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The Contemporary World (TCWN01A) Socio-Cultural and Technological Globalization Global Media Culture Global Media Cultures explores the relationship between the media, culture and globalization. This topic approaches part and current challenges concerning international communic...

The Contemporary World (TCWN01A) Socio-Cultural and Technological Globalization Global Media Culture Global Media Cultures explores the relationship between the media, culture and globalization. This topic approaches part and current challenges concerning international communication and explores and problematizes the power of media representation. Globalization and media have created the conditions through which many people can now imagine themselves as part of one world. It creates a continuous cultural exchange, in which crucial aspects such as identity, nationality, religion, behavioral norms and way of life are continuously questioned and challenged. Media Culture - take part in the process of globalization, including how they challenge existing cultures and create new and alternative symbolic and cultural communities. Media - Media are the communication outlets or tools used to store and deliver information or data. The term refers to components of the mass media communications industry, such as print media, publishing, the news media, photography, cinema, broadcasting, and advertising (Oyero, 2019). Media provides an extensive transnational transmission of cultural products. Media also contributes to the formation of communicative networks and social structures. Evolution of Media Cave Paintings Oral Communications Scripts Print Media Electronic Media Digital Media The media have a very important impact on cultural globalization in two mutually interdependent ways: Firstly, the media provide an extensive transnational transmission of cultural products and, secondly, they contribute to the formation of communicative networks and social structures. The rapidly growing supply of media products form an international media culture presents a challenge to existing local and national cultures. The sheer volume of the supply, as well as the vast technological infrastructure and financial capital that pushes this supply forward, have a considerable impact on local patterns of cultural production. Global media cultures create a continuous cultural exchange, in which crucial aspects such as identity, nationality, religion, behavioral norms and way of life are continuously questioned and challenged. These cultural encounters often involve the meeting of cultures with a diQerent socio-economic base, typically a transnational and commercial cultural industry on one side and a national, publicly regulated cultural industry on the other side. Due to their very structure, global media promote a restructuring of cultural and social communities. The media such as the press, and later radio and tv have been very important institutions for the formation of national communities. Global media support the creation of new communities. The Internet, for example, not only facilitates communication across the global, but also supports the formation of new social communities in which members can interact with each other. And satellite tv and radio allow immigrants to be in close contact with their homeland’s language and culture while they gradually accommodate to a new cultural environment. The common point of departure is the assumption that a series of international media constitutes a global cultural supply in itself and serves as an independent agency for cultural and social globalization, in which cultural communities are continuously restructures and redefined. In other words, media cultures take part in the process of globalization, including how they challenge existing cultures and create new and alternative symbolic and cultural communities. Types of Media There are two general types of media: personal media and mass media. Personal media is any form of media designed for use by a specific person. It can also denote person-to-person communications, such as speech, gestures, mail, etc. The earliest forms of personal media (speech and gestures) had the benefit of being easy-to-use and not needing technology. Mass media is any form of media designed for use by large sets of people. Broadcast media and print media are very common examples of mass media. Compared to personal media, mass media usually involves the use of relatively complex technologies. The diQerence between personal media and mass media (as defined by Globalization101) boils down to its intended audience. If the intended audience is a single person or a very small group of specific people, it is personal. If the intended audience is a large group of unspecific people, it is mass media. The Global Imaginary and Global Village Through media, the people of the world get to know the world. That is, people have need to be truly imagine the world, and imagine themselves acting in the world for globalization to proceed. With this, on 2008, Manfred Steger came up with the concept, a rising global imaginary – the globe itself as an imagined community. Some people in the past thought themselves as cosmopolitan citizens of the world. Now, cosmopolitan is a feature of modern life. Steger insists that in order to understand and solve the great global problems of our time, we must first understand the “global imaginary” and all that it represents. Marshall McLuhan (1964) anticipated this phenomenon with this argument that media have connected the world in