SYSTENG REVIEWER (MOD 4-6) PDF

SYSTEMS ENGINEERING Module 4 Does the current operational mode provide enough response and throughput time?...

SYSTEMS ENGINEERING Module 4 Does the current operational mode provide enough response and throughput time? Is there timely and accurate information to managers Operational Feasibility and end-users? Operational Feasibility study helps to determine if Does the current mode of operation offer cost-effective a particular project will succeed or not information to the business? Before you get any order to begin a project, you Will there be an increased benefit or a cost reduction? need an executive order, especially if such a project could Does the current system provide an effective process cost millions of dollars. For that executive order to be to safeguard against fraud and breach of data? granted, there needs to be a feasibility study on the said Will the system be used once it is developed? project. What are the manpower problems the system will A feasibility study helps to determine if a particular face? project will succeed or not. It is usually conducted before Will there be labor objections? the actual project begins, including the planning phase. A What are the likely organizational policies and feasibility study is an essential factor to consider if a project conflicts? can go forward. What are the governmental regulations that might affect the system? Feasibility study – Essential Points to consider: - Legality – What are the legal requirements of the Entails utilizing, supporting, and performing necessary project? Is it possible to meet these legal program, system, or project tasks. It includes everyone that requirements? creates or operates a system. For a project or system to be - Budget – Is there adequate financial resources to ascertain operationally feasible, it has to meet specific start and complete the project? What is the criteria. These criteria come in the form of questions, which cost/benefit analysis of the project? Is it sufficient require concrete answers. to warrant starting the project? - Time – What is the likelihood that the project will be Requires an intensive study of the current system. A system completed in the stipulated time frame? is operationally feasible when it can reduce the cost of - Risk – Are there risks associated with undergoing developing the system without undermining its quality or this project? What is the risk-to-reward ratio of the product. For instance, if you can increase workers’ project? efficiency in a new company by reducing the working - Technical capability – Does the organization have without damaging the product quality, such operation is both technical resources to accomplish the feasible. project? In carrying out a feasibility study, this can be divided into various studies. For instance, you can have a technical Analytical Methods feasibility study, economic feasibility study, and 1. Probability theory and analysis. An inherent operational feasibility. These studies have different knowledge of statistics and probability theory is requirements that must be fulfilled before starting the required as a prerequisite for understanding the project. Today, our focus will be on the operational concepts and principles of reliability and feasibility study and how you can get it done accurately. maintainability and for the application of selected program management methods (e.g., risk analysis). Operational Feasibility 2. Economic analysis. A basic knowledge of economic It is a measure of how perfectly a proposed system concepts and principles, interest and interest intends to solve the stated problem and leverage the formulas, and ability in determining economic opportunities identified during the scope definition phase. equivalence for various design alternatives and in Additionally, it also determines how it will satisfy every conducting break-even evaluations are required in the requirement identified in its requirement analysis phase. performance of life-cycle cost (LCC) and related Depends on the project’s available human analysis activities. resources and determines if the system is usable once the project is developed and implemented. It analyzes the 3. Optimization methods. A basic familiarity with preparedness of the organization to support the proposed classical optimization theory, constrained and system. Unlike the technical and economic feasibility, unconstrained optimization, and linear and dynamic operational feasibility is quite hard to gauge. programming is required in determining optimum To determine operational feasibility, you need to system equipment life, recommended components understand management’s commitment towards the replacement policies (frequencies), equipment proposed project. If management were the initiator of packing schemes, preferred transportation routes, and operational feasibility, it would likely be accepted and used so on. once completed. 4. Queuing theory and analysis. A basic understanding Questions to test operational feasibility: of queuing theory (e.g., the arrival mechanism, the 1 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING waiting line, the service mechanism, and their E-commerce technologies - allow the opportunity associated distributions), single-channel queuing for businesses to develop and streamline their supply models, multiple-channel queuing models, and the chains. application of Monte Carlo analysis is required in the design of facilities and those functions involving the CURRENT DESIGN TECHNOLOGIES AND processing of various items through some “channel” TOOLS activity. Mathematical programming methods - can be used in solving resource allocation and 5. Control concepts and techniques. A basic familiarity assignment problems. with statistical process control (SPC) techniques, the Statistical tools application of various types of control charts (e.g., x- - are available for plotting distributions and for bar, R, p, and c charts), determining optimum policy determining related characteristics. control