Study Unit 5: Hinduism PDF

REL 120 STUDY UNIT 5 HINDUISM PRESENTED BY: XONGI MASIYA  Discuss the history of the Dravidian and Aryan cultures. 2. Explain the main Hindu concepts (i.e. Karma, dharma, sansara, moksha, bhakti, cast and class STUDY system). OBJECTIV...

REL 120 STUDY UNIT 5 HINDUISM PRESENTED BY: XONGI MASIYA  Discuss the history of the Dravidian and Aryan cultures. 2. Explain the main Hindu concepts (i.e. Karma, dharma, sansara, moksha, bhakti, cast and class STUDY system). OBJECTIV 3. Explain the characteristics of the main gods. ES 4. Describe the concept of gods in Hinduism by way of defining concepts (i.e. polytheism, monotheism, henotheism, pantheism, Trimurti) 5. Discuss the nature and content of the epic literature (i.e. Ramayana and Mahabhrata)  THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT WAS NOT PART OF ASIA FROM THE BEGINNING BUT FORMED THE SO-CALLED SUPER-CONTINENT OF GONDWANALAND WITH AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, ANTARCTICA AND SOUTH AMERICA. AFTER GONDWANA BROKE UP, THE CONTINENTAL PLATE ON WHICH INDIA WAS DRIFTED TOWARDS ASIA. IT COLLIDED WITH THE ASIATIC PLATE WITH SUCH IMPACT THAT IT PARTIALLY DROVE UNDER THE ASIATIC PLATE. THE FORCE CREATED THE IMMENSE HIMALAYAN RANGE (TO THE NORTH OF PRESENT INDIA). THE INDIAN THE HIMALAYAS MAY BE SEEN AS A HUGE WALL CUTTING INDIA OFF FROM THE REST OF ASIA. SUBCONTINE THIS IS THE MAIN FACTOR IN INDIA’S ISOLATION AND UNIQUE NT DEVELOPMENT. INDIA HOWEVER IS ALSO A VERY LARGE REGION, A SUBCONTINENT IN FACT. IT HOUSES MANY PEOPLES AND ETHNIC GROUPS. PAST INVADERS FROM ASIA WERE SIMPLY ABSORBED. VERY FEW GROUPS OF INVADERS WERE SUCCESSFUL IN LEAVING THEIR STAMP. ALL WERE IN THE END TRANSFORMED INTO INDIANS. THE NAME INDIA IS DERIVED FROM THE INDUS RIVER (SANSKRIT: SINDHU) THAT FLOWS IN THE NORTHWEST. THE GREATER PART OF THIS RIVER FALLS WITHIN THE BOUNDARIES OF MODERN DAY PAKISTAN.  SOME HISTORICAL COMMENTS Aryan Drawidian Cultural poor Cultural rich Military strong Military weak Nomandic, scavengers Agricultural community Religion: Male gods, power, celestial Religion: female godesses, fertility, bodies, fire, hunting earthbound, water, plants, animals  1 AND 2. THE FIRST TWO PERIODS IN INDIAN HISTORY, CULTURE AND RELIGION ARE NAMED AS THE ARYAN, VEDIC OR THE CLASSICAL PHASE. BY TERMING IT “CLASSICAL” THE INDIANS DISPLAY A CERTAIN ROMANTIC VIEW OF WHAT WAS BASICALLY HISTORY AN ARYAN DOMINATED ERA. DRAVIDIAN CULTURE AND RELIGION CONTINUED NONETHELESS. OF INDIA 3. IN THIS PERIOD PLURALITY BROKE THROUGH. IT MAY ALSO BE DESCRIBED AS A PERIOD OF INSTABILITY AND DIVISION. IS DIVIDED THE VEDIC (OR ARYAN) RELIGION CRUMBLED AND DIVERSE CULTIC TRADITIONS DEVELOPED. DURING THIS PHASE INTO BUDDHISM, JAINISM AND LATER ALSO HINDUISM DEVELOPED. 4. THE ARAB MUSLIMS INVADED INDIA DURING THIS PERIOD SEVEN FROM THE NORTHWEST. INITIALLY THEY OCCUPIED AREAS IN NORTHERN INDIA. GRADUALLY THEY EXTENDED THEIR PERIODS. INFLUENCE RIGHT THROUGH THE REGION. DURING THE LATTER PART OF THE PERIOD THE ARAB MUSLIMS WERE DISPLACED BY THE MONGOLS (OR HUNS). THEIR IMPACT WAS HOWEVER OF BRIEF DURATION. 5. THE FIFTH PERIOD BELONGS TO THE MUGHAL MUSLIMS (ALSO KNOWN AS THE MOGULS). THEY WERE OF TURKISH DESCENT. THEY WERE ALSO MASTER BUILDERS. THE WELL-KNOWN TAJ MAHAL WAS BUILD BY A MOGUL KING. THE MUSLIMS NEVER SUCCEEDED IN FINALLY SUBJUGATING THE SOUTHERN REGIONS OF INDIA, AS THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES AND TRIBES ACTIVELY RESISTED. THE DEVELOPMENT OF HINDUISM WAS GREATLY STIMULATED BY GROWING INDIAN DISLIKE OF MUSLIM DOMINATION AND A REVIVAL OF VEDIC PRIDE AND SELF-ESTEEM. DURING THIS PERIOD ANOTHER IMPORTANT RELIGION CAME INTO EXISTENCE, I.E. SIKHISM. SIKHISM MAY BE DESCRIBED AS A SYNTHESIS OF HINDUISM, ISLAM, CHRISTIANITY AND ELEMENTS OF ANCIENT IRANIAN RELIGION. IT DEVELOPED QUITE EARLY RATHER MILITANT FEATURES AND THROUGH ITS MILITARY PROWESS SIKHISM LATER LAID CLAIM TO THE PUNJAB REGION. LATER THEY PROVED TO BE A THORN IN THE SIDE OF THE BRITISH COLONIAL REGIME. THE “SIKH PROBLEM” WAS EVENTUALLY SOLVED WHEN THE PUNJAB WAS DIVIDED BETWEEN INDIA AND PAKISTAN. THUS THE POWER OF THE SIKHS WAS BROKEN. VASCO DA GAMA LANDED AT THE END OF THE FIFTH PERIOD IN CALICUT. 