ways that create a global village. The global village would bring about a utopia. The term global village has been used to express the idea that people throughout the world are interconnected through the use of new media technologies. Today, the Web is often seen as the medium that most closely joins people throughout the globe, allowing anyone with an Internet connection to know what is going on around the world with the click of a mouse -- and to communicate with individuals and groups of people in faraway places. Dynamics of Global and Local Cultural Products Global products are those products that are marketed internationally under the same brand name, features, and specifications across countries. Local cultural products are goods and services such as arts, literatures, architectures, museums, movies, music, etc. that showcase the history and information which belong to the country’s cultural heritage. Global flows of culture tend to move more easily around the globe than ever before, especially through non-material digital forms. There are three perspectives on global cultural flows. These are cultural diQerentialism, hybridization, and homogeneity. Cultural DiQerentialism emphasizes the fact that cultures are essentially diQerent and are only superficially aQected by global flows. It also Involves barriers that prevent flows that serve to make cultures more aline; cultures tend to remain stubbornly diQerent from one another. One good example of cultural diQerentialism is the terrorist attacks on 9/11 and the subsequent wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. To many people, these events are seen as the product of a clash between Western and Islamic culture and the eternal diQerences between them. This is significant because the concept of cultural diQferentialism emphasizes lasting diQerences among and between cultures largely unaQected by globalization or any trans-cultural flows. As seen in the example, clashing cultures can have a huge impact on both cultures, countries and the entire world. Cultural Hybridization is a process by which a cultural element blends into another culture by modifying the element to fit cultural norms. It is actually an integration of local and global cultures. A key concept is “glocalization” or the interpenetration of the global and local resulting in unique outcomes in diQerent geographic areas. Cultural homogeneity refers to a sense of pride and common background shared by individuals within a culture or nation, often leading to a higher level of unity and identification with the national identity. Teaching universal values such as rationality by mass schooling is a part of the positive benefits that can be generated from homogenization. International style is generally described as an example of cultural homogenization. Imperialism is extending a country’s power or influence commonly through colonization or military force. Imperialism can be defined as a doctrine, political strategy, practice, state policy, or advocacy that consists in extending power by territorial acquisition or by extending political and economic control outward over other areas. Cultural imperialism, on the other hand, is promoting or imposing one country’s culture over another. Cultural imperialism is a theory that describes the process by which a dominant culture exerts its influence on other cultures, often through mass media and other forms of communication. It involves the imposition of values, beliefs, and practices from the dominant culture onto others, often with the goal of assimilating or dominating those other cultures. The term is often associated with the spread of Western culture and values to non-Western societies, but it can also occur within a single country or region. Some critics argue that cultural imperialism leads to the erosion of local cultures and identities, and that it can perpetuate inequality and oppression. Others argue that it can bring economic benefits and technological advancements to less developed societies. Overall, cultural imperialism is a complex and controversial concept that has been widely studied and debated in the field of sociology. According to Ritzer, the McDonaldization of society is a phenomenon that occurs when society, its institutions, and its organizations are adapted to have the same characteristics that are found in fast-food chains. These include eQiciency, calculability, predictability and standardization, and control. McDonaldization is responsible for the popularity of the fast food culture all over the world. Globalization of Religion It refers to the process by which religious ideas, beliefs, practices, and organizations transcend geographical and cultural boundaries. This phenomenon is fueled by globalization's forces of interconnected economies, advanced communication technologies, migration, and cultural exchange. In this, the fundamental research question pertains to the spread of religions and specific genres or forms or blueprints of religious expression across the globe. Beyer (2006) proposes that the very notion of what constitutes a ‘religion’, as commonly understood, is the product of a long-term process of inter-civilizational or cross-cultural interactions. Religion denotes a set of common beliefs and practices pertaining to the supernatural (and its relationship to humanity and the cosmos). Religious beliefs and practices are often codified into prayer, ritual, scriptures, and religious law. Purpose of Religion Religion has many purposes but all of those can be categorized into a spiritual purpose or a practical purpose. The spiritual purpose of religion guides persons to become ideal persons based on the standards set by a religion. The practical purpose of religion provides social stability to large populations as well as a perspective for understanding the world around us better. Characteristics of Religion As to the Number of God/s 1. Monotheistic Religion - a belief system based on the belief in a single deity. 