commanded by Washington, and what was more important, Thomas Jefferson drafted the _Declaration of Independence_, based on the classical principles of Natural Law. He took ideas mainly from Locke and Rousseau. For many members of the Congress the Declaration was too progressive but they all finally signed the document. The name given to the 56 people who signed the Declaration was “The Founding Fathers.” The Declaration was amended by Congress, attested by its members and finally published on July the 4th, 1776. As a result of this document the colonies declared their independence from Britain, but they did not form a united country. The colonies remained independent from each other although they united to fight Great Britain. When war erupted in 1775, it seemed clear that Britain would win. It had a large, well-organised land army, and the Royal Navy was unmatched on the sea. Many of the British troops in the Revolutionary War were veterans who had fought in the French and Indian War. On the other hand, the Americans had only a collection of undisciplined militiamen who had never fought before. The American navy was small and no match for the thousand ships in the royal fleet. The state of the army did improve after George Washington whipped the Continental Army into a professional fighting force, but the odds still seemed heavily stacked in Britain's favour. Nonetheless, the Americans believed that they did have a strong chance of success. They had a lot at stake: unlike the British, they were fighting on their home turf to protect their own homes and families. Perhaps most important, they were also fighting a popular war-a majority of the colonists were patriots who strongly supported the fight for independence. Finally, though most Americans had no previous military experience, their militia units were usually close-knit bands of men, often neighbours, who served together in defence of their own homes. They elected their own officers usually men who did have some military training (Washington himself had fought in the Seven Years War) but who also knew the territory well. This native officer corps was a great source of strength, and as a result, American morale was generally higher than morale in the Royal Army. Geography also gave the Americans an advantage that proved to be a major factor in the war's outcome. To the British forces, the North American terrain was unusually rugged: New England was rocky and cold in winter, the South was boggy and humid in the summer, and the western frontier was almost impenetrable because of muddy roads and thick forests. In addition, because American settlements were spread out across a vast range of territory, the British had difficulty mounting a concentrated fight and transporting men and supplies. American troops, on the other hand, were used to the terrain and had little trouble. Finally, the distance between England and the United States put a great strain on Britain, which spent a great deal of time, energy, and money ferrying soldiers and munitions back and forth across the Atlantic. After numerous battles, the turning point in the war came in 1777 at the Battle of Saratoga in upstate New York. When American forces won, their victory encouraged France to pledge its support for the United States in the Franco-American Alliance of 1778. A year later, Spain followed suit and entered the war against Britain. Spain, hoping to see Britain driven out of North America, had tacitly supported the Americans by providing them with munitions and supplies since the beginning of the war. Their entry as combatants took pressure off the Americans, as Britain was forced to divert troops to fight the Spanish elsewhere. Finally, the Netherlands entered the war against Britain in 1780. Though the war went on for several years, American popular support for it, especially after France and Spain entered the fray, remained high. The motivation for rebellion remained strong at all levels of society, not merely among American military and political leaders. Many historians believe that it was this lasting popular support that ultimately enabled the United States to fight for so long. Although the United States did not really “win” the war -there were no clearly decisive battles either way— it was able to survive long enough against the British to come to an impasse. French and Spanish assistance certainly helped the Americans, but without the grassroots support of average Americans, the rebellion would have quickly collapsed. Meanwhile, support in England for the war was low. In Parliament, many Whigs (a group of British politicians representing the interests of religious dissenters, industrialists, and others who sought reform) denounced the war as unjust. Eight years of their carping, combined with the Royal Army's inability to win a decisive victory, fatigued the British cause and helped bring the Revolutionary War to an end. Fortified by the Franco-American Alliance, the Americans maintained an impasse with the British until 1781, when the Americans laid siege to a large encampment