T1 L10. Basic Principles of Memory (AR).pptx

BSMS 202: Neuroscience and Behaviou Basic Principles of Memory Dr Angela Reason Consultant Clinical Psychologist in Neuropsychology Learning Outcomes By the end of this lecture, the successful student should be able to: • Understand that memory operates over different timescales and has differen...

BSMS 202: Neuroscience and Behaviou Basic Principles of Memory Dr Angela Reason Consultant Clinical Psychologist in Neuropsychology Learning Outcomes By the end of this lecture, the successful student should be able to: • Understand that memory operates over different timescales and has different stores • Describe Baddeley’s model of Working Memory and summarise some of the evidence that supports it • Summarise the levels of processing explanation of memory encoding including its strengths and weaknesses • Describe procedures that result in better memory and the explanations for how they work Bonus Learning Outcome – To be able to apply memory strategies to enhance your own revision/learning! Acknowledgement Thank you to Dr Warren Dunger, Clinical Neuropsychologist for sharing these slides, and preceding him, Professor Chris Bird whose slides and materials which have also informed these lectures Outline 1. What is Memory? 2. Multi-store Memory Model 3. Working Memory 4. Encoding and Retrieval Quick exercise Volunteer…. Case Scenarios Male patient (age 65) reporting memory problems. Becomes stuck when trying to recall something which he finds frustrating. His wife doesn’t think his memory is too bad as she will often give him a reminder and he can usually then recall what happened. Do they have a memory problem? Female patient (age 51) with history of alcohol misuse. Admitted following a fall. Introduces herself and follows conversation well. Answers all questions about her health. You return to see her after lunch and she introduces herself to you again. She believes this is the first time you have met. Do they have a memory problem? What is Memory? Brief exercise: Think of as many different types of memory in everyday life as you can What is Memory? Memory Sensory Memory Encoding Working Memory Iconic (visual) Orthographi c processing Phonological Loop Echoic (auditory) Phonological Processing Visuospatial Sketchpad Semantic Processing Central Executive Episodic Buffer Long-term Explicit/ Declarative Episodic Semantic Retrieval Implicit/ Nondeclarati ve Modality Temporal Free Recall Visual Retrograde Procedural Recognition Verbal Anterograde Priming Cued (e.g. semantic) Olfactory, Tactile, Taste Prospective Conditioning It is… Complicated! Multi-Store Memory Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) Sensory Memory Sensory Memory Capacity = Large Duration = Milliseconds to seconds (like an ‘echo’) Sensory memory consists of: 1. Echoic memory (auditory) 2. Iconic memory (visual) 3. Haptic (touch) 4. Gustatory (taste) 5. Olfactory (smell) Mostly outside conscious awareness. Attention is required to pass information to STM. Sperling (1960) Sensory memory exercise • George Sperling experiment X F J U G C S P J W Q V Let’s try: • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ENg7CvgU1Kw (from 6’30) Short-Term Memory Short-Term Memory Exercise Short-Term Memory (STM) Capacity = short Duration = Seconds to minutes (vulnerable to distraction) Span of STM = 7 (±2) items (e.g. words, numbers, letters) Chunking information into items allows more information to be retained in STM. Example: 0 2 3 8 0 7 5 9 7 9 8 or 023 8075 97 98 Miller (1956) What factors can you think of that might affect this part of the process? Critiques to STM • Implies a serial structure to memory - not supported by research. • Patients with impaired STM could still form LTM (Markowitch et al., 1999; Shallice & Warrington, 1969) • There are other routes to encoding information that bypass these stages (e.g. flashbulb memories, PTSD). • Modality effects – If STM store is full with numbers, you shouldn’t be able to do another task (e.g. reading)… but you can! Exercise https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=drQ3i6EejPE (from 0.47 – 1’40) Can you write down your answers? What did the students say? (watch from 1’40) Working Memory ‘Working Memory’ aimed to address critiques of STM. ZĞŚĞĂƌƐĂů /ŶƉƵƚ ;ƐƟŵƵůŝͿ ^ĞŶƐŽƌLJ DĞŵŽƌLJ ƩĞŶƟŽŶ t ŽƌŬŝŶŐ DĞŵŽƌLJ ŶĐŽĚŝŶŐ ZĞƚƌŝĞǀ Ăů >ŽŶŐ-ƚĞƌŵ DĞŵŽƌLJ ZĞŚĞĂƌƐĂů &ŽƌŐĞƫ ŶŐ Temporarily hold information in mind and perform mental operations on the content. A mental workspace for maintaining and manipulating information. Baddeley (2010); Baddeley & Hitch (1974); Hitch & Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) ĞŶƚƌĂů dž ĞĐƵƟǀĞ sŝƐƵŽƐƉĂƟĂů ^ŬĞƚĐŚƉĂĚ sŝƐƵĂů ^ĞŵĂŶƟĐƐ ƉŝƐŽĚŝĐƵī Ğƌ ƉŝƐŽĚŝĐ >ŽŶŐ-ƚĞƌŵDĞŵŽƌLJ W ŚŽŶŽůŽŐŝĐĂů >ŽŽƉ >ĂŶŐƵĂŐĞ Baddeley (2011); Baddeley & Hitch (1974); Hitch & Central Executive Central Executive = Command-and-Control Centre Manipulat e Mainta in sŝƐƵŽƐƉĂƟĂů ^ŬĞƚĐŚƉĂĚ ĞŶƚƌĂů dž ĞĐƵƟǀĞ ƉŝƐŽĚŝĐƵī Ğƌ Digit Span Backwards/ Sequencing W ŚŽŶŽůŽŐŝĐĂů >ŽŽƉ Exam ple Digit Span Forwards Baddeley (2011); Gazzaniga et al. (2002) Phonological Loop Phonological Loop = Verbal Workspace Can hold a limited amount of verbal information (7±2 items) in mind for a limited time. Content is refreshed by ‘articulatory processes’ (sub-vocal speech). Telephone number example Baddeley (2011); Baddeley & Hitch (1974); Hitch & Visuospatial Sketchpad Visuospatial Sketchpad = Visual Workspace Consists of (Logie, 1995): • Visual Cache – visual information such as form and colour • Inner Scribe – spatial movement and manipulation Rehearsal of information in the visual cache occurs via the Inner Scribe. ĞŶƚƌĂů dž ĞĐƵƟǀĞ sŝƐƵŽƐƉĂƟĂů ^ŬĞƚĐŚƉĂĚ ƉŝƐŽĚŝĐƵī Ğ sŝƐƵĂů ^ĞŵĂŶƟĐƐ ƉŝƐŽĚŝĐ >ŽŶŐ-ƚĞƌŵDĞ Baddeley (2011); Logie (1995, 2011) Episodic buffer Added to the model in 2000 To account for how information is combined from visual and acoustic and LTM Episodic buffer is therefore how information is integrated and stored Tests used to measure WM (neuropsychology) Visual: Corsi Block Tapping Test (Spatial Span): Verbal: Digit Span (backwards / sequencing) Backwards: 2 5 6 9 1 = 1 9 6 5 2 Sequencing: 3 2 7 5 9 = 2 3 5 7 Can the two systems work together? Much more difficult to do two tasks simultaneously (dual-task paradigm) if using same processing system • e.g. two tasks from visuospatial sketchpad or two tasks from phonological loop TRY THIS: o Dual tasking from same system (visuospatial sketchpad): pat your stomach AND rub your head simultaneously. Takes effort o Dual tasking from different systems (visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop): pat your head AND say the alphabet. Easier WM and LTM Working memory (WM) uses both: • New incoming information (i.e. from Sensory Memory), and • Old information from LongTerm Memory (LTM). WM is an interface between cognition and action. Figure from Baddeley (2012) Evidence for WM Visuospatial tasks typically right hemisphere VFD = visual field deficit See Baddeley (2012) for further review of the evidence-base Phonological tasks typically left hemisphere Image taken from Chai et al. (2018); Matlin Can we train WM to be better? Brain training tasks show you can improve – at that task Can we transfer to other real world WM tasks? • Evidence show some transfer to broadly similar tasks (e.g. lab type tasks), but transfer more broadly into everyday similar tasks is weak Versus Deficits in WM WM declines with age and is impaired in many neurological conditions (e.g. TBI, Alzheimer’s Disease, Parkinson’s Disease, Huntington’s Disease, ADHD). Deficits may involve: • Difficulty starting tasks (due to feeling overloaded) • Struggling with long instructions or slow to respond • Following directions • Mental arithmetic • Low educational attainment How could you support someone with WM deficits? Figure from Brockmole & Logie (2013); Hertzog et al. Recap… Rehears al Input (stimuli) Sensory Memory Attentio n Encodin Short-term g Memory Retriev al Rehears al Forgetting Long-term Memory Encoding & Retrieval ZĞŚĞĂƌƐĂů /ŶƉƵƚ ;ƐƟŵƵůŝͿ ^ĞŶƐŽƌLJ DĞŵŽƌLJ ƩĞŶƟŽŶ ^ŚŽƌƚ-ƚĞƌŵ DĞŵŽƌLJ ŶĐŽĚŝŶŐ ZĞƚƌŝĞǀ Ăů ZĞŚĞĂƌƐĂů &ŽƌŐĞƫ ŶŐ >ŽŶŐ-ƚĞƌŵ DĞŵŽƌLJ Definition Memory involves the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information (Squire, 2009). See Zlotnik & Vansintjan (2019) for an ‘extended’ definition of memory Encoding Encoding = Initial acquisition and consolidation of information into memory Retrieval = Accessing information stored in memory BOOK duck safe 1. Is the word in capital letters? 2. Would the word fit this sentence: “I saw a ________ in a pond”? 