approaches, quality control methods, and the Project management application of control networks for project/program - aids are used to plot scheduling networks (e.g., the scheduling is essential for the implementation of total Program Evaluation and Review Technique [PERT] quality management (TQM) and selected program and the Critical Path Method [CPM] and cost management requirements. projections. Database management models Information Technology, Internet and - are employed extensively for data acquisition and Emerging Technologies storage, information processing, and report Information technology (IT) - refers to the generation. infrastructure that fosters the integration of all the various Simulation mechanisms for converting, storing, protecting, - is the process of designing and utilizing an processing, transmitting, and retrieving information. operational model of a system to conduct Internet - a worldwide network of interconnected experiments for the purpose of either computer networks (e.g., commercial, academic, and understanding the behavior of the system or government) that operates using a standardized set of evaluating alternative strategies and/or system communications protocols and TCP/IP (transmission design configurations. control protocol/Internet protocol). Workflow - most often used to describe the tasks, Simulation methods can be applied in the development organizations, information, and tools involved in a business of three-dimensional computer-aided design (CAD) process. models to show the overall system configuration and its The increase in computer programming developed components, their location, accesses, interrelationships, to capture and develop human-to-machine interaction and so on. enhances workflow by giving end users the ability to easily Rapid prototyping manage and process complex data in order to reach their - is a practice that is often implemented and is specific goals. inherent within the system engineering process, Web application (web app) - is an application that particularly in the development of large software- is accessed via the Internet—running through the browser. intensive systems. Web apps allow access and use of software on an Mock-ups unlimited number of computers without distribution or - can be produced to any desired scale and to installation of software. varying degrees of detail, depending on the level of Collaborative technologies - are designed to emphasis required. Mock-ups may be constructed capture the efforts of many into a managed and meaningful of heavy cardboard, wood, metal, or a combination end product by allowing team members to communicate, of materials. coordinate, and manage the process. A more specific example of how the Internet and Computer-aided design (CAD) the emergence of e-commerce technologies have affected - It refers to the application of computerized business processes is its use in supply chain management technology to the design process. (SCM). - These tools, including supporting software, SCM - pertains to the integrated flow of materials incorporate graphics capabilities, analytical from various sources of supply, through the production capabilities, and data management capabilities. process, and in the form of finished products distributed and installed at the various user operational sites. Seven Popular Models: Inherently information intensive, as it involves 1. Computer-aided system engineering (CORE) - communication and collaboration between multiple supports both static and dynamic analysis of parties. system requirements, functional behavior, and The capability of the Internet to transfer massive system architecture, with automatic generation of amounts of information with minimal time and effort has customizable reports via a simple scripting enabled efficient and effective sharing of information language. among business partners. 2 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 2. Cost analysis strategy assessment (CASA) - is Computer-aided support (CAS) utilized to develop life-cycle cost (LCC) estimates - It refers to the application of computerized for a wide variety of systems and equipment. technology to the entire spectrum of logistics and 3. Equipment designer’s cost analysis system system support activities. (EDCAS) - It includes a capability for the evaluation - To provide an indication as to the variety of of repair versus discard-at-failure decisions, and it computer technology applications in the logistics can handle up to 3500 unique items concurrently. field, five examples are noted: 4. OPUS model - is a versatile model used primarily 1. Logistics engineering - the utilization of reliability, for spare/repair parts and inventory optimization. maintainability, and supportability models in the 5. Relex PRISM - this constitutes a reliability accomplishment of design trade-offs is a major software suite, which includes capabilities for the requirement throughout system development. The development of reliability block diagrams, use of graphics technology, analytical methods, reliability predictions, maintainability predictions, and database management capabilities is required failure mode and effects analysis in those activities. 6. VMETRIC - this is a spares model that can be used 2. Supportability analysis (SA) - through the to optimize system availability by determining the evaluation of a given design configuration, SA data appropriate individual availability for system are developed with the objective of identifying the components and the stockage requirements. specific requirements for system support for 7. 