of British forces under Lord Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia. Scattered battles persisted until 1783, but the British, weary of the stalemate, decided to negotiate peace. The war came to an official close in September 1783, when Britain, the United States, France, and Spain negotiated the Peace of Paris. The treaty granted vast tracts of western lands to the Americans and recognized the United States as a new and independent country. The last British forces departed New York in November 1783, leaving the American government in full control of the new nation. The new nation did not acquire a written constitution until 1781, "The Articles of the Confederation", drafted by John Dickinson. Nevertheless the political weakness of these Articles pointed to a need of revision. Fifty-five men, representing all the states, except Rhode Island, met in the Philadelphia State House in May, 1787. They decided on a totally new document. They ended by drawing up a constitution. This same document, amended only occasionally, is still in use in the United States. There were much on which the delegates agreed: a written constitution, the separation of powers, the need for the federal government to be strong and to have the power to declare war and make peace and to tax and regulate commerce. The most serious disagreement was on the issue of representation. After a month's debate agreement was reached on “The Connecticut Compromise,” providing for equal representation of each state in the Senate, while maintaining the principle of representation by population in the House of Representatives. The important fact of how slaves were to be counted both for representation and for taxation ended in the “Three-fifths Compromise.” A slave was counted as three fifths of a person. It was also agreed that there would be no interference with the importation of slaves until 1808. The final document was not submitted directly to the people and contained no Bill of Rights. Indeed, to meet this criticism a Bill of Rights was added to it, in the shape of the first ten amendments, ratified in 1791. In other words, the Constitution was not perfect and a bitter Civil War was to be fought in 1861 over the interpretation of it. Yet it was a remarkable document. George Washington became the first elected President of the States. ## 3. THE NEW FEDERATION. The following years were characterised by a spirit of expansionism. The Republic bought new territories from other countries. From France they bought Louisiana (1803) and from Spain, Florida (1819). There was also a great movement of people towards the far west. The Pacific coast was reached in the year 1846 (California and Oregon). The Republic also gained new lands in the south-west from Mexico. First, the U.S. crushed the Mexican army in 1836 to force the independence of Texas. Then the U.S. annexed Texas and after another war against Mexico (1846) they obtained New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, Colorado and California. This period is considered the beginning of imperialist sentiment. An American journalist, in 1845, coined the expression “Manifest Destiny,” the certainty that the States would expand over the whole continent. The War of Independence also dramatised the economic importance of women. Women had always contributed indispensably to the operation of farms and often businesses, while seldom acquiring independent status; but, when war removed men from the locality, women often had to take full charge, which they proved they could do. Republican ideas spread among women, influencing discussion of women’s rights, education, and role in society. Some states modified their inheritance and property laws to permit women to inherit a share of estates and to exercise limited control of property after marriage. On the whole, however, the Revolution itself had only very gradual and diffused effects on women’s ultimate status. Such changes as took place amounted to a fuller recognition of the importance of women as mothers of republican citizens rather than making them into independent citizens of equal political and civil status with men. Agriculture remained an important industry in all sections, although a sectional division of labour became increasingly discernible at the era’s end, spurred by transportation and mechanical developments that permitted more productive areas to undersell their competitors even in the home markets of the latter. Nevertheless, New York and Pennsylvania in the Northeast and Kentucky and Tennessee in the South remained important producers of corn, wheat, and livestock even in the 1840s. The trend, however, was in the direction of specialisation. Cotton became king, not only in the South but in the nation as a whole, because its sale overseas brought in more money than the sale of all other products combined. The American Revolution was a great social upheaval but one that was widely diffused, often gradual, and different in different regions. The principles of liberty and equality stood in stark conflict with the institution