Swayam Exam Answers PDF

1. Research is: A purposeful, systematic activity. Conducted for purely academic purposes. Conducted to answer questions about practical issues. A random, unplanned process of discovery. 2. One of the essential characteristics of research is: Replicability Clarity...

1. Research is: A purposeful, systematic activity. Conducted for purely academic purposes. Conducted to answer questions about practical issues. A random, unplanned process of discovery. 2. One of the essential characteristics of research is: Replicability Clarity Usability Efficiency 3. Which of the following is not a characteristic of basic research? Basic research is analytical in nature. Basic research is theoretical in nature. Basic research is primarily concerned with the expansion of knowledge and not with the applicability of the research outcomes. Basic research is carried out with a primary focus on possible practical ends. 4. Which of the following is not a method of basic research? Interview Observation Experiment Data analysis 5. The study strategy that involves witnessing and recording behaviors or events in natural settings without intervening or influencing variables is called: Experimental Research Observational Research Correlational Research Longitudinal Studies 6. Which of the following research methods involves controlled experiments designed to establish cause-and- effect relationships between variables? Experimental Research Observational Research Correlational Research Longitudinal Studies 7. Which of the following is a characteristic of applied research? It is focused on expanding our understanding of a particular phenomenon. It is solution-specific and addresses practical questions. It is conducted in isolation from industry or organization. It is driven by the need for theoretical innovation. 8. A subfield of applied psychology, which seeks to enhance mental health interventions, therapies, and treatments, is known as: Clinical and Counseling Research Educational Research Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Research Health Psychology Research 9. In the field of applied psychology, which subfield primarily seeks to apply psychological concepts to contexts related to law and criminal justice? Clinical and Counseling Research Educational Research Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Research Forensic Psychology Research 10. What sort of applied psychology research examines work satisfaction, leadership styles, employee motivation, and organizational culture to enhance productivity and employee engagement? Clinical and Counseling Research Educational Research Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Research Health Psychology Research 11. Which research approach investigates the association between two or more variables without changing them? Experimental Research Observational Research Correlational Research Longitudinal Studies 12. What type of research involves the active participation of researchers in the setting being studied and focuses on understanding social phenomena from the perspective of those involved? Experimental research Observational research Ethnographic research Cross-sectional research 13. Which of the following is a type of applied research in psychology? Observational research Correlational research Developmental research Descriptive research 14. How does brain drain affect the research landscape in India? It leads to increased collaboration with international researchers. It fosters innovation and knowledge exchange. It results in a loss of talented researchers and skilled workforce. It promotes diversity and multiculturalism in research institutions. 15. What role does industry-academia collaboration play in addressing research challenges in India? It exacerbates conflicts of interest in research outcomes. It provides access to funding and resources for research projects. It limits academic freedom and independence. It discourages interdisciplinary research initiatives. 16.Attributes of objects, events or things which can be measured are called: Qualitative measure Data Variables Datasets  17.A researcher wants to study the relationship between hours of study and exam scores. The number of hours of study is an example of: Dependent variable Independent variable Categorical variable Extraneous variable 18.Which of the following can best be described as a categorical variable? Age Annual income Grade point average Religion 19.The experimental studies are based on: The manipulation of the variables. Conceptual parameters. Replication of research. Survey of literature 20. A manipulated independent variable is called: Extraneous variable Intervening variable Subject variable Active variable 21. A variable not being investigated but has the potential to affect the outcome of a research study : A categorical variable A dependent variable An independent variable An extraneous variable 22. Which type of variable has categories with a natural order or ranking? Nominal Ordinal Continuous Categorical 23. Which variables are those that a researcher chooses to study in order to assess their possible effects on one or more other variables? Dependent Independent Extraneous Confounding 24. A researcher is investigating the relationship between income levels and spending habits. Income levels in this study are an example of: Categorical variable Continuous variable Nominal variable Ordinal variable 25. Which of the following includes examples of quantitative variables? Age, temperature, income and height. Social class in a society. Gender, religion and ethnic group. Different modes of Learning. 