3. Does the word rhyme with BLUE? Craik & Lockhart (1972); Exercise from Matlin (2005) Levels of Processing Deep, meaningful processing of information = greater memory retention Type Level Retention Orthographic (appearance) Phonological (sound) Shallow Poorer Shallow Poorer Semantic (meaning) Deep Greater Craik & Lockhart (1972) Evidence for Levels of Processing Craik & Tulving (1975) See Ekuni et al. (2011) for a review of the evidence-base The theory has been criticised for describing rather than explaining why depth leads to better memory retention (Eysenck, 1990) Craik & Tulving (1975); Table from Ekuni et al. (2011) Encoding Specificity & Retrieval Context-dependant memory  Memory can be enhanced when the retrieval context resembles the encoding context. Transfer-appropriate processing  Memory may be enhanced when the cognitive processes during retrieval and encoding are the same (e.g. both shallow) Self-reference effect  Memory will be better if information is related to yourself Godden & Baddeley (1975); Matlin (2005); Morris et Retrieval Retrieval Process Description Example Free Recall Attempting to remember previously studied information in any order. “Tell me as many words from the list as you can” Cued Recall Attempting to recall an item from memory in response to a cue or prompt. “Tell me all the words that were vegetables” Recognition Attempting to identify information as having been encountered previously. “Was onion one of the words on the list?” (Shopping list) www.dictionary.apa.org Memory Strategies  Test – Ask yourself questions and test yourself on the information.  Reworking – Put information in your own words or teach to someone else.  Self – Try to make the information relevant to you.  Method of loci – When memorising several items, link each to a familiar place or route.  Imagery – Create an image of something you want to remember and elaborate upon it (like a mind map).  Match – Try to match encoding and retrieval processes (i.e. revision - test).  Mnemonics – Acronyms, humour and novelty. Roediger & Karpicke (2006) Encoding vs. Retrieval Failures Memory impairments could be explained by: 1) Encoding Failures • Deficits acquiring and consolidating new information into memory. • Alzheimer’s Disease (related to hippocampal dysfunction). • Ensure problems are not related to attention or sensory deficits. 2) Retrieval Failures • Difficulties freely recalling information, but is usually successful during cued/recognition. • Related to deficits in executive function (frontal or subcortical dysfunction) Case Scenarios Male patient (age 65) reporting memory problems. Becomes stuck when trying to recall something which he finds frustrating. His wife doesn’t think his memory is too bad as she will often give him a reminder and he can usually then recall what happened. What is the likely problem with memory? Female patient (age 51) with history of alcohol misuse. Admitted following a fall. Introduces herself and follows conversation well. Answers all questions about her health. You return to see her after lunch and she introduces herself to you again. She believes this is the first time you have met. What is the likely problem with memory? Long-Term Memory We will be exploring longterm memory in our next lecture… Factors for good memory A • • • • healthy lifestyle helps memory, e.g. A balanced diet Exercise Challenging your brain by learning new things A good night’s sleep Summary 1. Memory involves encoding, storing and retrieving information. 2. Working memory provides a mental workspace for maintaining and manipulating information. 3. Encoding new information into memory is more successful using ‘deeper’ processing. 4. Memory impairments could be related to encoding or retrieval failures. Key Reading Baddeley, A. (2012). Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annual review of psychology, 63, 1-29. Budson, A. E. (2009). Understanding memory dysfunction. The neurologist, 15(2), 71. Ekuni, R., Vaz, L. J., & Bueno, O. F. A. (2011). Levels of processing: The evolution of a framework. Psychology & Neuroscience, 4(3), 333-339. Useful podcast: Working Memory with Dr Alan Baddeley https://www.navneuro.com/102/ “Whenever I think of the past, it brings back so many memories…” - Steven Wright