of African slavery, which had built much of the country’s wealth. One gradual effect of this conflict was the decline of slavery in all the Northern states; another was a spate of manumissions (freeing) by liberal slave owners in Virginia. But with most slave owners, especially in South Carolina and Georgia, ideals counted for nothing. Throughout the slave states, the institution of slavery came to be reinforced by a doctrine of racial inferiority, which proved hard to dispel. Although the manumissions did result in the development of new communities of free blacks, who enjoyed considerable freedom of movement for a few years, in the 1790s the condition of free blacks deteriorated as states adopted laws restricting their activities, residences, and economic choices. They came to occupy poor neighbourhoods and grew into a permanent underclass, denied education or opportunity. But the problem of slavery still continued and a balance had to be found between the states which permitted slavery and those which did not. For a long time there was the same number of states which permitted slavery and those that did not. But after a few years the balance disappeared because the number of states against slavery increased. This fact provoked a strong division in the Union. Partial solutions were found in the _Missouri Compromise_ and later on in the _Compromise of 1850_, but they pleased neither side. The increasing emotional impact of slavery was well demonstrated by the phenomenal success of Stowe’s novel _Uncle Tom’s Cabin_, published in 1852. It was a melodramatic depiction of slave life that stirred up millions of northern citizens. At this time there were about 3 million slaves in the country, and the number increased every year. Rebellions against slavery started to rise. Also in the North some abolitionist groups appeared; very often these people helped slaves to escape to the North and even to Africa (Liberia). ## 4. THE CIVIL WAR. In 1860 there was no solution. After the victory of Lincoln the southern states decided to separate from the Union. South Carolina was the first one and it was followed by another 6 states: Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas. Feeble efforts on the part of Buchanan’s administration to check secession failed, and one by one most of the federal forts in the Southern states were taken over by secessionists. Meanwhile, strenuous efforts in Washington to work out another compromise failed. (The most promising plan was John. J. Crittenden’s proposal to extend the Missouri Compromise line, dividing free from slave states, to the Pacific.). Neither extreme Southerners, now intent upon secession, nor Republicans, intent upon reaping the rewards of their hard-won election victory, were really interested in compromise. On Feb. 4, 1861, a month before Lincoln could be inaugurated in Washington, six Southern states (South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana) sent representatives to Montgomery, Ala., to set up a new independent government. Delegates from Texas soon joined them. With Jefferson Davis of Mississippi at its head, the _Confederate States of America_ came into being, set up its own bureaus and offices, issued its own money, raised its own taxes, and flew its own flag. They wrote a conservative constitution to make slavery legal and to defend their own rights and they elected a new president. Not until May 1861, after hostilities had broken out and Virginia had seceded, did the new government transfer its capital to Richmond. Lincoln when inaugurated was prepared to conciliate the South in every way but one: he would not recognize that the Union could be divided. The test of his determination came early in his administration, when he learned that the Federal troops under Major Robert Anderson in Fort Sumter, S.C., then one of the few military installations in the South still in Federal hands, had to be promptly supplied or withdrawn. After agonized consultation with his Cabinet, Lincoln determined that supplies must be sent even if doing so provoked the Confederates into firing the first shot. On April 12, 1861, just before Federal supply ships could reach the beleaguered Anderson, Confederate guns in Charleston opened fire upon Fort Sumter, and the war began. ## 5. REPRESENTATIVE NOVELS. ### 5.1. NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE: THE SCARLET LETTER. Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-64) was born in Salem, Massachusetts. He came from a Puritan background. He suffered much guilt and shame on account of this background and this is reflected in his works in which he attacks the rigours of Puritanism. In 1821 he entered Bowdoin College and probably began his first novel, _Fanshawe_, there. After he graduated, he came back to Salem where he continued to write and in 1828 he published _Fanshawe_ anonymously and at his own expense. He later regretted this and tried to destroy as many copies as he could find. Subsequently he could not find a publisher for his first collection of stories _Seven Tales of my Native Land_, and, in frustration, he burnt the manuscript. In 1837, a friend helped him to publish _Twice Told Tales_. This was better received and sold a thousand copies in the first year. He married in 1842 and worked as a measurer of salt and coal in the Boston Custom House. He went on writing during these years, although the family was plagued by poverty. It was during this period of hardship that he wrote _The Scarlet Letter_ (1850) which brought him almost immediate recognition as one of America’s famous writers. It is Hawthorne’s first major work and was to become a classic. Since 1850, critics have repeatedly proclaimed its greatness. Its symbolism has been proved by countless interpreters. Its moral implications have been wrung out by hundreds of commentators. #### 5.1.1. PLOT SUMMARY. Hester Prynne is a woman who lives at a Puritan village in New England. She commits adultery with a Puritan minister called Arthur Dimmesdale although his name is kept on silence. They have a child, Pearl. The Puritan society punishes her, forcing her to wear a scarlet letter "A" on her bosom. Hester’s husband, Chillingworth, returning after a time as a captive of the Indians, seeks revenge on the minister mainly by causing him psychological damage. Dimmesdale finally dies in Hester’s arms after having confessed his sin. She and her daughter leave New England, but after a few years Hester comes back as she realises it is her place. #### 5.1.2. STRUCTURE. 1. **Chapters 1‐8:** It establishes the context (Puritan Community of colonial Boston) and the main characters (Hester Prynne, Pearl, Dimmesdale and Chillingworth) are introduced. 2. **Chapters 9‐12:** Chillingworth, who suspects the minister (Dimmesdale) to be Pearl’s father, torments him to force a confession. 3. **Chapters 13‐19:** Hester tries to prevent Dimmesdale from Chillingworth evil intentions by proposing him to escape with her and the girl. 4. **Chapters 20‐24:** Conclusions are drawn: Dimmesdale confesses and dies; Chillingworth also dies; Pearl gets married; Hester wears the letter until her death. #### 5.1.3. SYMBOLISM. 1. **The Scarlet Letter.** The main symbol that a reader can appreciate in the novel is the letter "A". It stands for Adultery in its most obvious appreciation. But Hawthorne uses this letter as a whole symbolic set of options. What is considered as a stigma of shame by society, Hester is able to transform into a sign of beauty. In the same way as she transforms the living symbol of the letter A, Pearl, into a thing of beauty by her elegant dress. To the girl, Pearl, the scarlet letter A on her mother’s breast stands for Arthur. It stands for the missing part of her family, her earthly father. She becomes attached to the symbol. To Dimmesdale, “A” is the symbol of his sin and becomes a real stigma on himself. There is also a symbolic contrast between man’s law and Natural law. Hawthorne presents a woman who has sinned against man’s law but not against Natural law. And so, natural elements are associated with some scenes to highlight the dichotomy. Hawthorne is very anxious to associate the natural and sympathetic rosebush outside the prison with the victim of Puritanical prejudice and hatred, Anne Hutchinson. After this elaborate preparation, the reader is ready for Hawthorne’s manipulation of the sunshine in the forest in chapters XVII and XVIII. Hester and Arthur meet in the forest (Nature, it must be remembered, was the source of temptation and evil for the Calvinist) and reassert their love for each other. As Hester removes the stigma that society has placed on her, Nature responds with a blessing on the couple in the form of a flood of sunshine. 2. **The Meteor**. As Dimmesdale stands on the scaffold with Hester and Pearl in Chapter XII, a meteor traces out an “A” in the night sky. To Dimmesdale, the meteor implies that he should wear a mark of shame just as Hester does. The meteor is interpreted differently by the rest of the community, which thinks that it stands for “Angel” and marks Governor Winthrop’s entry into heaven. But “Angel” is an awkward reading of the symbol. The Puritans commonly looked to symbols to confirm divine sentiments. In this narrative, however, symbols are taken to mean what the beholder wants them to mean. The incident with the meteor obviously highlights and exemplifies two different uses of symbols: Puritan and literary. 3. **Pearl**. Although Pearl is a complex character, her primary function within the novel is as a symbol. Pearl is a sort of living version of her mother’s scarlet letter. She is the physical consequence of sexual sin and the indicator of a transgression. Yet, even as a reminder of Hester’s “sin,” Pearl is more than a mere punishment to her mother: she is also a blessing. She represents not only “sin” but also the vital spirit and passion that engendered that sin. Thus, Pearl’s existence gives her mother reason to live, bolstering her spirits when she is tempted to give up. It is only after Dimmesdale is revealed to be Pearl’s father that Pearl can become fully “human.” Until then, she functions in a symbolic capacity as the reminder of an unsolved mystery. 