26. Which of the following is an example of a nominal variable? Blood pressure Race Age IQ score 27. An experiment is performed to test the effects of sleep deprivation on rote memory. In this experiment, the dependent variable is : Number of hours subjects go without sleep. Rote memory scores. Number of subjects deprived of sleep in the experimental group. Correlation between hours of sleep and fatigue. 28. In a study examining the relationship between exercise and stress levels, which of the following could be considered an extraneous variable? Gender of the participants. Duration of the exercise session. Measurement of stress using a questionnaire. Variation in participants' baseline stress levels. 29. Which of the following best describes a mediator variable? It is a variable that moderates the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. It is a variable that indirectly influences both the independent and dependent variables. It is a variable that explains the mechanism or process through which the independent variable affects the dependent variable. It is a variable that is held constant to eliminate its potential influence on the outcome of the study. 30. A statistical technique used for large number of variables to establish whether there is a tendency of groups to be interrelated is: Simple correlation Multiple correlation Factor analysis Regression 31. What is the null hypothesis? The null hypothesis suggests that there is a positive relationship between two variables. The null hypothesis suggests that there is no connection between two variables. The null hypothesis suggests that attending physiotherapy sessions enhances athletes' performance on the field. 32. The first step in the research process is ________, which involves selecting a research area based on professional and personal interests. Conducting the literature review Identifying a research problem  Formulating research aim, objectives and research questions Selecting data collection methods 33. In research, the term ________ refers to a specific group of people, facilities, or how technology is used in the business. Population Sample Study group Target group 34. A research hypothesis is: An educated guess based on previous research. A tentative statement that can be tested empirically. A summary of the research findings. A statement of personal opinion. 35. In hypothesis testing, what is the level of significance? The probability of making a Type I error. The strength of the relationship between variables. The effect size of the research findings. The reliability of the research instrument. 36. Which of the following is an example of an alternative hypothesis (H1)? There is no difference in test scores between the experimental and control groups. The mean age of participants in Group A is equal to the mean age of participants in Group B. There is a positive correlation between hours of study and exam scores. The null hypothesis is rejected. 37. What is the significance level typically set at in hypothesis testing? 0.01 0.05 0.10 It varies depending on the research design. 38. A researcher is conducting a study to examine the relationship between exercise frequency and weight loss. What would be an appropriate null hypothesis (H0) for this study? There is a positive correlation between exercise frequency and weight loss. Exercise frequency has no effect on weight loss. Participants who exercise more frequently will lose more weight. The null hypothesis cannot be formulated without further information. 39. The null hypothesis is usually denoted by: H1 Ha H0 1=μ 40. Which of the following is NOT a type of hypothesis in research? Research hypothesis Null hypothesis Directional hypothesis  Descriptive hypothesis 41. Which of the following is a characteristic of a good hypothesis? It is vague and open-ended. It is based on personal beliefs rather than evidence. It is testable and falsifiable. It is overly complex and difficult to understand. 42. What is the purpose of data analysis in the research process? To collect data from participants. To develop research hypotheses. To summarize and interpret the collected data. To conduct a literature review. 43. When testing the impact of a new training program on employee productivity, what might the alternate hypothesis (Ha) state? The new training program has no effect on productivity. Employee productivity has decreased after the training. The new training program has improved employee productivity. Employee productivity depends on factors other than training. 44. What is the purpose of selecting a research design in the research process? To determine the sample size. To collect and analyze data. To formulate research questions. To plan the overall approach to the study. 45. Which of the following statements best describes a directional hypothesis? It predicts that there will be no difference between groups. It predicts the specific direction of the relationship between variables. It predicts that there will be a difference, but does not specify the direction. It predicts that the relationship between variables will be curvilinear. 46. Research design, according to Kerlinger (1986) is defined as: A set of procedures for data collection and analysis. A plan, structure, and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers. A tool for manipulating variables in experiments. A method for analyzing quantitative data. 47. The significance of a large sample size in experimental research: It makes it possible to determine if a potential outcome is viable. It makes it possible to conduct the experiment in a controlled and standardized manner. It makes it possible to use appropriate statistical analysis techniques to analyze the data. It makes it possible to interpret the findings of the experiment in relation to the research question. 