2. Polytheistic Religion - a belief system based on the belief in multiple deities. Monotheism is the belief or doctrine that there is one—and only one—god or deity. The term is often used as a general label for specific religions (such as Judaism) that fall into this category. However, it can also be used outside the context of specific religions. For example, a person who does not profess belief in a specific religion but who believes there is one god could be said to adhere to the doctrine of monotheism. A person who believes in only one god can be called a monotheist. The adjective form, monotheistic, is typically used in terms like monotheistic religions and monotheistic beliefs. Polytheism is the belief or doctrine that there are multiple gods or deities. Like monotheism, the word polytheism can be used in the context of specific religions (such as Hinduism) or outside of formal religion. A person who believes in multiple gods can be called a polytheist. The adjective form is polytheistic. As to the manner of converting people 1. Proselytizing Religion 2. Non-proselytizing Religion 3. Mixed Proselytizing Religion The word "proselytism" has changed meaning over time. It originally meant "a convert", but today it's generally seen as a negative activity. Many Christian groups, especially the Roman Catholic Church, distinguish between proselytizing and evangelizing. Evangelization is seen as the proclamation of Christ and the Gospel, while proselytizing is seen as the use of unethical methods. Proselytizing Religions Proselytizing religions actively seek to convert individuals to their faith. They often engage in missionary work and evangelism to spread their beliefs to non-believers. Examples of proselytizing religions include Christianity and Islam. Non-Proselytizing Religions Non-proselytizing religions do not actively seek to convert individuals to their faith. They typically do not engage in missionary work or evangelism. Instead, they focus on preserving and practicing their beliefs within their existing community. Examples of non-proselytizing religions include Judaism and some forms of traditional indigenous religions. Mixed Proselytism Religions Mixed proselytism religions exhibit elements of both proselytizing and non-proselytizing practices. They may have a history of missionary work and evangelism, but also emphasize the preservation and practice of their beliefs within their existing community. Buddhism and Hinduism are often considered mixed proselytism religions due to their varied approaches to spreading their teachings. Three Points of Religion Three important schools within this field are pluralism, inclusivism, and exclusivism. Each of them will be briefly examined here. Pluralism is basically the belief that the world religions are true and equally valid in their communication of the truth about God, the world, and salvation. The chief expounder of this view is John Hick of Claremont Graduate School in California, who first propounded it in his book God and the Universe of Faiths (1973). This is the popular view that all religions lead to the same God and all ways lead to heaven. According to Hick, Christianity is not the one and only way of salvation, but one among several. To a pluralist such as Hick, Christianity is not the absolute, unique, and final way to God. While pluralists assert the validity of all religions, they also deny the finality of all religions. According to Hick, in the evolutionary scheme of things in which at isolated ages and places the early religions are succeeded by higher religions, it is the same message of God that comes distinctly to a particular group but as diQerent from the others. Hick challenges the older view that Christ or Christianity must be seen at the center of religions. Rather, he says, God must be seen at the center of religions. The pluralistic contention is that all religions are fundamentally the same though superficially diQerent. Inclusivism is the belief that God is present in non-Christian religions to save the adherents through Christ. The inclusivist view has given rise to the concept of the anonymous Christian by which is understood an adherent of a particular religion whom God saves through Christ, but who personally neither knows the Christ of the Bible nor has converted to Biblical Christianity. This position was popularized by the Roman Catholic theologian, Karl Rahner (b. 1904). until its followers have a Christian witness it is a means by which non-Christians gain a right relationship with God. Also, the religion is included in God’s plan of salvation which God has ordained for the communication of His grace. Inclusivism has a great appeal to people because of its sympathetic approach to religion. However, it ignores the fact of ungodly elements within religions. It would only be a contradiction in terms to conceive of a God who reveals that he is against idolatry and at the same time assert that he saves a person in his worship of idols. Jesus said it is by knowing the truth that one is liberated. When the apostles spoke of salvation by the name of Jesus, they never meant that people could be saved within allegiance to the lordship of Jesus; on the