APES Test Study Material 2023 PDF

Module 34 Patterns of Energy Use After reading this module, you should be able to describe the use of nonrenewable energy in the world and in the United States. explain why different forms of energy are best suited for certain purposes. understand the primary ways t...

Module 34 Patterns of Energy Use After reading this module, you should be able to describe the use of nonrenewable energy in the world and in the United States. explain why different forms of energy are best suited for certain purposes. understand the primary ways that electricity is generated in the United States. Nonrenewable energy is used worldwide and in the United States Fossil fuel A fuel derived from biological material that became fossilized millions of years ago. Nonrenewable energy resource An energy source with a finite supply, primarily the fossil fuels and nuclear fuels. Nuclear fuel Fuel derived from radioactive materials that give off energy. Worldwide Patterns of Energy Use Worldwide annual energy consumption, by resource, in 2011. Oil, coal and peat, and natural gas are the major sources of energy for the world.  Common Misconceptions Unit of Energy and Units of Power Energy is the ability to do work or transfer heat (J) joule, (BTU) British Thermal unit, calorie, kilowatt hour (kWh) Power is the rate at which work is done (W) watt, horsepower (hp) : 745.7 watts = 1 hp Calories and calories calorie is a basic unit for energy C is equal to 1,000 calories or 1 kilocalorie kcal and is used to note food calories. 1 kilocalorie = 4,184 joules  Math Conversion 1. A runner burns 600 Calories (kcal) in track practice. How many joules (J) did the runner burn? 600 Calories x 4,184 J = 2,510,400 J 2. A lawnmower had 5 hp. How many watts would that equal? 5 hp x 746 W/hp = 3,730 W Worldwide Patterns of Energy Use GJ (gigajoule) = 1 billion joules EJ (exajoule) = 1 billion gigajoules Global variation in total annual energy consumption and per capita energy consumption. The 10 countries shown are among the largest and the smallest energy users in the world. Global Energy Consumption Video Flow chart Worldwide Patterns of Energy Use Commercial energy source An energy source that is bought and sold. Subsistence energy source An energy source gathered by individuals for their own immediate needs. Worldwide Patterns of Energy Use Energy consumption in the United States from 1850 through 2012. Wood and then coal once dominated our energy supply. Today a mix of three fossil fuels accounts for most of our energy use. The recent increase in natural gas and decrease in oil and coal is quite evident. Worldwide Patterns of Energy Use United States annual energy consumption by resource and end use in 2012. These graphs show energy consumption and end use in the United States. (a) United States annual energy consumption by fuel type in 2012. (b) United States end use energy sectors in 2012. Commercial includes businesses and schools.  Review the Law! THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS DICTATES THAT WHEN ENERGY IS TRANSFORMED, ITS ABILITY TO DO WORK DIMINISHES BECAUSE SOME ENERGY IS LOST DURING EACH CONVERSION  Quantifying Energy Efficiency Energy efficiency refers to the efficiency of the process we use to obtain the fuel and the efficiency of the process that converts it into the work that is needed. Inefficiencies in energy extraction and use. Coal provides an example of inefficiencies in energy extraction and use. Energy is lost at each stage of the process, from extraction, processing, and transport of the fuel to the disposal of waste products.  Different energy forms are best suited for specific purposes The best form of energy to use depends on the particular purpose for which it is needed. To determine energy efficiency 🡪 calculate the energy return on energy investment (EROEI) EROI = Energy obtained from fuel ÷ Energy invested to obtain fuel The larger the value of EROI, the more efficient the fuel.  Different energy forms are best suited for specific purposes EROI = Energy obtained from fuel ÷ Energy invested to obtain fuel Coal Hydroelectric Power Ex1. To obtain 100 J of energy from coal that is extracted Ex1. To obtain 100 J of energy from hydroelectric power, using surface mining, 5 J of energy is expended. 1.25 J of energy is expended. Surface mine EROEI = 100 J ÷ 5 J = 20 EROEI = 100 J ÷ 1.25 J = 80 Ex2. To obtain 100 J of energy from coal that is extracted Ethanol Power using subsurface mining, 10 J of energy is expended. Ex1. To obtain 100 J of energy from ethanol, 78 J of energy is expended Subsurface mine EROEI = 100 J ÷ 78 J = 1.3 EROEI = 100 J ÷ 10 J = 10  Discussion 1. What explains the difference in EROEI for the two coal extraction methods? 2. Why do you think the EROEI for hydroelectric power is around 80? 3. Why do you think the EROEI for ethanol is so low? Efficiency and Transportation Nearly 30 percent of energy use in the United States is for transportation, This is an area in which efficiency is particularly important. Transportation is achieved primarily through the use of vehicles fueled by petroleum products, such as gasoline and diesel.  