48. The group not receiving the treatment in an experimental design is called: Reference group Control group Placebo group Alternative group 49. Exploratory research design utilizes a variety of techniques such as surveys, literature reviews, and__________ Descriptive studies Case studies Controlled experiments Systematic observations 50. Which of the following is a characteristic of a well-designed research study? Complexity Lack of clarity Inflexibility Appropriateness of methods 51. In experimental research, participants are randomly assigned to different groups to ensure _______ and minimize bias. A larger sample size Independent variables Random assignment Determining the sample size 52. A researcher wants to study the impact of a new teaching method on student learning outcomes. Which research design would be most appropriate for this study? Descriptive research design Correlational research design Experimental research design Exploratory research design 53. What is a cross-sectional research design? A design in which data is collected at one point in time. A design in which data is collected over a period of time. A design in which data is collected from a representative sample of the population. A design in which data is collected from a non-representative sample of the population. 54. Which of the following is not a type of research design? Experimental design Descriptive design Correlational design Probability design 55. The purpose of determining the dependent variable in experimental research: To manipulate or control the aspect of the experiment. To ensure that the experiment is conducted in a controlled and standardized manner. To determine the number of participants that will be included in the experiment. To measure the outcome or effect that depends on the independent variable. 56. Which of the following is true about descriptive research design? It is used to determine causality. It is used to determine if there is a correlation between two or more variables. It is used to provide answers to questions about the current status of a phenomenon. It is not important for data collection. 57. Research that is data-based, coming up with conclusions that are capable of being verified by observation or experiment is known as: Contextual research Conceptual research Ideal research Empirical research 58. A researcher conducts interviews and observations to gather preliminary information about a topic before designing a more focused study. Which research design is being used? Experimental research design Longitudinal research design Exploratory research design Correlational research design. 59. What distinguishes experimental research design from other types of research designs? Lack of manipulation of variables. Absence of a control group. Random assignment of participants to conditions. Non-systematic data collection methods. 60. A non-government organization conducted a study in a Gram Panchayat to see the impacts of campaign approach on enrolment and retention of rural elementary school children. This is an example of Descriptive study. Lab experiment. Ex-post facto research. Historical research. 61. Which feature of a research design allows for adjustments and modifications as needed during the research process? Flexibility Efficiency Economy Error control 62. Economical research design aims to: Use the most expensive tools and equipment available. Minimize costs without compromising quality. Sacrifice quality to meet budget constraints. Prioritize speed over accuracy in data collection. 63. What are the steps involved in creating a research design? Defining research objectives, selecting data collection methods, and analyzing data. Choosing a research question, identifying the population, and planning data collection procedures. Determining the statistical analysis plan, selecting the research problem, and developing an outline. Considering aims and approach, choosing a research design, and deciding on data analysis strategies. 64. An efficient research design maximizes: Time and resources while minimizing waste. The complexity of data collection methods. The number of participants involved in the study. The reliance on outdated research methodologies. 65. Error control in research design aims to: Maximize bias and random variation in the data. Minimize the accuracy and reliability of the findings. Ensure that data collection is haphazard and unstructured. Minimize the likelihood of bias or random variation in the data. 66. Which characteristic is NOT associated with a good research design? Validity Generalizability Neutrality Complexity 67. Sampling error is defined as: Error that occurs due to inaccuracies in measurement instruments. Error that occurs due to random variation in the sample selection process. Error that occurs due to systematic biases in the research design. Error that occurs due to limitations in the research budget. 68. Which feature of research design ensures that the study is conducted in a systematic and methodical manner? Flexibility Clarity Appropriateness Rigidity 69. Which of the following best describes clarity in research design? Keeping the research objectives vague to allow for flexibility. Using complex terminology to demonstrate expertise. Ensuring that research goals, methods, and procedures are clearly defined. Providing limited details to maintain confidentiality. 70. Appropriateness in research design focuses on: Using a design that is not suitable for the research question. Employing a design that aligns well with the research question and objectives. Utilizing a design solely because it's trendy, regardless of its fit with the research question. Selecting a design based on personal preference rather than research requirements. 71. What does inferential statistics help researchers determine? The central tendency of the data. Whether the results are statistically significant. The frequency of occurrences within the data. The distribution of data points. 