217Plus: The Next Generation Reliability example, spare parts, test and support equipment, Prediction Models - this is a series of analytical personnel quantities and skill levels. Data models applied in predicting system reliability, processing and database management system-level failure rates, component failure capabilities are required. rates, software reliability, approaches from “parts 3. Logistics management information (LMI) - this count” to comprehensive reliability analysis, and category covers the requirements for spares and includes various reliability databases repair parts provisioning data, support equipment provisioning data, design drawings and change Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) notices, technical procedures, training manuals, - It refers to the application of computerized and various reports. Computerized technology technology to the manufacturing or production applications require the use of spreadsheets, word process. processing, graphics, and database management - This application primarily includes the use of capabilities. automated methods as they pertain to the 4. Distribution, transportation, and warehousing - following four activities: in addition to the data processing and database 1. Process planning - addresses the entire flow of management requirements associated with activities, evolving from the definition of a given inventory control and MRP activities, the design configuration to the finished product application of automated materials handling delivered to the consumer, and CAM applications equipment and robotics can be effectively include those activities that can be automated. employed in the performance of warehousing 2. Numerical control (NC) - NC instructions have functions been prepared by programmers taking information 5. Maintenance and support - the customer service from engineering drawings, programs have been activities, in support of the system in the field tested, revised, retested, and so on. As this can be throughout its planned life cycle, include the quite expensive, the goal in the future is to be able accomplishment of scheduled and unscheduled to generate NC input instructions directly from the maintenance actions. This area, supported with design database, developed through the CAD some selected applications of artificial applications intelligence, is a prime candidate for future growth. 3. Robotics - at various stages in the production process, there may be applications in which robots can be effectively employed for the purpose of materials handling (i.e., the carrying of parts from one location to the next) or for the positioning of tools and work pieces in preparation for NC applications. 4. Production management - throughout the production process, there is an ongoing management activity in which computer applications can be effectively utilized in support of production forecasting, scheduling, cost reporting, material requirements planning (MRP) activities, the generation of management reports, and so on. 3 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING MODULE 5 evolved from the top-level Program Management Plan (PMP), integrates all lower-level planning documents. It includes the design-related tasks System Engineering Management necessary to enhance the day-to-day system The successful realization of system engineering development effort, the implementation of principles and concepts is dependent not only on the concurrent engineering methods, and the technology issues and the process for implementing such, integration of the appropriate organizational but on the management issues as well. entities into a “team” approach. 3. During the latter stages of conceptual design, a Test and Evaluation Master Plan (TEMP), or equivalent, must be developed for the purposes of assessment and ultimate validation. As requirements are initially specified in the system specification (Type A) and planned through the tasks described in the SEMP, the methods/techniques to be used for measuring and evaluating the system to ensure compliance with these requirements must be described. 4. As system design and development progresses, there is a need to schedule a series of formal As illustrated in the figure above there are two design reviews at discrete points where the design sides of the spectrum, and each is highly dependent on the configuration evolves from one level of definition to other. Top management must first believe in and then another; that is, conceptual, system, provide the necessary support to enable the application of equipment/software, and critical design reviews. system engineering methods to all applicable projects, The purpose of these reviews is to ensure that the both in-house and external. specified requirements are being met prior to Specific objectives must be defined, policies and entering into a subsequent phase of effort, and to procedures must be developed and properly implemented, ensure that the necessary communications exist and an effective review and reward structure must be across organizational lines. supportive. This structure must prevail throughout the 5. Toward the latter stages of detail design, customer, prime contractor, and down through the various throughout the construction/production phase, applicable supplier organizations as required. The and during the operational use and maintenance challenge is that of proper implementation. support phase, there is a need to provide ongoing Although there are variations from one program to assessment and validation of the system. The the next, Figure below presents a baseline for discussion. objective is to ensure that the consumer requirements are being met and to establish a “baseline” for the purposes of benchmarking and the initiation of a continuous process improvement activity. Design changes are initiated as required to correct any noted deficiencies. The successful implementation of system engineering principles is highly dependent on proper management of the simplified process depicted in the figure below: 1. During the early stages of conceptual design, it is essential that good communications between the producer and the consumer(s) be established from the beginning. Defining the real need, conducting feasibility analysis, developing operational requirements and the maintenance Inherent in this process is the application of different concept, and identifying specific quantitative and technologies employed to facilitate the steps of qualitative requirements at the system level are requirements analysis, functional analysis and allocation, critical. synthesis, design optimization, and validation. 