7. THE SEVENTH PERIOD IS THE PRESENT. IT BEGAN WHEN BRITAIN PROCLAIM INDIA’S INDEPENDENCE IN 1949. TWO STATES RESULTED I.E. INDIA AND PAKISTAN. THE EASTERN PART OF PAKISTAN HAS SINCE BROKEN AWAY AND BECAME KNOWN AS BANGLA DESH. WHEN TRYING TO MAKE SENSE OF INDIA IT MUST BE REMEMBERED THAT IT ENTAILS A SUBCONTINENT WITH NUMEROUS PEOPLES, RACIAL AND LINGUISTIC GROUPS, AND DIVERGENT CULTURES. INDIA NEVER WAS A HOMOGENOUS REGION. IT MAY BE COMPARED TO EUROPE OR AFRICA IN TERMS OF RACIAL, CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS PLURALITY. THE BRITISH WERE THE FIRST TO INSTALL ONE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT IN INDIA. UP TO THEN POLITICAL UNITY WAS UNHEARD OF. EVEN UNDER BRITISH RULE SEVERAL LOCAL KINGDOMS SURVIVED. THEY DID NOT SURVIVE INDEPENDENCE HOWEVER, SINCE THE NEW INDIAN GOVERNMENT BROUGHT AN END TO THEIR SEPARATE EXISTENCE. POLITICAL UNITY FINALLY EVADED THE SUBCONTINENT BY THE FORMATION OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN. PRESENTLY THERE ARE THREE STATES ON THE SUBCONTINENT.  BRAHMA, BRAHMAN, BRAHMANA AND BRAHMIN BRAHMA IS THE CREATOR GOD WHO CREATED TIME, PERIODS AND WORLDS. HE IS PICTURED AS A BEARDED MALE FIGURE WITH FOUR HEADS AND FOUR ARMS. IN CONTRAST WITH BIBLICAL CREATION IDEAS, HE SHOULD NOT BE SEEN AS A SUPREME BEING WHO CREATED EVERYTHING FROM NOTHING. HE WAS RATHER AN ARTISAN WHO FASHIONED EXISTING CHAOTIC MATERIAL INTO AN ORDERLY CREATION. BRAHMAN IS THE IMPERSONAL POWER, ENERGY, SPIRIT OR EVEN LIFE ITSELF, WHICH PULSATES THROUGH EVERYTHING AND MAKES THIS UNIVERSE A LIVING ENTITY OR ORGANISM. IT IS THE MOST CENTRAL AND IMPORTANT CONCEPT AND PRINCIPLE IN HINDUISM. BRAHMANA IS THE NAME OF A GROUP OF SACRED BOOKS THAT FORM PART OF THE SO-CALLED VEDIC COMMENTARIES – SACRED TEXTS DEALING WITH SACRIFICIAL RITUALS. A BRAHMIN IS A MEMBER OF THE CLASS OF PRIESTS WHO FORM THE TOP CLASS IN THE CLASS AND CASTE SYSTEM. ONLY A BRAHMIN MAY PERFORM THE SACRIFICIAL RITE.  KARMA, DHARMA, SAMSARA, SALVATION KARMA KARMA IS A VEDIC TERM, WHICH ENTAILS THE CONCEPTS OF ACTION AND RECKONING. ORIGINALLY THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA DEALT WITH THE PERSON AND FUNCTIONS OF VARUNA. HE WAS A SUPREME DEITY WHO SAW TO THE ORDER OF THE COSMOS, NATURE AND HUMANITY. HE REWARDED GOOD DEEDS AND PUNISHED EVIL OR SIN. ORIGINALLY DIVINE JUSTICE WAS UNDERSTOOD TO BE PERSONAL (ASSOCIATED WITH THE PERSON AND ACTIONS OF VARUNA). GRADUALLY HOWEVER THE LINK WITH VARUNA DISAPPEARED AND JUSTICE BECAME A BLIND, IMPERSONAL PRINCIPLE OF REWARDS AND RECKONING – EVEN APPLYING TO THE GODS AND DEMI-GODS. AT THIS POINT IT NEEDS TO BE SAID THAT THE ESSENCE AND NATURE OF JUSTICE AND ITS RELATION WITH THE DIVINE SPHERE, AS WELL AS THE CONCEPT OF FATE, PRESENT A DIFFICULT ISSUE IN MOST RELIGIONS (CF THE GREEK TRAGEDIES AND BIBLICAL JOB).  