72. What is the purpose of a research design? To determine the statistical analysis plan for a study.  To select the appropriate research problem and hypotheses. To identify the population and sampling method for a study. To develop an outline for a research paper. 73. When would a researcher use qualitative data analysis techniques? When dealing with numerical data. When looking for patterns, themes, or meanings in textual or visual data. When conducting experiments. When analyzing data from a Likert scale. 74. What statistical technique would you use to determine if there is a significant difference between the means of two or more groups? Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Chi-square test t-test Regression analysis 75. Which of the following is a characteristic of a well-designed research study? Complexity in data analysis. Lack of clear objectives. Alignment with research questions and objectives. Ignoring ethical considerations. 76. Construct validity refers to: Ensuring that the test adequately covers all relevant content areas. Establishing the test's consistency over repeated administrations. Demonstrating that the test measures the theoretical construct it claims to measure. Comparing test scores with scores obtained from different forms of the same test. 77. Face validity refers to: The extent to which a test appears to measure what it claims to measure. The degree to which different raters agree in their assessments. The stability of scores over repeated administrations of the same test. The accuracy of the test scores in predicting future performance. 78. A high coefficient of internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) suggests: Strong agreement among different raters. High stability of scores over time. High reliability of the test items in measuring the same construct. High correlation between test scores and an external criterion. 79. Test/retest’ and ‘parallel forms of the same test’ are: External consistency procedures to verify the reliability of a measure. External consistency procedures to verify the validity of a measure. Internal consistency procedures to verify the reliability of a measure. Internal consistency procedures to verify the validity of a measure. 80. The greatest danger when using alternate/parallel forms is that the: test takers will display practice effects. test takers can be confused by order effects. two forms will not be equivalent. test will be reliable but not valid. 81. Estimating reliability using methods of internal consistency is appropriate only for tests that are: alternate forms parallel forms equivalent forms homogenous 82. The extent to which the design and data of a research study allows the researcher to draw accurate conclusions about cause-and-effect and other relationships within the data is: External validity Internal validity Situation validity Construct validity 83. Which type of validity assesses whether a measure accurately predicts future behavior or outcomes? Construct validity Predictive validity Concurrent validity Face validity 84. The term used to describe when a research measures the variable or dimension it is supposed to measure is: Validity Reliability Dependability Suitability 85. A group of researchers want to make sure that the results they find in a particular group of participants would also be true for other people, we can say that the study has a high level of _____ validity: Face Ecological External Internal 86. Which of the following is an example of criterion validity? A new depression scale is compared to a well-established depression scale to see if they yield similar results. A researcher administers the same survey twice to a group of participants and compares the scores. Two observers rate the same behavior and their ratings are compared to assess agreement. A measurement tool consistently yields the same results over repeated administrations. 87. Which type of reliability assesses the consistency of measurements across different observers or raters? Test-retest reliability Internal consistency reliability Inter-rater reliability Parallel forms reliability 88.Which of the following reliability coefficients indicates the highest level of consistency? 0.30 0.50 0.70 0.90 89. Face validity is often assessed through: Statistical analyses Expert judgment Test-retest reliability Factor analysis. 90. A researcher develops a new questionnaire to measure anxiety levels in children. Which of the following actions would enhance the content validity of the questionnaire? Conducting a factor analysis to examine the underlying structure of the questionnaire. Administering the questionnaire to a large sample of children and analyzing the responses. Reviewing the questionnaire items with experts in child psychology to ensure relevance and clarity. Calculating the correlation between the questionnaire scores and academic performance. 91. What is a population in the context of statistics? The group of individuals or items from which data is collected The summary statistics calculated from a dataset The process of analyzing data The research design for a study. 92. What is a sampling distribution? The distribution of the sample means obtained from multiple samples of the same size from the population. The distribution of individuals in the population. The distribution of the sample sizes in a research study. The distribution of individuals in the sample. 93. The list of all individuals or items in a population from which the sample is drawn is known as: Sample size Sampling frame Sampling error Sampling Bias 94. What is the primary advantage of probability sampling? It is easy to implement. It allows for generalization of findings to the population. It is cost-effective. It ensures a diverse sample. 