contrary, they expressly meant that only by a voluntary submission to the Lord could one be saved. Exclusivism is the theological position that holds to the finality of the Christian faith in Christ. The finality of Christ means that there is no salvation in non-Christian religions. Notable among the exclusivists of this century are Samuel Zwemer, Hendrik Kraemer, and Lesslie Newbigin. World Religions The world’s faithful account for 83% of the global population; the great majority of these fall under twelve classical religions–Baha’i, Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Shinto, Sikhism, Taoism, and Zoroastrianism. These twelve religions are the most prominent spiritual traditions that still exist. However, due to how much (or how little) diQerent religions are represented in diQerent communities, the layperson might not know much about the beliefs and traditions held by religious people worldwide. Infoplease is here to help with our overviews of nine of these classical religions. Christianity is based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and is approximately 2,000 years old. Its largest groups are the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches, and the Protestant churches, and its sacred text is the Bible. Over the centuries, Christianity grew in numbers as it spread around the world, often through missionaries and colonizers. The second most widely practiced religion is Islam, with an estimated 1.8 billion followers worldwide. It started in Mecca (a city in modern-day Saudi Arabia) in the 7th century CE and was spread by the Prophet Muhammad (570–632 CE), who followers of Islam believe to be God’s ultimate prophet. Islam states that the teachings of God, who is known as Allah, were written down in a holy book known as the Qurʾān, which is the faith’s spiritual text. Most Muslims belong to one of the two major branches of Islam: Sunnis include approximately 80 percent of Muslims, and the Shiʿah includes approximately 15 percent. The remaining numbers belong to smaller denominations. Hinduism, with an estimated 1.1 billion followers, is the world’s third largest religion and also one of the oldest, with beliefs and practices that date back at least as far as the 1500s BCE. Hinduism is practiced primarily in India (where approximately 80 percent of the population identifies as Hindu), Nepal, and Indonesia. Little is known about the founding of Hinduism, but its teachings deeply influence almost all aspects of believers’ lives. In recent years certain aspects of Hinduism have become popular in the West, such as the practice of yoga, as well as the use of chakras (energy points found throughout the body) to identify and treat illness. The fourth most widely practiced religion is Buddhism, with approximately 500 million followers worldwide and more than 250 million in China alone. Based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, the religion was founded in India nearly 2,500 years ago. There are two main branches of Buddhism: Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism. Tenets of Buddhism include a vow of nonviolence and an adherence to ethical behavior in all aspects of life. The next most widely practiced religions, based on number of followers, are: Shintō (104 million followers). Formally established in Japan in the 8th century CE, Shintō promotes the existence of many gods. It is not an organized religion in the traditional sense, but it serves as the foundation of many cultural practices in Japan. Sikhism (25 million followers). Relatively new compared with many other faiths, Sikhism was founded in India in the 1500s CE and is based on the teachings of Guru Nanak and his nine successors. Judaism (14 million followers). This monotheistic religion was established in the Middle East about the 8th century BCE and today comprises three primary branches: Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism, and Reform Judaism. Though based on a common belief system, the branches diQer in their interpretation of Scripture and certain religious practices. Daoism (12 million followers). Originating in China more than 2,000 years ago, Daoism (also known as Taoism)centers on living in harmony with the spontaneous  fluctuations of the natural order. Among its first philosophers was a man named Laozi, who is believed to have written the faith’s primary text, the Daodejing. Key Issues Globalization is thought to have the following possible impacts on religion: it erodes religion (ideas that oppose it are free to spread), it strengthens religion (ideas that support it are free to spread), and/or it puts religion in a state of decline where religion now needs to look for identities of hybridity to stay relevant (religions decline because of the prevalence of secularization). Globalization also creates a lot of opportunities for conflict and cooperation within a religion, between religions, as well as between religious entities and other entities like culture. Religious fundamentalism is a defensive reaction which attempts to preserve or restore an idealized or imagined former social order which is characterized by a strict patriarchal order and moralism. This is very evident in societies that used to be liberated but suddenly become very conservative as a result of the actions of religious leaders. Religious fundamentalism is often identified as a conservative-traditionalist religious movement. Secularization is the disassociation or separation from religious or spiritual concerns. It usually goes hand in hand with industrialization/urbanization/rationalization. This