2. During the latter stages of conceptual design, a comprehensive System Engineering Management Plan (SEMP), or System Engineering Plan (SEP), Developing the Organizational Structure must be developed to ensure the implementation Organization of a program that will lead to a well-coordinated - is the combining of resources in such a manner as and integrated product output. The SEMP, which to fulfill a certain need. 4 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING - Organizations constitute groups of individuals of Note: Extensive communication is required, not varying levels of expertise, combined in a social only within each of the customer and producer structure of some form to accomplish one or more organizations, but also between the various customer, functions. producer, and supplier organizations. - When dealing with organizations, one must address a number of issues, including structure, The successful implementation of a teaming or processes, culture and environment. partnership approach, along with the fostering of concurrent engineering principles, is heavily dependent on Developing the Organizational Structure: good communications (both downward and upward) from - In the development of any type of an organizational the beginning. structure, one must start by determining the goals and objectives for the overall Customer Organization and Functions company/agency/institution involved, along with - The customer/consumer organization may vary, the functions and tasks that must be ranging from one or a small group of individuals to accomplished. an industrial firm, a commercial business, an - The structure may assume a pure functional academic institution, a healthcare facility model, a project or product line orientation, a (hospital), a government laboratory, the matrix approach, or combinations thereof. Department of Defense, or a military service. - The ultimate goal, of course, is to achieve the - The customer may be the ultimate “user” of the most effective utilization of human, material, system or may be the procuring agency for a user. and monetary resources in accomplishing the - The acquisition agency may be represented by the functions that are required at the time. top block, with a chain of industrial firms, small - As the program evolves into the preliminary and businesses, and component suppliers providing detailed design and development phases, the the materials and services necessary for the number of assigned personnel may increase as the development of the system and its elements. design requirements at the subsystem level. - It is mandatory on the procuring agency to ensure - For small projects, where a single individual must that the early contracting and acquisition process assume many different roles, the system will result in satisfying the needs of the ultimate engineering responsibilities may be accomplished “user". by an electrical engineer, a mechanical engineer, - The procuring agency must be responsive to the or someone with equivalent background and “user” organization (as the customer), the experience. For instance, the chief engineer or producer or industrial firm must be responsive to project manager may serve as the “system the acquisition agency (as the customer), and the engineer,” or there may be a designated group suppliers must be responsive to the producer (as performing the required tasks. the customer).It is essential that this overall “chain” of organizational entities be addressed in Customer, Producer, and Supplier the planning and development of systems. Relationships - The program manager must first understand and believe in the concepts and principles of system CUSTOMER engineering, and then must create the appropriate - establish a system engineering organization to environment and take the lead by initiating either of accomplish the required tasks, or these tasks may the following courses of action: be relegated (in part or in total) to the producer 1. Accomplish the system engineering through some form of contractual arrangement. functions within the customer’s - assume full responsibility for the overall design organizational structure. The customer (or and development, production, and installation of procuring agency) will prepare the system the system and its elements for operational use. specification (Type A), will perform all of the - provides the overall guidance in terms of issuing a tasks required at the system level, and will general statement of work (SOW) or a contractual delegate requirements for the subsystem document of an equivalent nature. level and below 2. Accomplish the system engineering PRODUCER functions within the industrial firm or the - The producer (or prime contractor) is held producer’s organizational structure. These responsible for the entire system design and may include the completion of the system development effort and for completing the tasks. engineering tasks, that is, development of - The basic responsibility for fulfilling the objectives operational requirements and the described throughout this text lies with the maintenance concept, functional analysis producer’s organization, with supporting tasks and allocation, synthesis, design being accomplished by individual suppliers as optimization, and so on. required. 