95. Which of the following sampling methods is commonly used in qualitative research? Simple random sampling. Cluster sampling. Convenience sampling. 96. Probability sampling methods: do not involve random selection.  involve selecting individuals based on specific criteria. ensure every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. involve selecting individuals who are readily available. 97. What is the relationship between a sample and a population in statistical research? The sample is a subset of the population. The sample is the entire population. The population is a subset of the sample. The population is the entire sample. 98. What is the main advantage of using a sample instead of a population in statistical research? It is cheaper and faster to collect data from a sample. It ensures that data is collected from every individual or item in the population. It eliminates the need for statistical analysis. It increases the accuracy of the research findings. 99. Which of the following best describes statistical inference? The process of collecting data from a sample. The process of making generalizations about a population based on data from a sample. The process of calculating summary statistics. The process of analyzing data using statistical methods. 100. In a survey of 1000 students at a university, what is the population? The 1000 students surveyed. All students enrolled at the university. The specific department the students belong to. The faculty members of the university. 101. What is meant by a non-probability sampling method? Sampling methods that do not involve random selection. Sampling methods that involve selecting individuals based on specific criteria. Sampling methods that ensure every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Sampling methods that involve selecting individuals who are readily available. 102. The error that occurs due to selecting a non-representative sample from the population is known as _______ error. Sampling Random Selection Non-representative. 103. Simple random sampling ensures that every member of the population has an _______ chance of being selected. Equal Random Unique Proportional 104. What is meant by a representative sample? A sample that includes individuals who are readily available and willing to participate. A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population. A sample that is selected using a systematic approach. A sample that includes every nth individual from a list of the population. 105. A researcher can keep the sample size low if the population is: Heterogenous Inaccessible Homogenous Large population. 106. The main characteristic of probability sampling: It involves selecting participants based on specific criteria. It ensures that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. It relies on the researcher's judgment to choose participants. It involves selecting participants who are readily aavailable. What is the primary advantage of using cluster sampling? It ensures a diverse representation of the population. It is cost-effective and efficient. It allows researchers to target specific groups of interest. It reduces the need for extensive planning and resources. Which Sampling method involves dividing the population into distinct subgroups and then randomly selecting individuals from each subgroup? Convenience sampling Purposive sampling Stratified sampling Snowball sampling Which of these is an example of probability sampling? cluster sampling quota sampling purposive sampling judgemental sampling What is the primary limitation of quota sampling? It requires extensive resources and time. It may result in biased samples if quotas are not properly defined. It ensures every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. It may not accurately represent the population if quotas are not representative. The sampling method in which selecting participants based on their unique characteristics is known as: Probability sampling Non-probability sampling Purposive sampling  Cluster sampling. A researcher wants to study the opinions of university students on a particular social issue. Which of the following sampling methods would be most suitable for this study? Stratified random sampling Snowball sampling Quota sampling Cluster sampling. Which sampling method involves selecting participants who are referred by other participants? Simple random sampling Systematic sampling Snowball sampling Cluster sampling. The primary advantage of snowball sampling is: It ensures every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. It is cost-effective and efficient. It allows for the inclusion of hard-to-reach populations. It provides a representative sample of the population. Which of the following is a key characteristic of stratified sampling? Selecting participants based on their availability and willingness to participate. Dividing the population into distinct subgroups and then randomly selecting individuals from each subgroup. Selecting participants who possess specific characteristics of interest to the study. Selecting participants who are referred by other participants. Which of the following is a characteristic of systematic sampling? It involves selecting participants based on specific criteria. It ensures that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. It requires the population to be divided into homogeneous groups. It selects participants at regular intervals from a predetermined starting point. Which of the following is a disadvantage of convenience sampling? It ensures a unrepresentative sample. It is cost-effective. It may lead to biased results. It requires extensive planning. Snowball sampling comes under the category