IN EVERY OTHER RELIGION IT IS ANSWERED DIFFERENTLY. ALTHOUGH BUDDHA IGNORED THE VEDIC NOTION OF GODS WHEN THINKING ABOUT SIN AND SALVATION, HE ACCEPTED THE NOTION OF KARMA. AT THIS POINT BUDDHISM AND HINDUISM ARE RATHER CLOSE TO EACH OTHER. KARMA GRADUALLY DEVELOPED INTO A RATHER FATALISTIC CONCEPT. JUSTICE IS SEEN AS RELENTLESS, UNYIELDING TO A SINNER’S REPENTANCE OR CONFESSION OF SINS. UNINTENDED SINS ARE ALSO PUNISHED. KARMA MEANS THAT WHAT YOU SOW YOU WILL REAP, IF NOT IN THIS LIFE THEN IN A NEXT. THE ONE PERSON WILL BE ADVANTAGED BY BIRTH AND FAVOURABLE LIVING CIRCUMSTANCES. THUS EARNING GOOD KARMA POINTS WILL BE RELATIVELY EASY, IN COMPARISON WITH THE NEXT PERSON WHO IS BATTLING TO SURVIVE AND MAY BE FORCED TO STEAL IN ORDER TO EAT. THE LATTER GUY WILL PAY THE PRICE IN THE FORM OF BAD KARMA. IS IT POSSIBLE TO ESCAPE THE RELENTLESS YOKE OF KARMA? IN LATER VEDISM IT IS SUGGESTED THAT MAGIC OR MAGIC RITUALS WOULD ENABLE THE SINNER TO BEAT THE SYSTEM. BUDDHA’S TEACHINGS GUIDE SINNERS TOWARDS SELF-SALVATION. IN HINDUISM DIFFERENT SCHOOLS GIVE DIFFERENT ANSWERS.  DHARMA DHARMA IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IN UNDERSTANDING THE THEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF LATE VEDISM AS WELL AS THE DEVELOPMENT OF HINDUISM AS SUCH. “DHARMA” MEANS “LAW”. IT ENTAILS HOWEVER MUCH MORE THAN OUR UNDERSTANDING OF LAW. IN HINDUISM IT HAS TO DO WITH THE SACRAL UNDERPINNINGS OF THE SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND RELIGIOUS STRUCTURE. IT ALSO HAS TO DO WITH COSMIC AND DIVINE ORDER. AT VAN LEEUWEN (1966:147) DESCRIBES IT AS FOLLOWS:  DHARMA IS BASICALLY A RELIGIOUS SOCIO-POLITICAL CONCEPT AIMED AT AFFIRMING AND PRESERVING BALANCE, JUSTICE, PROSPERITY AND CULTURE IN SOCIETY, IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE ORDER OF THE COSMOS. THE SOCIETY (AND STATE) IS AN ORGANISM JUST LIKE THE UNIVERSE IN WHICH EVERYTHING AND EVERY PART HAS ITS PLACE AND ROLE. DHARMA IS BASED IN THE ORDERLY STRUCTURE OF THE COSMOS, OF THE WORLD AND OF SOCIETY. IT ORDERS THE PLACE, ROLE AND RULES OF EVERY GROUP, CASTE AND CLASS. THIS MEANS THAT EVERY CLASS AND CASTE HAS ITS OWN DHARMA AND THAT NO SINGLE SET OF RULES APPLIES TO ALL HUMANS. THE TERM DHARMA IS ALSO USED IN BUDDHISM, BUT IN A RADICALLY DIFFERENT SENSE. DHARMA IN BUDDHISM (ALSO “DHAMMA”) IS THE FUNDAMENTAL TRUTH DISCOVERED BY BUDDHA, WHICH EXPLAINS SUFFERING, THE CAUSES THEREOF AND SALVATION. BUDDHIST DHARMA CAN BE DESCRIBED AS BUDDHA’S GOSPEL.  SAMSARA THE CONCEPT OF KARMA GOES HAND IN HAND WITH THE CONCEPT OF SAMSARA. IN FACT IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO DEAL WITH THE ONE WITHOUT REFERRING TO THE OTHER. SAMSARA (ALSO “SANSARA”) IS THE INDIAN TERM FOR WHAT WE KNOW AS REINCARNATION OF THE SOUL, I.E. NEVER- ENDING REBIRTHS (AFTER DEATH) AS INFLUENCED BY THE INDIVIDUAL’S KARMA. THE SOUL (ATMAN) OF A LIVING CREATURE WITH GOOD KARMA STANDS A GOOD CHANCE TO REACH A HIGH LEVEL OF EXISTENCE IN A NEXT REINCARNATION. THIS WOULD ALSO ENTAIL CIRCUMSTANCES MORE CONDUCIVE TO MORAL PERFORMANCE. EVENTUALLY THE INDIVIDUAL MAY REACH THE BRAHMIN CLASS FROM WHERE HE OR SHE MAY TRY FOR MOKSHA (SALVATION), I.E. BREAKING OUT OFF THE SAMSARA CYCLE. HOWEVER IF THE INDIVIDUAL HAS BAD KARMA CHANCES ARE THAT HE OR SHE WILL END UP IN A LOWER LIFE FORM. BUDDHA ALSO ACCEPTED SAMSARA AS POINT OF DEPARTURE. HE REJECTED THE NOTION OF A TRANSMIGRATING SOUL. SAMSARA WOULD STAY IN PLACE AS LONG AS KARMA (GOOD OR BAD) EXISTS. HIS “GOSPEL” TAUGHT THE WAY OF EVENTUALLY ESCAPING THE YOKE OF KARMA AND THUS ENTERING NIRVANA.  SALVATION(MOKSHA) SALVATION ENTAILS ESCAPING FROM THE RELENTLESS CYCLE OF SAMSARA. WHILE MANY WESTERNERS TAKE SAMSARA TO BE RATHER ATTRACTIVE INDIANS SEE IT AS THE PENALTY FOR SIN. TO SAY IT BLUNTLY: SALVATION TO THEM ENTAILS TO ESCAPE FROM LIFE. THE BUDDHIST TERM FOR SALVATION IS NIRVANA, WHILE HINDUISM USES THE TERM MOKSHA. THESE TWO RELIGIONS SEE SALVATION VASTLY DIFFERENTLY HOWEVER. IT MAY BE SAID THAT THEIR DIFFERENT VIEWS ON SALVATION IS THE MAIN POINT OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM. FOR THE HINDU MOKSHA ENTAILS BECOMING ONE WITH BRAHMAN, THE DIVINE SPIRIT, LIFE OR ENERGY THAT MAKES THE COSMOS A LIVING ORGANISM. IT MAY BE COMPARED WITH A