Efficiency and Transportation Overall fuel efficiency of U.S. automobiles from 1975 through 2013. As more buyers moved from cars to light trucks (a category that includes pickup trucks, minivans, and SUVs) for their personal vehicles, the fuel economy of the total U.S. fleet declined. Only recently Production Share and Fuel Economy by Vehicle Type Estimated Real-World Fuel Economy, Horsepower, and Weight Since Model Year 1975  Electricity accounts for 40 percent of our energy use Electricity can be generated from many different sources Energy carrier Something that can move and deliver energy in a convenient, usable form to end users. Due to conversion losses during the electricity generation process of the 40% consumed only 13% is available for end uses. Electricity accounts for 40% of our energy use When electricity is produced by combustion of fossil fuels pollutants are released and the transfer of energy from fuel to electricity is only about 35% efficient. The energy source with the fewest conversions from its original form to the end use is likely to be the most efficient The Process of Electricity Generation All thermal power plants convert the potential energy of a fuel into electricity. Turbine A device with blades that can be turned by water, wind, steam, or exhaust gas from combustion that turns a generator in an electricity-producing plant. Electrical grid A network of interconnected transmission lines that joins power plants together and links them with end users of electricity. The Process of Electricity Generation Steps for using coal to produce electricity: The burning fuel from coal transfers energy to water, which becomes steam. The kinetic energy contained within the steam is transferred to the blades of a turbine, a large device that resembles a fan. As the energy in the steam turns the turbine, the shaft in the center of the turbine turns the generator. This mechanical motion generates electricity. The Process of Electricity Generation A coal-fired electricity generation plant. Energy from coal combustion converts water into steam, which turns a turbine. The turbine turns a generator, which produces Efficiency of Electricity Generation Combined cycle A power plant that uses both exhaust gases and steam turbines to generate electricity. Capacity In reference to an electricity-generating plant, the maximum electrical output. Capacity factor The fraction of time a power plant operates in a year. Efficiency of Electricity Generation Cogeneration The use of a fuel to generate electricity and produce heat. Also known as combined heat and power. For example, if steam is used for industrial purposes or to heat buildings it is diverted to turn a turbine first. This improves the efficiency to as high as 90 percent.  Module 35 Fossil Fuel Resources After reading this module, you should be able to discuss the uses of coal and its consequences. discuss the uses of petroleum and its consequences. discuss the uses of natural gas and its consequences. discuss the uses of oil sands and liquefied coal and their consequences. describe future prospects for fossil fuel use. Coal is the most abundant and dirtiest of the fossil fuels Coal A solid fuel formed primarily from the remains of trees, ferns, and other plant materials preserved 280 million to 360 million years ago. There are four types of coal: lignite sub-bituminous bituminous anthracite. The largest coal reserves are in the United States, Russia, China, and India.  Coal The coal formation process. Peat is the raw material from which coal is formed. Over millions of years and under increasing pressure due to burial under more and more layers of rock and sediment, various types of coal are formed. Advantages of Coal Energy-dense Plentiful Easy to exploit by surface mining Needs little refining Inexpensive Easy to handle and transport  Disadvantages of Coal Contains impurities Releases impurities into air when burned Trace metals like mercury, lead, and arsenic are found in coal Combustion leads to increased levels air pollutants Ash is left behind, leads to possible runoff Carbon is released into the atmosphere Petroleum is cleaner than coal Petroleum A fossil fuel that occurs in underground deposits, composed of a liquid mixture of hydrocarbons, water, and sulfur. Crude oil Liquid petroleum removed from the ground.  Petroleum Petroleum accumulation underground. Petroleum migrates to the highest point in a formation of porous rock and accumulates there. Such accumulations of petroleum can be removed by drilling a well. Advantages of Petroleum Convenient to transport and use Relatively energy-dense Cleaner-burning than coal Oil is used in many other applications Disadvantages of Petroleum Releases carbon dioxide into atmosphere Possibility of leaks when extracted and transported Runoff enters marine waterways Releases sulfur, mercury, lead, and arsenic into the atmosphere when burned Disadvantages of Petroleum Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR): Debates continue over the trade-off between extracting oil domestically and the consequences for habitat and species living near oil wells or pipelines. Proponents of exploration suggest that ANWR might yield 25 million gallons to 378 billion gallons of oil and substantial quantities of natural gas. Natural Gas is the Cleanest of the Fossil Fuels Natural gas exists as a component of petroleum in the ground as well as in gaseous deposits separate from petroleum. Natural gas contains 80 to 95 percent methane and 5 to 20 percent ethane, propane, and butane. The two largest uses of natural gas in the United States are electricity generation and industrial processes. Natural gas is also used to manufacture nitrogen fertilizers and in residences for heating homes and cooking. Advantages of Natural Gas Contains fewer impurities, emits almost no sulfur dioxide or particulates Emits only 60 percent as much carbon dioxide as coal Disadvantages of Natural Gas Methane that escapes into the atmosphere is a potent greenhouse gas Exploration for natural gas can contaminate groundwater Oil sands and liquefied coal are also fossil fuels Oil sands Slow-flowing, viscous deposits of bitumen mixed with sand, water, and clay. Bitumen A degraded petroleum that forms when petroleum migrates to the surface of Earth and is modified by bacteria. CTL (coal to liquid) The process of converting solid coal into liquid fuel. Fossil fuels are a finite resource Energy intensity The energy use per unit of gross domestic product. Our energy use per capita has been dropping, but with rising population numbers, total energy use continues to rise.  