of: random sampling probability sampling quota sampling  non-probability sampling When the available population is _____, we use a stratified sample. very large too small homogeneous heterogeneous A teacher conducts an ethnographic probe for the issues that were being faced by the tribal students. The sampling method used here will be? purposive sampling stratified sampling convenience sampling Systematic sampling Sampling error is the Error that occurs due to: inaccuracies in measurement instruments. random variation in the sample selection process. systematic biases in the research design. limitations in the research budget. What is the primary difference between sampling error and sampling bias? Sampling error is random, while sampling bias is systematic. Sampling error is systematic, while sampling bias is random. Both sampling error and sampling bias are random. Both sampling error and sampling bias are systematic. Which of the following is an example of sampling error? Selecting participants who are readily available and willing to participate. Selecting every nth individual from a list of the population. Selecting more individuals from one subgroup than would be representative. Selecting individuals based on specific characteristics or criteria relevant to the research question. The consequence of sampling bias in research is: It increases the likelihood of obtaining representative results. It decreases the likelihood of obtaining representative results. It has no effect on the representativeness of the results. It increases the variability of the results. The difference between the expected value of a statistic and the value of the parameter being estimated is called a: Standard error Bias Sampling error Non-sampling error The error of sampling is found only in:  quota survey all surveys census survey sample survey Which of the following best describes the calculation of sampling error? It is computed by subtracting the sample mean from the population mean. It is calculated by dividing the sample size by the population size. It is determined by comparing the sample size to the margin of error. It is derived from the difference between the sample statistic and the population parameter. What is a non-sampling error in research? Error that occurs due to inaccuracies in measurement instruments. Error that occurs due to random variation in the sample selection process. Error that occurs due to systematic biases in the research design. Error that occurs due to limitations in the research budget. The consequence of non-sampling error in research is that: It increases the likelihood of obtaining representative results. It decreases the likelihood of obtaining representative results. It has no effect on the representativeness of the results. It increases the variability of the results. The primary goal of minimizing sampling bias in research: To ensure that the sample accurately represents the population. To increase the variability of the research findings. To decrease the reliability of the research findings. To exclude certain groups from the sample. Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between sampling error and sample size? Sampling error decreases as sample size increases. Sampling error increases as sample size increases. Sampling error is unrelated to sample size. Sampling error is minimized when sample size is small. Which of the following is an example of non-sampling error? Selecting participants who are readily available and willing to participate. Selecting every nth individual from a list of the population. Selecting more individuals from one subgroup than would be representative. Selecting individuals based on specific characteristics or criteria relevant to the research question. If a researcher calculates a mean height for a sample of 100 individuals and compares it to the known mean height of the entire population, any difference is likely due to: Measurement error Sampling error Systematic bias Standard deviation. Which of the following situations would likely result in a larger sampling error? A random sample of 500 individuals from a population of 5,000. A random sample of 500 individuals from a population of 50,000. A random sample of 200 individuals from a population of 2,000. A random sample of 200 individuals from a population of 20,000. Which of the following best describes sampling bias? The tendency for the sample to over represent certain characteristics of the population. The likelihood of selecting participants who are easily accessible. The systematic error introduced into sampling by selecting participants from certain groups. The random variation in sample selection leading to unrepresentative samples. Which of the following is an advantage of observation as a data collection method? It allows for self-reporting by participants. It can provide rich, detailed information about behaviour. It relies on participants' memories of past events. It is less time-consuming than other methods. Which of the following is NOT a type of psychological test? Intelligence tests Personality tests Achievement tests Case studies. The primary purpose of intelligence tests is: To assess an individual's cognitive abilities. To measure an individual's personality traits. To evaluate an individual's academic achievement. To diagnose mental health disorders. An interview in data collection is: A method of observing behaviour in its natural environment. A structured questionnaire administered to participants. A systematic conversation between a researcher and participant. A standardized test used to assess personality traits. The type of interview that involves asking participants a fixed set of predetermined questions is: Structured interview Semi-structured interview Unstructured interview Group interview The primary disadvantage of unstructured interviews is: They can be time-consuming and difficult to analyse. They provide limited opportunities for in-depth exploration. They rely on predetermined questions with little flexibility. Participants may feel constrained by the fixed format. In participant observation, the researcher: Observes behaviour without interacting with participants.  