DROP OF WATER FALLING INTO THE OCEAN AND THUS LOSING ITS IDENTITY. TO BE FINALLY ONE WITH BRAHMAN IS THE HIGHEST HINDU IDEAL  SALVATION MAY BE ACHIEVED IN MANY WAYS. IN JAINISM, BUDDHISM AND HINDUISM MUCH EMPHASIS IS PUT ON CORRECT KNOWLEDGE AND LIFTING ONESELF FROM THE QUAGMIRE OF IGNORANCE. MYSTICISM (YOGA) AND ASCETISM ARE IMPORTANT STEPS ON THE ROAD TO SALVATION. IN CERTAIN SCHOOLS OF HINDUISM PRACTISING BHAKTI IS ESSENTIAL. IN LOWER CLASSES MUCH IS MADE OF INFLICTING PAIN ON THE SELF (E.G. WALKING ON COALS, PENETRATING THE BODY WITH NEEDLES ETC), MAGIC AND CULTIC RITUALS. IT IS GENERALLY ACCEPTED THAT ONLY A SMALL PERCENTAGE OF HUMANITY REACHES SALVATION. THE MAJORITY REMAINS CAUGHT UP IN THE RELENTLESS WHEELS OF SAMSARA.  The notion that reality does not really exist and that our experience of reality is nothing but illusion, is found in both Hinduism and Buddhism. REALITY The Madhyamika school in die Mahayana Buddhism teaches AND for example that all things, the world itself, are essentially “empty”, “unsubstantive”. Reality is nothing but an illusion created by culture, convention, our conditioned state. ILLUSION Humans have a psychological need for security and therefore they tend to condition themselves with the (illusionary) idea that they live in a world of real entities. In In factHinduism the only are these “entities” reality is Brahman nothing and it follows but projections that of culture. realism is only possible when the subject/person is one with Brahman. Disjunction/Separation from Brahman follows ignorance. Ignorance is also the origin of sin: when a person believes it possible to live an individual, autonomous existence. Such an existence is nothing but an existence in illusion – a world of the eternal fluid where everything is continually changing form and nature.  THIS CONCEPT CAN BE TRANSLATED WITH “LOVE”, BHAKTI “DEVOTION” OR “PIETY”. IT ENTAILS A LIFE OF LOVE AND DEVOTION TOWARDS BRAHMAN. ONE OF THE GROUPS WITHIN HINDUISM PURSUES BHAKTI AS MAIN IDEAL. THEIR FOUNDER WAS RAMANUYA WHO INTERPRETED THE BHAGAVAD GITA AND THE BRAHMA SUTRA IN TERMS OF BHAKTI. DURING THE SEVENTH CENTURY AD BHAKTI PIETY REVIVED STRONGLY AMONG THE TAMIL IN THE DRAVIDIAN SOUTH (OOSTHUIZEN 1977:200). INDICATIONS ARE THAT BHAKTI HAILS BACK TO THE PRE-ARYAN RELIGION OF THE DRAVIDIANS. IT IS THEREFORE OF IMPORTANCE THAT THE RISE OF BHAKTI DURING THE LAST PHASE OF VEDISM PLAYED A SIGNIFICANT ROLE IN THE TRANSFORMATION OF VEDISM TO HINDUISM. IT ALSO SIGNALLED THE DEMISE OF THE IMPERSONAL, RITUALISTIC, MAGIC-MECHANIC PIETY OF OLD. YOGA AS ALREADY MENTIONED, YOGA IS ACCEPTED AS ONE OF INDIAN RELIGION’S ROUTES TO SALVATION. THE TERM IS RELATED TO “YOKE” AND SIGNIFIES DISCIPLINE, CONCENTRATION, MEDITATION AND EVEN “UNIFICATION WITH THE DIVINE SPIRIT”. YOGA IS BASICALLY A PHYSICAL-SPIRITUAL DISCIPLINE, WHICH CAN LEAD TO A DEEP MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE OF UNIFICATION WITH “DIVINITY”. THE INNER JOURNEY LEADS TO DISCOVERY OF THE DIVINE CORE OF HUMANITY. THIS LEADS TO SELF-REALIZATION. TRUE KNOWLEDGE OF THE SELF EQUALS KNOWLEDGE OF REALITY (ON BOTH NATURAL AND SUPERNATURAL LEVELS). IT MAY ALSO LEAD TO SELF- SALVATION. YOGA IS THUS BASED IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF AUTO- SOTERIOLOGY. YOGA IS PRACTICED IN BOTH BUDDHISM AND HINDUISM BUT IS INTERPRETED DIFFERENTLY BY THE VARIOUS TRADITIONS AND SCHOOLS IN BOTH.  THE ARYAN INVADERS HAD A LOW REGARD FOR THE INDIGENOUS DRAVIDIANS AND RESISTED DRAVIDIAN INFLUENCES FOR A LONG TIME. THE CLASS- AND CASTE SYSTEM WAS ONE OF THE STRUCTURES THAT CLASS- DEVELOPED AS RESULT. THE CLASS SYSTEM MAY BE SEEN AS A FORM OF SOCIAL DIFFERENTIATION (OR TO AND SAY IT BLUNTLY: APARTHEID) TO SHUT OUT UNDESIRED ELEMENTS. THE CASTE SYSTEM, WHICH INTERLOCKS CASTE WITH THE CLASS SYSTEM, HAS IN ITS TURN DRAVIDIAN ROOTS AND GOES BACK TO SOCIAL, TRIBAL AND ETHNIC SYSTEM DIFFERENTIATIONS THAT EXISTED IN PRE-ARYAN INDIA. IN INDIAN SOCIETY THE CLASSES FORM HORIZONTAL GROUPINGS, WHILE THE CASTES ARE SMALLER GROUPING WITHIN CLASSES AND IN SOME CASES ACROSS CLASSES. 