is not the same as atheism. Secularization is where religion is given a less central role in the lives of people. For example, the separation of church and state to avoid favoritism towards a particular religion is seen as a form of secularization. Another issue is religious extremism. Religious extremism occurs when extreme actions are done in the name of religion. Several terrorist networks commit acts of violence and use religion as a justification. Hate movements encourage people to commit atrocities towards other people and they use religion to justify these heinous acts. Another way of characterizing religious extremism is using religion to justify cruelty. An interesting observation by Juergensmeyer points to the possibility of a religious resurgence. Because of globalization, nation-states are losing relevance in providing identity, accountability, and security for its people. Religion can play these roles, hence, a possible resurgence. Global City A global city is a city that has a significant influence on the global economic, cultural, and political landscape. These cities are typically centers of international finance, business, and trade, and they often serve as hubs for transportation and communication networks. Global cities are also known for their cultural diversity and their ability to attract talent from around the world. There is no definitive list of global cities, but some of the most commonly recognized ones include New York, London, Tokyo, Paris, and Hong Kong. Other cities that are often considered to be emerging global cities include Shanghai, Mumbai, Sao Paulo, and Dubai. Global cities are important nodes in the global economy, and they often have a disproportionate impact on national and international politics. They are centers of innovation and creativity, and they are often characterized by their cosmopolitanism and diversity. However, global cities can also be marked by inequality and social divisions, as well as the challenges of managing rapid urbanization and globalization. GaWC (Globalization and World Cities Research Network), based at Loughborough University, is the world’s premier think tank for studying economic globalization and its relation to cities. The think tank produces a report on global cities every two years, dividing world cities into Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and SuQiciency cities, where Alpha cities are the most integrated into the world economy (e.g. New York City or Beijing) and SuQiciency cities the last (albeit still much more than unlisted cities). The GaWC tends to focus specifically on economic rather than political or cultural considerations in ranking cities, and their methodology diQers from many other think tanks in that the GaWC does not look solely at cities in themselves in order to determine their rankings, but rather examines the relationships between a given city and other global cities. The GaWC report thus measures not only a city’s economic strength but also its interconnectedness to other global cities. Sassen’s Global City Model Saskia Sassen is the leading urban theorist of the global world. (Here are several prior posts that intersect with her work.) Her The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo (1991) has shaped the concepts and methods that other theorists have used to analyze the role of cities and their networks in the contemporary world. The core ideas in her theory of the global city are presented in a 2005 article, "The Global City: Introducing a Concept." Key to Sassen's concept of the global city is an emphasis on the flow of information and capital. Cities are major nodes in the interconnected systems of information and money, and the wealth that they capture is intimately related to the specialized businesses that facilitate those flows -- financial institutions, consulting firms, accounting firms, law firms, and media organizations. Sassen points out that these flows are no longer tightly bound to national boundaries and systems of regulation; so the dynamics of the global city are dramatically diQerent than those of the great cities of the nineteenth century. Sassen emphasizes the importance of creating new conceptual resources for making sense of urban systems and their global networks -- a new conceptual architecture, as she calls it. She argues for seven fundamental hypotheses about the modern global city: 1. The geographic dispersal of economic activities that marks globalization, along with the simultaneous integration of such geographically dispersed activities, is a key factor feeding the growth and importance of central corporate functions. 2. These central functions become so complex that increasingly the headquarters of large global firms outsource them: they buy a share of their central functions from highly specialized service firms. 3. Those specialized service firms engaged in the most complex and globalized markets are subject to agglomeration economies. 4. The more headquarters outsource their most complex, unstandardized functions, particularly those subject to uncertain and changing markets, the freer they are to opt for any location. 5. These specialized service firms need to provide a global service which has meant a global network of aQiliates... and a strengthening of cross border city-to-city transactions and networks. 6. The economic fortunes of these cities become increasingly disconnected from their broader hinterlands or even their national economies. 