Actively participates in the group being observed. Relies solely on self-reported data from participants. Conducts observations in a controlled laboratory setting. Which of the following is a characteristic of projective psychological tests? They involve objective scoring of responses. They rely on participants' interpretations of ambiguous stimuli. They provide standardized scores for comparison. They are primarily used for assessing intelligence. What is the primary advantage of using semi-structured interviews in qualitative research? They allow for the collection of standardized data across all participants. They provide greater control over the interview process and participant responses. They facilitate in-depth exploration of participants' perspectives and experiences. They minimize the risk of interviewer bias and subjective interpretation. When developing a new psychological test, why is it important to establish its validity and reliability? To ensure that the test is culturally appropriate for all populations. To determine whether the test measures what it claims to measure consistently and accurately. To identify potential biases in the test administration and scoring procedures. To establish norms and interpret scores effectively across different populations. What is a potential limitation of self-report measures in psychological testing? They rely on the subjective interpretation of an examiner. They are less reliable than objective measures of behaviour. They may be influenced by social desirability bias. They are more susceptible to experimenter bias. What is the primary purpose of focus groups in qualitative research? To collect individual perspectives. To explore complex social phenomena. To observe participants in natural settings. To conduct experiments. Which qualitative data collection method would be most appropriate for studying a cultural phenomenon within a specific community? Content analysis Ethnography Case study Grounded theory Which qualitative data analysis technique is commonly used in conjunction with narrative analysis to identify recurring themes? Grounded theory Descriptive statistics Content analysis Factor analysis When using narrative analysis to study autobiographical narratives, what aspect of the narrative is often examined? The chronological sequence of events. The grammatical structure of sentences.  The emotional tone of the story. The geographical setting of the narrative. What is criterion validity in the context of questionnaires? The extent to which the questionnaire measures the intended construct. The degree to which the questionnaire produces consistent results. The correlation between scores on the questionnaire and an external criterion measure. The agreement between different raters who administer the questionnaire. A researcher develops a new questionnaire to measure anxiety levels and compares it with an established anxiety scale. This is an example of: Content validity Criterion validity Construct validity Concurrent validity. Internal consistency reliability of a questionnaire is typically assessed using the statistic: Pearson correlation coefficient Cronbach's alpha Spearman rank correlation coefficient Intraclass correlation coefficient. A researcher administers the same questionnaire to a group of participants twice, with a one-week interval between administrations, and calculates the correlation between the two sets of scores. This is an example of assessing: Test-retest reliability Inter-rater reliability Internal consistency reliability Alternate forms reliability. One of the following factors may impact the generalizability of questionnaire findings: Sample size Question order Response bias Reliability coefficient. Inter-rater reliability assesses: The consistency of responses to the same questionnaire administered at different points in time. The agreement between different raters who administer the same questionnaire. The correlation between scores on the questionnaire and an external criterion measure. Whether the items on the questionnaire adequately represent the content domain of interest. A researcher administers a questionnaire on job satisfaction to employees in a specific company and then generalizes the findings to other companies in the same industry. This is an example of: Internal validity External validity Concurrent validity Predictive validity. One of the following is a characteristic of closed-ended questions in a questionnaire: They allow for detailed responses They provide flexibility in responses  They limit response options to predefined choices They encourage participants to elaborate on their answers. A Likert scale question in a questionnaire is defined as: A question with only two response options (yes/no). A question that asks participants to rate their agreement on a scale. A question that asks participants to choose from a list of options. A question that encourages participants to provide detailed responses. Which of the following is a potential source of bias in questionnaire design? Using a combination of closed-ended and open-ended questions. Avoiding leading or biased language in questions. Providing clear instructions to participants. Including double-barreled questions. The purpose of pre-testing a questionnaire is: To administer the questionnaire to a large sample. To refine the wording and format of