1. The Brahmins is the most honoured class. Only Brahmins may become priests, but Brahmins are not automatically priests. Only Brahmins are allowed to study sacred literature. They must teach the lower classes. They are responsible for the religious and moral good of society. In ancient times they were held as human gods. 2. The Kshatriya is the class of noble men, warriors, and public officers. They may also become princes and kings. They are held in high esteem. 3. The Vaishya is the class of businessmen, shopkeepers, craftsmen and farmers. They are important in that they are responsible for the economical growth and prosperity of communities and larger society. In the past members of this class reached high positions in political life and government. 4. The Sudra is the lowest class. They are the slaves and servants. However, there had been cases of Sudra that became important leaders and even kings. This is an indication that the class system should not be seen as rigid and watertight. The caste system should not be confused with the class system. The various castes may be seen as sub groupings of the classes, although in some cases castes may consist of more than one class. A caste is typically a closed society which developed as the result of a common characteristic or activity, e.g. locality, ethnicity, economic specialisation In the majority of castes social interaction and etc. marrying is allowed only within the group. It is thought that there are about 2500 castes in India. The positive side of both the class and caste system is that society is orderly structured and that each individual knows his or her place. The negative side is discrimination against the socially disadvantaged (specifically the millions of pariahs).  HOLY LITERATURE THE HOLY BOOKS OF VEDISM FORM THE CANONICAL LITERATURE OF HINDUISM. IN HINDUISM IT IS COLLECTIVELY KNOWN AS SHRUTI (“REVELATION”). HINDUISM GENERATED ITS OWN SACRED LITERATURE. COLLECTIVELY IT IS KNOWN AS SMRITI (“TRADITION”). THE LATTER IS NOT REGARDED AS “CANONICAL”. HOWEVER, IT PLAYED AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF HINDUISM’S DOCTRINE AND CHARACTER.  THE VEDAS (VEDA: “WISDOM”, “SACRED KNOWLEDGE”) WERE FINALLY CANONIZED DURING THE SECOND CENTURY AD, ALTHOUGH THE GREATER PART OF THESE ANCIENT BOOKS CANONICA WERE CREATED MUCH EARLIER. CERTAIN BOOKS L MAY BE DATED AS EARLY AS THE 13TH CENTURY BC. THE VEDAS ARE GROUPED INTO THE LITERATUR SANHITAS AND THE VEDIC TREATISES. THE E SANHITAS CONSIST OF FOUR BOOKS OF WHOM THE RIGVEDA (RIG: “PRAISE”) IS CONSIDERED TO BE THE MOST ANCIENT SINCE IT CONTAINS HISTORICAL REFERENCES TO THE ARYAN INVASIONS.  THE VEDIC TREATISES CONSIST OF THE BRAHMANAS AND THE UPANISHADS, BOTH ANCIENT WORKS THAT FIGURED HIGHLY IN INDIAN RELIGION. THE UPANISHADS ARE ALSO KNOWN AS “VEDANTA” WHICH MEANS “THE ENDING AND CLOSURE OF THE VEDAS”. THE UPANISHADS FORM THE LAST PART OF THE CANONICAL LITERATURE. THE VEDAS WERE WRITTEN IN THE LANGUAGE OF THE ARYANS, SANSKRIT (MEANING “SACRED LANGUAGE”), WHICH WAS USED IN RELIGIOUS CONTEXT LONG AFTER ITS DISAPPEARANCE FROM NORMAL USAGE.  SUTRAS THESE BOOKS ARE BASICALLY PIOUS AND THEOLOGICAL REFLECTIONS ON THE VEDAS. NON- MAHABHARATA CANONICA THE NAME MEANS “THE BIG (MAHA) BHARATA L WAR”. IT CONSISTS OF ONE POEM CONTAINED IN 18 BOOKS. IT TELLS OF STRIFE AND WAR LITERATUR BETWEEN TWO FAMILIES WITHIN THE BHARATA E TRIBE. VARIOUS MATTERS OF TOPICAL IMPORTANCE FOR HINDUISM ARE BEEN DISCUSSED, E.G. THE CLASS AND CASTE SYSTEM, COSMOLOGY, YOGA, BHAKTI, ETHICS ETC.  