4. **The Rosebush Next to the Prison Door**. The narrator chooses to begin his story with the image of the rosebush beside the prison door. The rosebush symbolizes the ability of nature to endure and outlast man’s activities. Yet. paradoxically, it also symbolises the futility of symbolic interpretation: the narrator mentions various significances that the rosebush might have, never affirming or denying them, never privileging one over the others #### 5.1.4. THEMES. 1. **Sin, Knowledge, and the Human Condition**. Sin and knowledge are linked in the Judeo-Christian tradition. The Bible begins with the story of Adam and Eve, who were expelled from the Garden of Eden for eating from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. As a result of their knowledge, Adam and Eve are made aware of their humanness, that which separates them from the divine and from other creatures. Once expelled from the Garden of Eden, they are forced to toil and to procreate—two “labours" that seem to define the human condition. The experience of Hester and Dimmesdale recalls the story of Adam and Eve because, in both cases, sin results in expulsion and suffering. But it also results in knowledge-specifically, in knowledge of what it means to be human. For Hester, the scarlet letter functions as "her passport into regions where other women dared not tread," leading her to "speculate" about her society and herself more “boldly” than anyone else in New England. As for Dimmesdale, the "burden" of his sin gives him "sympathies so intimate with the sinful brotherhood of mankind, so that his heart vibrate[s] in unison with theirs.” His eloquent and powerful sermons derive from this sense of empathy. Hester and Dimmesdale contemplate their own sinfulness on a daily basis and try to reconcile it with their lived experiences. The Puritan elders, on the other hand, insist on seeing earthly experience as merely an obstacle on the path to heaven. Thus, they view sin as a threat to the community that should be punished and suppressed. Their answer to Hester’s sin is to ostracise her. Yet, Puritan society is stagnant, while Hester and Dimmesdale’s experience shows that a state of sinfulness can lead to personal growth, sympathy, and understanding of others. Paradoxically, these qualities are shown to be incompatible with a state of purity. 2. **The Nature of Evil**. The characters in the novel frequently debate the identity of the "Black Man," the embodiment of evil. Over the course of the novel, the "Black Man" is associated with Dimmesdale, Chillingworth, and Mistress Hibbins, and little Pearl is thought by some to be the Devil’s child. The characters also try to root out the causes of evil: did Chillingworth’s selfishness in marrying Hester force her to the “evil” she committed in Dimmesdale’s arms? Is Hester and Dimmesdale’s deed responsible for Chillingworth’s transformation into a malevolent being? This confusion over the nature and causes of evil reveals the problems with the Puritan conception of sin. The book argues that true evil arises from the close relationship between hate and love. As the narrator points out in the novel’s concluding chapter, both emotions depend upon “a high degree of intimacy and heart-knowledge; each renders one individual dependent ... upon another.” Evil is not found in Hester and Dimmesdale’s lovemaking, nor even in the cruel ignorance of the Puritan fathers. Evil, in its most poisonous form, is found in the carefully plotted and precisely aimed revenge of Chillingworth, whose love has been perverted. Perhaps Pearl is not entirely wrong when she thinks Dimmesdale is the “Black Man,” because her father, too, has perverted his love. Dimmesdale, who should love Pearl, will not even publicly acknowledge her. His cruel denial of love to his own child may be seen as further perpetrating evil. 3. **Identity and Society**. After Hester is publicly shamed and forced by the people of Boston to wear a badge of humiliation, her unwillingness to leave the town may seem puzzling. She is not physically imprisoned, and leaving the Massachusetts Bay Colony would allow her to remove the scarlet letter and resume a normal life. Surprisingly, Hester reacts with dismay when Chillingworth tells her that the town fathers are considering letting her remove the letter. Hester’s behavior is premised on her desire to determine her own identity rather than to allow others to determine it for her. To her, running away or removing the letter would be an acknowledgment of society’s power over her: she would be admitting that the letter is a mark of shame and something from which she desires to escape. Instead, Hester stays, refiguring the scarlet letter as a symbol of her own experiences and character. Her past sin is a part of who she is; to pretend that it never happened would mean denying a part of herself. Thus, Hester very determinedly integrates her sin into her life. Dimmesdale also struggles against a socially determined identity. As the community’s minister, he is more symbol than human being. Except for Chillingworth, those around the minister willfully ignore his obvious anguish, misinterpreting it as holiness. Unfortunately, Dimmesdale never fully recognizes the truth of what Hester has learned: that individuality and strength are gained by quiet self-assertion and by a reconfiguration, not a rejection, of one’s assigned identity. #### 5.1.5. MOTIFS. 