the questionnaire. To analyze the data collected from the questionnaire. To select participants for the questionnaire study. When would a dichotomous questionnaire be most appropriate for data collection? When exploring complex attitudes or opinions. When seeking detailed responses from participants. When conducting exploratory research with broad objectives. When requiring simple yes/no or true/false responses. Which consideration is particularly important when selecting a sample for group-administered questionnaires? Representativeness of the sample Size of the sample Diversity of the sample Availability of the sample In a research study comparing the effectiveness of different teaching methods, which approach to administering questionnaires would be most appropriate? Individual administration to each student. Group administration to entire classes. Online administration to individual participants. Postal administration to participants' homes. In a study assessing the validity of a questionnaire measuring depression, which criterion would be most appropriate to establish concurrent validity? Participants' scores on a related measure of anxiety. Participants' performance on a cognitive task. Participants' responses to open-ended interview questions. Participants' clinical diagnoses of depression. In a field study, researchers aim to: Control all variables to establish causality. Observe behaviour in natural settings without manipulation. Control participant responses through deception.  Manipulate variables to establish causality. One of the following advantage of field studies is: High control over extraneous variables. Artificial settings for experimental manipulation. Generalizability of findings to real-world settings. Limited ecological validity. What distinguishes field experiments from laboratory experiments? Field experiments involve artificial settings for experimental manipulation. Field experiments involve random assignment of participants to conditions. Field experiments are conducted in naturalistic environments outside of a laboratory. Field experiments provide high control over extraneous variables. Ex-post facto research is defined as: Research conducted to establish causality between variables. Research conducted in controlled laboratory settings. Research conducted after the fact, without manipulation of variables. Research conducted through observational studies. Which of the following is an example of a field study? Observing behaviour in a controlled laboratory setting. Conducting surveys online. Studying the behaviour of shoppers in a shopping mall. Experimenting with participants in a psychology laboratory. A researcher wants to study the impact of a new traffic regulation on accident rates. Which of the following would be an important consideration in designing a field experiment for this study? Conducting the experiment during rush hour only. Randomly assigning drivers to control and experimental conditions. Using a laboratory setting to manipulate traffic conditions. Obtaining consent from all drivers involved in the study. In a study on the effects of urbanization on wildlife populations, researchers observe changes in animal behaviour and habitat use in areas with varying levels of urban development. This is an example of: A field experiment. A controlled observation. A field study. A correlational study. A researcher wants to study the impact of a new agricultural practice on crop yield in different regions. Which of the following would be an important consideration in designing a field study for this research? Ensuring participants are unaware of the experimental conditions. Using historical data on crop yield. Randomly assigning regions to control and experimental conditions. Obtaining permission from local farmers to conduct the study. The challenge of demand characteristics in field experiments refers to: Participants's tendency to respond in ways they believe are expected of them. Difficulty in controlling extraneous variables. Lack of control over the experimental environment.  Limited generalizability to real-world settings. Which of the following research questions is most suitable for ex post facto research? How does sleep deprivation affect memory performance? What is the effect of a new teaching method on student achievement? Are there differences in anxiety levels between individuals with and without a history of trauma? Does caffeine consumption lead to increased heart rate? After identifying existing conditions in ex post facto research, what is the subsequent step? Determining the causal relationship. Selecting the appropriate statistical analysis. Randomly selecting the sample. Identifying potential confounding variables. Which of the following is a potential challenge in conducting laboratory experiments compared to field experiments? Limited control over extraneous variables. Difficulty in replicating results. Increased ecological validity. Higher cost and time requirements. In terms of generalizability, which type of data collection is typically considered more applicable to real-world situations? Field experiments Laboratory experiments Case study Random assignment Which of the following statements best describes the ecological validity of field experiments compared to laboratory experiments? Field experiments have lower ecological validity than laboratory experiments. Field experiments have higher ecological validity than laboratory experiments. Both field and laboratory experiments have equal ecological validity. Ecological validity is not relevant to experimental research. Which factor is most critical to consider when selecting a mode of administration for questionnaires? Cost-effectiveness Response rates Sample representativeness Data quality and validity