RAMAYANA THIS WORK DEALS WITH THE STORY OF RAMA (ALSO “RAM”), AN INCARNATION (“AVATAR”) OF VISHNU. RAMA PERSONIFIED MANLINESS AND MALE VIRTUE. THE BOOK IS ACCORDED AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE FESTIVAL OF DIVALI- OR DEEPAVALI DURING WHICH MILLIONS OF CLAY LAMPS ARE LIT (THE SO-CALLED “FESTIVAL OF LIGHTS”). PURANAS THE PURANAS ARE PSEUDO-HISTORICAL WORKS THAT DEAL WITH PRE-HISTORY, COSMOGONY, THEOGONY AND VARIOUS STORIES ABOUT HINDU DEITIES. A BOOK IS CALLED AFTER THE GOD WHO FIGURED MOST PROMINENTLY IN IT, E.G. VISHNU PURANA. BOOKS OF TEACHING THIS GROUP CONSISTS OF DIVERSE WORKS. TEACHING IS GIVEN ON VARIOUS MATTERS, E.G. LAWS AND INSTITUTIONS.  TANTRIC LITERATURE THESE ARE SACRED BOOKS OF SHAKTISM (SEE P 67 OF THIS GUIDE). THEY CONTAIN VARIOUS RULES, PRESCRIPTS AND DIRECTIVES ON MAGIC AND RITES. SONGS IN REGIONAL LANGUAGES OR DIALECTS THE DIVERSITY AND HETEROGENEITY OF HINDUISM BECOMES EVEN MORE EVIDENT WHEN LITERATURE CREATED IN THE VARIOUS REGIONS IS TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT. MANY OF THESE BOOKS WERE WRITTEN IN REGIONAL DIALECTS AND ARE NORMALLY ACCESSIBLE TO LOCAL READERS ONLY. THE GREATER NUMBER DEVELOPED FROM TRADITIONAL RELIGIOUS NARRATIVES OR SONGS.  CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION Theism: The existence of a deity (or deities) in one form or another is Deism: The accepted. It is also existence of a deity accepted that this or divinity in one way world and the lives of or another is people are essentially accepted, yet neither Agnosticism: The determined by the the human world nor possibility that man existence or acts of human life is Atheism: The idea of can know anything such deity(ies). influenced by it. The god(s) or the divine meaningful about the Theism normally divine dimension is dimension is rejected. divine is rejected. includes the idea that something far Belief in (a) God is the believer may removed from the pointless. enter into a human reality. It is devotional accepted in a rather relationship with the theoretical sense deity or deities, only. normally with a view to personal benefit or even salvation.  The fundamental religious pattern of Hindu theology is pantheistic and monistic. Westerners tend to think of the cosmos as an inorganic, mechanical system (based on Newton’s gravity laws). Hinduism thinks of the universe as an organic or living entity. The cosmos is seen as a living organism, and the parts as organs. The life PANTHEI principle, the soul of this “organism” is Brahman. Brahman is also the highest divine principle that SM AND animates the cosmos. MONISM To speak of Creation in the Biblical sense is not correct. Better terms are birth, life, death and rebirth. Cosmogonic myths relate a repetitive cycle of these events. The god Brahma is thought of as “creator”, but not in Biblical sense. He did not create out of nothing. He fashioned everything from primal matter like an artisan.  POLYTHEISM Hinduism is also polytheistic. The gods of Hinduism are results of the unfolding divine reality and therefore “creatures” as well. They are divine beings, each with a special role and responsibility. However, they are not supreme beings. The “supreme being” of Hinduism is Brahman. It is impersonal, pure divine power, strength, energy, life itself that transfuses everything, the soul of the cosmos. Certain deities who enjoyed prominence in Vedism became obscure in Hinduism. Previously obscure deities became prominent and received new functions. A triad of deities (Trimurti), Brahma, Vishnu en Shiva, became very prominent.  