7. One result of the dynamics described in hypothesis six, is the growing informalization of a range of economic activities which find their eQective demand in these cities, yet have profit rates that do not allow them to compete for various resources with the high-profit making firms at the top of the system. Three key tendencies seem to follow from these structural facts about global cities. One is a concentration of wealth in the hands of owners, partners, and professionals associated with the high-end firms in this system. Second is a growing disconnection between the city and its region. And third is the growth of a large marginalized population that has a very hard time earning a living in the marketplace defined by these high-end activities. Rather than constituting an economic engine that gradually elevates the income and welfare of the whole population, the modern global city funnels global surpluses into the hands of a global elite dispersed over a few dozen global cities. Global Demography Global demography refers to the study of the size, structure, and distribution of the world's population. It is a branch of demography that focuses on the analysis of population trends and patterns across diQerent regions and countries, and their social, economic, and political implications. One of the key trends in global demography is the rapid growth of the world's population. According to the United Nations, the world's population was estimated to be 7.9 billion in 2021, and is projected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050. This growth is primarily driven by high fertility rates in developing countries, as well as longer life expectancies due to improved healthcare and living standards. Another important trend in global demography is the aging of the world's population. As life expectancies increase, the proportion of older people in the population is growing, while the proportion of children is declining. This demographic shift has important implications for healthcare, social security, and economic growth. The distribution of the world's population is also an important area of study in global demography. While the population is growing in many parts of the world, there are also significant regional disparities. For example, Africa is projected to account for more than half of the world's population growth between 2020 and 2050, while Europe's population is expected to decline. Finally, global demography also examines the social, economic, and political implications of population trends. For example, population growth can place a strain on resources and the environment, while aging populations can create challenges for healthcare and social security systems. Additionally, changes in population size and composition can aQect political stability, migration patterns, and economic development. Components of Demography Birth, death, and migration are the main components of demography but they are not the only metrics in demography that can be used to describe a population. You can describe a population in thousands of diQerent ways such as age distribution, educational attainment, economic class, favorite TV network, mobile network subscription, gender, etc. The reason why birth, death, and migration are the main components of demography is because these are the primary agents of population change. Within birth, death, and migration, there are various concepts there related to how they aQect the three components. One of the concepts under birth is natural change is a change in population that is the result of either birth or death. Another concept under birth is fecundity. It refers to every individual person’s potential to produce an oQspring. Two other concepts under birth are spontaneous abortion (unintentional) and induced abortion (intentional). Another concept under birth is contraception which is the deliberate use of artificial methods to prevent pregnancy from sexual intercourse. And one more concept under birth is sterilization which is the act of modifying a person’s anatomy so that he or she would be incapable of conception. There are also multiple concepts under death but most of them are fairly common except for epidemiologic transition. Epidemiologic transition refers to the transition of who in a population gets aQected the most by diseases and other ailments. High widowhood rates is a reflection of how males have a shorter life expectancy than females. Migration also has multiple concepts. For example, there is a major diQerence between emigration and immigration. Emigration is the act of leaving a territory with the intent of settling somewhere else. Immigration is the act of entering a territory with the intent of settling there. Another migration concept is early human migrations. This refers to how our ancestors were nomadic and have been migrating even before globalization began. Another migration concept is forced migration. It is a type of migration where the person migrating is doing so against his/her will. Demographic Transition Major changes in the human population first began during the 1700s in Europe and North America. First death rates fell, followed somewhat later by birth rates. Death Rates Fall Several advances in science and technology led to lower death rates in 18th century Europe and North America: New scientific knowledge of the causes of disease led to improved water supplies, sewers, and personal hygiene. Better farming techniques and machines increased the food supply. The Industrial Revolution of the 1800s led to new sources of energy, such as coal and electricity. This increased the eQiciency of the new agricultural machines. It also led to train transport, which improved the