5 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING - The customer must clarify system objectives and 3. Matrix Organizational Structure program functions, and the requirements for - is an attempt to combine the advantages of the system engineering must be well defined. pure functional organization and the pure project organization. Producer Organization and Functions - Matrix management is an attempt to acquire the - The producer (or contractor) will undertake the greatest amount of technology, consistent with bulk of the system engineering activities project schedules, time and cost constraints, and associated with the design and development of a related customer requirements. large-scale system. - The matrix organization, in its simplest form, can - The customer will specify the necessary system- be considered as being a two-dimensional entity, level and program requirements through the with the projects representing potential profit preparation of a request for proposal (RFP) or an centers and the functional departments identified invitation for bid (IFB), and various industrial firms as cost centers. will respond by submitting a formal proposal. The response may represent the results of a teaming Supplier Organization and Functions arrangement involving a designated number of - Supplier refers to a broad category of industrial firms and component suppliers. As there organizations that provide various materials may be a number of responding proposals, a and/or services to the producer (i.e., prime formal competition is initiated, individual contractor). proposals are reviewed and evaluated, contractual - The outsourcing requirements are significant and negotiations are consummated, and a selection is suppliers are selected to accomplish the design, made. The successful contractor (i.e., producer) development, and manufacture of subsystems will then proceed with the proposed level of effort. and/or major components, the system engineering - The Request for Proposal (RFP) will include a capability must be extended and included as an system specification covering the technical identifiable function within the supplier’s aspects of system development, along with a organization as well. statement of work (SOW) directed toward project - In any event, there must be a focal point within the tasks and the management aspects of a program. supplier’s organization to ensure that the - Given that system-level requirements have been applicable system engineering tasks are properly defined and that a prime contractor has performed in a timely and efficient manner. Such been selected to accomplish the design and tasks may include the following: development effort, the next step is to address the 1. Conduct feasibility studies subject of system engineering in the context of the 2. Prepare a supplier engineering plan contractor’s organizational structure. 3. Accomplish synthesis, analysis, and trade- off studies Organizational Structures 4. Accomplish design integration activities 1. Functional Organization Structure 5. Prepare and implement a Test and - The primary building block for most organizational Evaluation Plan patterns is the functional structure. This approach, 6. Participate in equipment/software design sometimes referred to as the “classical” or reviews “traditional” approach, involves the grouping of 7. Review and evaluate proposed design specialties or disciplines into separately changes identifiable entities. 8. Initiate and maintain liaison with - For example, all engineering work would be the production/manufacturing activities responsibility of one executive, all production or 9. Initiate and maintain liaison with the manufacturing work would be the responsibility of producer another executive, and so on. 2. Product-Line/Project Organization Structure - As industrial firms grow and there are more products being developed, it is often convenient to classify these products into common groups and to develop a product-line organization structure. - A project organization is one that is solely responsible for the planning, design and development, production, and support of a single system or a large product. It is time-limited, directly oriented to the life cycle of the system, and the commitment of personnel and material is purely for the purposes of accomplishing tasks peculiar to that system. 6 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING MODULE 6 - It is the ongoing activity of comparing one’s own process, product, or service against the best known similar activity. Evaluation Requirements - Wikipedia defines benchmarking as “the process - The requirements definition functions and the of comparing one’s business processes and program planning and implementation activities performance metrics to industry bests or best are discussed in earlier chapters. This chapter practices from other companies.” addresses primarily measurement and evaluation as it pertains to the implementation of The general approach to benchmarking a system engineering program. commences with the development of a plan for - Measurement means determining, through both implementation. This is based on a definition of the informal and formal reporting, the degree to which organization’s objectives as they pertain to product goals. progress toward meeting the objectives Product goals may be specified in terms of the technical (requirements) is being made. performance measures (TPMs) for a given system, or some - Evaluation is determining cause and possible equivalent set of measures for one or more products. steps to take when there are significant deviations from the planned performance. Benchmarking Wheel - Feedback and corrective action include the - The benchmarking wheel model introduced in the development and implementation of a plan to article “Benchmarking for Quality” is a 5 stage correct any deficiencies that may exist. process that was created by observing more than - An established system engineering organization 20 other models. may be involved in many different projects concurrently; for example: 1. the design and development of a large- scale system 2. the design of many different subsystems 3. the manufacture and testing of a large system element 4. the monitoring of many varieties of supplier activities - The system engineering manager (with the support of key senior personnel both within and external to his or her organization) needs to define organizational objectives, goals, and responsibilities. it's fairly simple and comprises of following stages: - To this end, it would be appropriate to establish a benchmarking capability and a model for the 1. Plan. Assemble a team. Clearly define what you measurement and evaluation of the organization want to compare and assign metrics to it. and its operations. 