BRAHMA IS THE CREATOR. HE MUST BE DISTINGUISHED FROM BRAHMAN. BRAHMA IS THE DIVINE ARTISAN WHO FASHIONED CREATION FROM PRIMAL MATTER. IN INDIA ONLY TWO TEMPLES ARE KNOWN TO BE DEVOTED TO HIS CULT. HE IS PICTURED AS A BEARDED MALE WITH FOUR HEADS AND FOUR ARMS. VISHNU IS A YOUNG FRIENDLY GOD NORMALLY PICTURED SITTING ON A GIANT LOTUS FLOWER. HE IS ALSO FREQUENTLY PICTURED WITH HIS CONSORT LAKSHMI. HE MAINTAINS CREATION AND NATURAL ORDER. HE APPEARS FREQUENTLY IN THE HUMAN AND NATURAL WORLD IN A MYRIAD OF REINCARNATIONS (AVATARS). IN THE PAST HE APPEARED AS MATSYA THE FISH (THAT RESCUED MANU FROM THE FLOOD WATERS), KURMA THE TORTOISE, RAMA AND KRISHNA. RAMA (ALSO “RAM”) IS A POPULAR FIGURE. HE AND HIS CONSORT SITA ARE NORMALLY WORSHIPED TOGETHER, ESPECIALLY WITH BHAKTI DEVOTION.  KRISHNA IS THE MOST POPULAR INCARNATION OF VISHNU. IN CERTAIN MYTHS HE IS PRESENTED AS A HEROS RATHER THAN AN INCARNATION (CF THE ROLE OF HERCULES IN GREEK MYTHOLOGY). THE GREEK WORD “HEROS” DESCRIBES A PERSON WHO LIVED LIFE TO THE FULL, WHO FREQUENTLY EXCEEDED THE LIMITS OF HUMAN EXISTENCE WITHOUT INCURRING THE LASTING IRE OF THE GODS. KRISHNA’S STORY IS ONE OF AN EVENTFUL BIRTH AND LIFE COLOURED BY MANY SUPERNATURAL SIGNS, EVENTS AND ACTS. HE WAS A TYPICAL SAMSON FIGURE WHO PERFORMED SUPERHUMAN DEEDS AND SAVED MANY. HE MARRIED APPROXIMATELY 16 000 WIVES AND FATHERED ABOUT 180 000 SONS. HE DIED AFTER BEEN WOUNDED FATALLY IN HIS HEEL (CF ACHILLES, GREEK HERO) DURING A HUNTING ACCIDENT. HOWEVER, HE WAS TAKEN INTO HEAVEN WHERE HE CONTINUED TO LIVE AS A GOD.  SHIVA IS THE THIRD PERSON OF THE DIVINE TRIAD. IT IS ACCEPTED THAT HE IS THE CONTINUATION OF RUDRA IN VEDISM. SHIVA IS THE GOD OF EXTREMES – ON THE ONE HAND THE GOD OF MEDITATION AND THE YOGI’S – ON THE OTHER HAND THE GOD OF EXTREME SEXUALITY. HE DISPLAYS A DEMONIC FACE WHEN HE IS PERFORMING HIS COSMIC DANCE. IN SUCH CIRCUMSTANCES THE HINDUS FEAR HIM AS GOD OF NATURAL DISASTERS AND DESTRUCTION. THEN AGAIN HE WOULD ENTER INTO A PERIOD OF EXTREME ASCETISM. HE IS ALSO WORSHIPED AS THE GOD OF SEXUALITY AND FERTILITY. HIS SYMBOL IS THE LINGA.  HINDUISM HAS FEMALE DEITIES ALSO. THEY ATTRACT MUCH DEVOTION AND WORSHIP. THEY ARE MOSTLY CONSORTS OF MALE GODS, E.G. DEVI, DURGA (WITH TEN ARMS) AND KALI A BLACK GODDESS LINKED WITH SHIVA. THE MOST PROMINENT GODDESS HOWEVER IS SAKTI, WHO IS A DIVINE PERSONIFICATION OF MALE SEXUAL DREAMS. TRACES OF HER CULT WERE FOUND IN PRE-ARYAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES, WHICH IS INDICATIVE OF HER DRAVIDIAN ORIGINS.16 ANIMAL DEITIES ARE ALSO PART OF THE HINDU PANTHEON. HANUMAN IS THE CUNNING APE GOD. HE IS ALSO THE GOD OF WISDOM AND LEARNING. HE HAS MANY TEMPLES WHERE TROOPS OF APES ARE KEPT. GANESHA IS HALF MAN HALF ELEPHANT. HE IS DEPICTED AS DESTROYER OF THE ENEMY OR UNFRIENDLY RESISTANCE. COWS ARE SACRED AND ARE ACCORDED IN MANY MYTHS A HIGHER POSITION THAN MAN. DAIRY PRODUCTS ARE ALLOWED, BUT KILLING AND EATING OF THESE ANIMALS IS PROHIBITED. HINDUISM DOES NOT HAVE A COW DEITY.  EVEN HUMANS ARE DEIFIED. A GOOD EXAMPLE IS GANDHI. MANY HINDUS VENERATE AND EVEN WORSHIP HIM AS A DIVINE FIGURE. HIS PICTURE IS FOUND IN NEARLY ALL HINDU HOUSEHOLDS, ESPECIALLY IN THE HOME SANCTUARY. FINALLY TREE AND PLANTS ARE ALSO WORSHIPED. EVERY TOWN HAS AT LEAST ONE SACRED TREE. MOUNTAINS, RIVERS AND PECULIARLY FORMED ROCKS ARE VENERATED AS WELL. RUNNING WATER PLAYS AN IMPORTANT PART IN HINDUISM. THE GANGES OR GANGA RIVER IS CONSIDERED SACRED AND IS VISITED BY MILLIONS OF PILGRIMS FOR PURIFICATION PURPOSES. ASHES OF CREMATED CORPSES ARE SCATTERED ON ITS WATERS. THE VERY POOR WHO CANNOT AFFORD CREMATION SIMPLY DUMP THEIR DEAD IN IT. CULTS OR DEVOTION 1. Vaishnavism AL SCHOOLS ASSOCIATE D WITH This cult or school is devoted to Vishnu. It is said that Vishnu was incarnated at least nine times. His tenth SPECIFIC incarnation is awaited with messianic expectation. Vishnu involves himself in human matters. His cult is very DEITIES personal. Devotion includes bhakti. In the past scholars tried to link Vaishnavism with Christianity. They theorised that this movement developed under the influence of Nestorian Christianity, a theory that has since been abandoned. However, it is said that dialogue initiatives should start with members of Vaishnavism, since this school are nearest to Christianity.  