distribution of food. For all these reasons, death rates fell, especially in children. This allowed many more children to survive to adulthood, so birth rates increased. As the gap between birth and death rates widened, the human population grew faster. Birth Rates Fall It wasn’t long before birth rates started to fall as well in Europe and North America. People started having fewer children because large families were no longer beneficial for several reasons. As child death rates fell and machines did more work, farming families no longer needed to have as many children to work in the fields. Laws were passed that required children to go to school. Therefore, they could no longer work and contribute to their own support. They became a drain on the family’s income. Eventually, birth rates fell to match death rates. As a result, population growth slowed to nearly zero. Stages of the Demographic Transition These changes in population that occurred in Europe and North America have been called the demographic transition. The transition can be summarized in the following four stages, which are illustrated in Figure below: Stage 1—High birth and death rates lead to slow population growth. Stage 2—The death rate falls but the birth rate remains high, leading to faster population growth. Stage 3—The birth rate starts to fall, so population growth starts to slow. Stage 4—The birth rate reaches the same low level as the death rate, so population growth slows to zero. Stages of the Demographic Transition. In the demographic transition, the death rate falls first. After a lag, the birth rate also falls. Global Migration It refers to the movement of people across international borders for various reasons, including economic opportunities, political or environmental crises, family reunification, or educational purposes. Migration has been a part of human history, but today it is more significant than ever due to globalization, technological advancements, and the interconnectedness of the world economy. Human migration is the movement of people from one place to another with the intention of settling, permanently or temporarily at a new location. It can be international (from one country to another) or it can be local (from one settlement of one country into another settlement of the same country). Global migration refers to the movement of people across international borders to live permanently or temporarily in a diQerent country or region. It has been a part of human history for thousands of years, driven by a variety of factors such as economic opportunities, political instability, social or cultural ties, and natural disasters. Global migration has been on the rise in recent decades due to factors such as globalization, technological advancements, and increasing economic inequality between countries. The United Nations estimates that there are currently over 272 million international migrants worldwide, or roughly 3.5% of the world's population. Migration can have both positive and negative impacts on both the sending and receiving countries. On one hand, migrants can contribute to the economic growth of their host countries by filling labor shortages and paying taxes. On the other hand, migration can lead to social tensions and cultural clashes, and it can also result in brain drain and social fragmentation in the countries of origin. Factors of Migration There are numerous factors that contribute to global migration. Some of the most significant factors include: Economic opportunities: Economic factors are among the primary drivers of migration. People often migrate in search of better job prospects and higher wages. For instance, migrants from developing countries may move to developed countries where there are more job opportunities and higher salaries. Political instability: Political instability and conflict are also major factors that drive migration. People may flee their home countries due to war, persecution, or political unrest. For example, the ongoing Syrian civil war has led to millions of Syrians fleeing to neighboring countries and beyond. Social and cultural ties: Family reunification, marriage, and other social and cultural ties also drive migration. For example, immigrants may seek to reunite with family members or join a community of people with similar cultural backgrounds. Natural disasters and environmental factors: Natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, and hurricanes can force people to flee their homes. Climate change is also increasingly causing migration as rising sea levels, desertification, and other environmental factors make it diQicult for people to live in certain areas. Education and training: Education and training opportunities may also drive migration, as people seek to study and develop their skills in other countries. Quality of life: Quality of life factors such as healthcare, safety, and social services can also drive migration. For example, people may move to countries with better healthcare systems or lower crime rates. Globalization and technology: Globalization and technological advancements have made it easier for people to move around the world. The internet and social media have made it easier for people to connect with others in diQerent countries, while transportation technology has made travel more accessible and aQordable. These factors interact in complex ways to drive global migration, and their relative importance can vary depending on the individual and the specific circumstances. Understanding these factors is essential for developing eQective policies and