1. **Civilisation versus the Wilderness.** In _The Scarlet Letter_, the town and the surrounding forest represent opposing behavioural systems. The town represents civilisation, a rule-bound space where everything one does is on display and where transgressions are quickly punished. The forest, on the other hand, is a space of natural rather than human authority. In the forest, society’s rules do not apply, and alternate identities can be assumed. While this allows for misbehaviour- Mistress Hibbins’s midnight rides, for example-it also permits greater honesty and an escape from the repression of Boston. When Hester and Dimmesdale meet in the woods, for a few moments, they become happy young lovers once again. Hester’s cottage, which, significantly, is located on the outskirts of town and at the edge of the forest, embodies both orders. It is her place of exile, which ties it to the authoritarian town, but because it lies apart from the settlement, it is a place where she can create for herself a life of relative peace. 2. **Night versus Day.** By emphasising the alternation between sunlight and darkness, the novel organises the plot’s events into two categories: those which are socially acceptable, and those which must take place covertly. Daylight exposes an individual’s activities and makes him or her vulnerable to punishment. Night, on the other hand, conceals and enables activities that would not be possible or tolerated during the day-for instance, Dimmesdale’s encounter with Hester and Pearl on the scaffold. These notions of visibility versus concealment are linked to two of the book’s larger themes-the themes of inner versus socially assigned identity and of outer appearances versus internal states. Night is the time when inner natures can manifest themselves. During the day, interiority is once again hidden from public view, and secrets remain secrets. 3. **Evocative Names.** The names in this novel often seem to beg to be interpreted allegorically. Chillingworth is cold and inhuman and thus brings a “chill” to Hester’s and Dimmesdale’s lives. "Prynne” rhymes with “sin,” while "Dimmesdale" suggests "dimness"-weakness, indeterminacy, lack of insight, and lack of will, all of which characterise the young minister. The name "Pearl" evokes a biblical allegorical device the "pearl of great price" that is salvation. This system of naming lends a profundity to the story, linking it to other allegorical works of literature such as Pilgrim’s Progress and to portions of the Bible. It also aligns the novel with popular forms of narrative such as fairy tales. We can conclude by saying that _The Scarlet Letter_ is a story of sin and sinners. In Hester Prynne we see the sin of adultery, an outrage to Human’s Law severely punished in that Puritan society that Hawthorne criticises, but not to Natural Law according to the symbolism the author depicts; in Dimmesdale we find the sin of Hypocrisy that he finally tries to redeem through public confession but only when is about to die. Chillingworth, the outraged husband, stands in his isolating sin of pride and self-consuming revenge. ### 5.2. STEPHEN CRANE: THE RED BADGE OF COURAGE. Crane, a native of Newark, New Jersey, attended Lafayette College and Syracuse University (a year each) before moving to New York City, where he earned a meagre living as a free-lance reporter. His first novel, _Maggie: A Girl of the Streets_ (1893), was published with money borrowed from his brother, and was a financial failure, but it did impress Hamlin Garland, who brought it to the attention of William Dean Howells. Crane’s masterpiece, _The Red Badge of Courage_, was published in 1895. Because of its brilliant depiction of war, Crane found himself in demand as a war correspondent. Returning from an assignment in Cuba, Crane was shipwrecked, an experience that resulted in "The Open Boat" (1897), but his health was broken, and he died before his twenty-ninth birthday. Crane intended _The Red Badge of Courage_ to be a "Psychological portrayal of fear", and reviewers rightly praised the psychological realism. It was the first non-romantic novel of the Civil War to attain widespread popularity. This novel turned the tide of the prevailing convention about war fiction and established a new one. War was a theme that had been hardly treated hitherto by the American realists. Its horror and enormity had made war a major topic for the modern movement, together with the fact that in the 20th century a great many men had experience of it. The Civil War fascinated this generation, it was their war. Moreover, it was a modern war, a war mainly of civilians, not professionals; a war that was photographed, that