2. Find. Identify benchmarking partners or sources of - The basic questions are: information, where you’ll be able to collect the 1. Where are we today? information from. 2. How do we compare with the competition 3. Collect. Choose the methods to collect the (relative to both product and information and gather the data for the metrics you organization)? defined. 3. Where would we like to be in the future? 4. Analyze. Compare the metrics and identify the gap in performance between your company and the Benchmarking organization observed. Provide the results and recommendations on how to improve the - A point of reference from which measurements performance. may be made; something that serves as a standard 5. Improve. Implement the changes to your by which others may be measured. (Webster’s products, services, processes or strategy. Collegiate Dictionary) - In the early 1970s, the Xerox Corporation (and others) promoted the concept of benchmarking as Evaluation of the System Engineering a “business practice.” Organization - According to Camp, benchmarking can be defined Certain company/agency/institution goals having as “the continuous process of measuring been established, the next step is to discover the extent to products, services, and practices against the which the system engineering organization has progressed toughest competitors or those companies toward meeting these goals; that is, the measure of the recognized as industry leaders.” organization’s capability to meet the desired level of performance. 7 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING Given the objectives of system engineering and the 3. The post-assessment phase involves recommended tasks that must be performed, there are management briefings and the preparation of a some questions that should be addressed: plan for future action as required. To what extent is the organization completing these tasks effectively and efficiently? Program Reporting, Feedback and Control Does the management understand the principles The successful implementation of system and concepts of system engineering? engineering objectives depends not only on the producer’s Is there a commitment from the top down toward activities, but also on the related activities of the the implementation of the system engineering customer’s organization and the activities of the various process? major suppliers participating in the program in question. If so, what policies are currently being Thus, there are both “upward” and “downward” impacts implemented to support this? that must be considered. Have standards, measurable goals, and the The results highlight specific areas of weakness appropriate processes been established for the and where improvements in the applicable processes can successful accomplishment of system be realized. With potential areas for improvement having engineering been identified, two steps need to be addressed: objectives? 1. Determining ways for improvement of internal Has the organization developed a plan for processes within the system engineering continuous improvement? organization. This encompasses evaluating alternative methods of doing business, determining The objective is to determine the organization’s level of the requirements for changing the existing procedures maturity, where it may “fit” in the hierarchical structure as and processes, and assessing the impact of such compared with other organizations functioning in a similar changes on the other processes. A change in any one area of activity, and where there are weaknesses that need process should not have a negative impact on any to be addressed. other process. Essential systems engineering and management tasks 2. Determining the possible impact(s) of changes in the that an organization must perform to ensure a successful processes being implemented by the systems effort were identified and included in three basic focus- engineering organization on any external and related area categories; that is: organizational structures—the customer, other a technical category focus area organizational groups within the producer’s a management category focus area operation, major suppliers, and so forth. The proper an environment category focus area. environment must be established within the overall organizational infrastructure for the proposed Six capability levels were established and related to changes described in item 1 to result in an individual focus areas: improvement. initial Proposed changes within the system engineering performed organization cannot be initiated in a vacuum. There must be managed a mutual commitment throughout the organization and, in defined particular, by the program manager and his or her staff. In measured any case, there must be a vehicle through which optimized organizational improvement can be initiated. Given the approval and incorporation of a “change” In applying this model in the appraisal (or assessment) (or group of changes), the revised processes/procedures of an organization’s capability, there are different phases: must be documented and reported and must serve as a pre-assessment, on-site assessment, and post- baseline for the next organizational evaluation. Although assessment. there is no established frequency of evaluation, it is 1. During the pre-assessment phase, it is necessary recommended that the approach and procedures to solicit management support of the organization discussed herein be included as a “continuing activity” to be evaluated and to develop the process for within the overall spectrum of system engineering evaluation. organization and related activities. 2. The “on-site assessment” phase is usually conducted during a one-week period, by a team of three to five people working with a combination of department managers, project leaders, and workforce practitioners, and results in rapid feedback and minimizing any impact on internal projects and the day-to-day scheduled work. 8