strategies for managing migration. Who is a migrant? An umbrella term, not defined under international law, reflecting the common lay understanding of a person who moves away from his or her place of usual residence, whether within a country or across an international border, temporarily or permanently, and for a variety of reasons. The term includes a number of well-defined legal categories of people, such as migrant workers; persons whose particular types of movements are legally defined, such as smuggled migrants; as well as those whose status or means of movement are not specifically defined under international law, such as international students. Types of Migrants Economic Migrants - Economic migration is the movement of people from one country to another to benefit from greater economic opportunities. It is often assumed that such migration is primarily from less economically developed countries to the more economically developed countries and from former colonies to the country that was the imperial power. Political Migrants - Many people are forced to migrate because of a war, civil war or state policies which discriminate against particular groups of citizens or people who oppose those in power. These people are unable to return home because they have fears of being persecuted and are unlikely to receive any protection from their government. Environmental Migrants - Environmental migrants are people who are forced to migrate from or flee their home region due to sudden or long-term changes to their local environment which adversely aQects their well-being or livelihood. Family Reunification - This form of migration refers to members of a family coming to join one of their relatives who is resident in another country. This commonly includes fiancé(e)s, (proposed) civil partners, spouses, or unmarried or same-sex partners, dependent children and elderly relatives. A diaspora is the dispersal of an ethnic population from an original homeland into foreign areas by force because of traumatic reasons. Refugees are groups of persons who were forced to leave their place of origin in order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster. Asylum seekers are individual persons who apply for refuge in a foreign country due to a fear of religious or political persecution in his or her country of origin. Sustainable Development Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It places emphasis on balancing developments in the economy, society, and the environment. Focusing on just one or two will not achieve sustainable development. Generally, development is seen as the manifestation of growth, progress and positive change. There are many development theories that have been used in the past. However, the focus of these development theories was not balanced between the three areas of development that sustainable development concerns itself with. Approaches to development have focused on economics for a long time until the human development theory was developed. Modernization theory, structuralism theory, dependency theory, the basic needs model, and the neoclassical growth theory are all economics-based theories. The human development theory is a people-based theory. The post-development theory is a meta theory. The modernization theory suggests that all countries go through the same stages of development. The ones that are developed now started their development process early. The ones that are not yet developed started their development process late but they will eventually develop. Structuralism theory suggests that certain territories are underdeveloped because they exist in a system that promotes unfair relations. The only way for these underdeveloped territories to achieve development is for them to step outside the system and pursue development outside it. Dependency theory suggests that certain territories are underdeveloped because they exist in a system that does not allow them to develop any further due to a lack of appropriate resources. However, these underdeveloped territories can still achieve development through intervention coming from developed territories. The basic needs model suggests that as long as the citizens of a territory are all able to decently provide for their basic needs, it is enough to say that territory is developed. Neoclassical growth theory states that countries will always experience a steady economic growth as long as they have labor, capital, and the appropriate technologies. Development in this regard is determined by how well you possess those three. The human development theory argues that it does not make sense to say a country is developed simply because it scores high in economics-based metrics like GDP, GDP per capita, etc. when the people within that country are miserable, uneducated, underemployed, etc. The human development index applies the human development theory by considering both human well-being and economics as equally important parts in development. Post-development theory suggests that standards for development were established and defined by Western societies and therefore have some incompatibilities with Eastern societies. Agenda 21 is a non-binding action plan that urges all UN members to pursue sustainable development. Before the Sustainable Development Goals were created, there were the Millennium Development Goals. The target date for UN members to accomplish the Millennium Development Goals was supposed to be on 2015. The Sustainable Developments goals must be accomplished by 2030. There is a total of 17 goals under the Sustainable Development Goals.