2. SAIVISM THE OBJECT OF DEVOTION AND WORSHIP IS OF COURSE SHIVA. HIS FOLLOWERS THINK OF HIM IN TERMS OF ADMIRATION, VENERATION AND FEAR. HIS NAME (SHIVA = “GRACIOUS”) IS FLATTERING IN ORDER TO CANVASS HIS FAVOUR. SAIVIST CULT MAY INCLUDE VARIOUS FORMS OF ECSTASY. YOGA IS IMPORTANT. SHIVA’S CULT IS FREQUENTLY LINKED WITH SAKTISM BECAUSE MANY OF THE FEMALE DEITIES INVOLVED IN SAKTISM ARE MYTHICALLY ASSOCIATED WITH SHIVA.  3. SAKTISM ALTHOUGH THIS CULT IS IDENTIFIED WITH THE NAME OF SAKTI VARIOUS FEMALE DEITIES ARE INVOLVED. IN SOME CASES, THEY ARE NOTHING BUT VARIANT NAMES OF THE SAME DEITY, OTHER ARE CLEARLY DIFFERENT DEITIES. EXCHANGE OF IDENTITIES IS HARD FOR WESTERNERS TO UNDERSTAND. IN HINDUISM IT IS HOWEVER UNDERSTOOD THAT DEITIES ARE NO ORDINARY PERSONALITIES. THEY ARE MYTHICAL VESSELS, BEARERS OF DIVINE IDEAS AND IDEALS. IN ADDITION TO SAKTI (AND FREQUENTLY IDENTICAL TO HER) WE FIND: LAKSHMI THE CONSORT OF VISHNU, SATI “THE PURE AND VIRTUOUS”, KALI THE BLACK CONSORT OF SHIVA, GODDESS OF BLOODY SACRIFICES, FORNICATION AND DRUNKENNESS, DURGA WITH EIGHT ARMS, ALSO A CONSORT OF SHIVA.  We may conclude that To our understanding Saktism is a typical cult these two contradict of a mother goddess, each other. However, with numerous divergent such “contradictions” are and even found in many religions. complementary aspects. Of the three cultic In the cult of Lakshmi movements Vaishnavism and Sarasvati we have is clearly the most the soft, feminine aspect. popular in India. Saivism In Kali’s cult we have is popular in the Tamil sexual rites, sacred south and in Kashmir in adultery and banal the north. Saktism is drunkenness. Another outnumbered right aspect we may find through India, although it strange is an association is fairly popular in Bengal between bhakti and and in Assam. magic. HOME THE HEART OF HINDU RELIGIOSITY IS FOUND IN THE POOJA CULT AT HOME. A SMALL ROOM, A CABINET OF RELIGION EVEN A NICHE IN THE WALL MAY SERVE AS HOME SANCTUARY (POOJA). FOOD, FLOWERS AND OBJECTS OF EMOTIONAL VALUE ARE PUT THERE. IT WOULD ALSO CONTAIN SMOULDERING CAMPHOR STICKS AND AN IMAGE OF SOME DEITY. SINCE THE MOTHER WOULD NORMALLY MAINTAIN THE HOME SANCTUARY ONE MAY EXPECT A PICTURE OR STATUETTE OF A FEMALE DEITY AS WELL. MANY POOJA SANCTUARIES ALSO CONTAIN A PHOTO OF DECEASED PARENTS AND OF GANDHI. FAMILY CULT PASSAGE RITES PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE FAMILY CULT, I.E. BIRTH, NAME GIVING, COMING OF AGE, MARRIAGE AND DEATH. IN FACT NO FACET OF LIFE IS WITHOUT RELIGIOUS IMPORTANCE. MANY HINDUS WOULD VISIT THE TEMPLE TO PERFORM THE REQUIRED CEREMONIES, BUT MANY WOULD ALSO PERFORM THEM IN THE FAMILY CONTEXT (WITH OR WITHOUT A PRIEST PRESENT).  TEMPLE CULT HINDUISM IS A HIGHLY INDIVIDUALISTIC RELIGION. VERY LITTLE PRESSURE IS APPLIED TO HINDUS TO CONFORM TO A CERTAIN DISCIPLINE, TO VISIT THE TEMPLE REGULARLY OR TO PARTICIPATE IN THE COMMUNAL CULT. HINDUISM DOES NOT HAVE “PARISHES” OR REGISTERS OF MEMBERSHIP. NO COMMUNAL LITURGY IS MAINTAINED AT THE TEMPLE. HOWEVER, SECTIONS OF THE COMMUNITY MAY GATHER AT THE TEMPLE OR ON THE BANKS OF A RIVER TO PERFORM CERTAIN RITES. FINALLY THE COMMUNITY IS INVOLVED FROM TIME TOT TIME IN RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS AND CEREMONIES. THIS IS WHERE THE HINDU COMMUNITY IS MOST CLEARLY SEEN. QUESTIONS???