Energy Intensity U.S. energy use per capita and energy intensity. Our energy use per capita was level and has been dropping in recent years. Our energy intensity, or energy use per dollar of GDP, has been decreasing steadily since 1980. However, because of the increasing U.S. population, total  The Hubbert Curve A generalized version of the Hubbert curve. Whether an upper estimate or a lower estimate of total petroleum reserves is used, the date by which petroleum reserves will be depleted does not change substantially. The Future of Fossil Use If current global use continues without significant additional discovery, we may run out of conventional oil in less than 50 years. Coal supplies will last for at least 200 years, and probably much longer. New technology and concern about the release of greenhouse gases is encouraging people to explore alternative energy sources.  Module 36 Nuclear Energy Resources After reading this module, you should be able to describe how nuclear energy is used to generate electricity. discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using nuclear fuels to generate electricity. Nuclear reactors use fission to generate electricity Electricity generation from nuclear fuel uses uranium-235 as a fuel source. Fission A nuclear reaction in which a neutron strikes a relatively large atomic nucleus, which then splits into two or more parts, releasing additional neutrons and energy in the form of heat. A nuclear power plant uses heat from nuclear fission to boil water. This water produces the steam to turn the turbine, which turns a generator. Nuclear Fission Nuclear fission. Energy is released when a neutron strikes a large atomic nucleus, which then splits into two or more parts.  Nuclear reactors use fission to generate electricity Fuel rod A cylindrical tube that encloses nuclear fuel within a nuclear reactor. Control rod A cylindrical device inserted between the fuel rods in a nuclear reactor to absorb excess neutrons and slow or stop the fission reaction. Nuclear energy has advantages and disadvantages Advantages: No air pollution Reduces need to import oil Disadvantages: Possibility of accidents Difficult to dispose of waste Concern about nuclear material being misused Radioactive waste Radioactive waste Nuclear fuel that can no longer produce enough heat to be useful in a power plant but continues to emit radioactivity. Becquerel (Bq) Unit that measures the rate at which a sample of radioactive material decays; 1 Bq = decay of 1 atom or nucleus per second. Curie A unit of measure for radiation; 1 curie = 37 billion decays per second. Radioactive Waste High-level radioactive waste comes from used in fuel rods. Low-level radioactive waste is found on the protective clothing, tools, rags, and other items used in routine plant maintenance. Uranium mine tailings are the residue left after uranium ore is mined and enriched. In each case, disposal must be handled with great care.  Fusion Power Nuclear fusion A reaction when lighter nuclei are forced together to produce heavier nuclei. Nuclear fusion powers the Sun and other stars. Fusion is a promising, unlimited source of energy in the future, but so far scientists have had difficulty containing the heat that is produced.  Patterns of Energy Use Scientific Notation: is a method of writing numbers that makes it easier for us to handle very large or very small numbers 2 parts the digit term and the exponential term 10,000 = 1 x 104 100 = 1 x 102 34,267 = 3.4267 x 104 0.053 = 5.3 x 10-2 Positive exponent 🡪 decimal point is shifted to the right Negative exponent 🡪 decimal point is shifted to the left  Patterns of Energy Use Addition and Subtraction: All numbers are first converted to the same power of 10, and then the digit terms are added or subtracted Multiplication: The digit terms are multiplied but the exponents are added. The resulting answer is standardized to leave only one nonzero digit to the left of the decimal Division: The digit terms are divided but the exponents are subtracted. The resulting answer is standardized to leave only one nonzero digit to the left of the decimal  Module 37 Conservation, Efficiency, and Renewable Energy After reading this module you should be able to describe strategies to conserve energy and increase energy efficiency. explain differences among the various renewable energy resources.  We can use less energy through conservation and increased efficiency Energy conservation and energy efficiency are the least expensive and most environmentally sound options for maximizing our energy resources. What is the difference? Energy conservation involves using less energy by adjusting your behaviors and habits. Energy efficiency, on the other hand, involves using technology that requires less energy to perform the same function.  We can use less energy through conservation and increased efficiency Energy conservation Finding and implementing ways to use less energy. Tiered rate system A billing system used by some electric companies in which customers pay higher rates as their use goes up.  We can use less energy through conservation and increased efficiency Peak demand: The greatest quantity of energy used at any one time. Sustainable Design Sustainable design improves the efficiency of the buildings and communities in which we live and work.  Sustainable Design Passive solar design Construction designed to take advantage of solar radiation without active technology. Sustainable Design Passive solar design. Passive solar design uses solar radiation to maintain indoor temperature. Roof overhangs make use of seasonal changes in the Sun’s position to reduce energy demand for heating and cooling. In winter, when the Sun is low in the sky, it shines directly into the window and heats the house. In summer, when the Sun is higher in the sky, the overhang blocks incoming sunlight and the room stays cool. High-efficiency windows and building materials with high thermal inertia are also components of passive Sustainable Design Thermal mass A property of a building material that allows it to maintain heat or cold. Sustainable Design  Renewable energy is either potentially renewable or nondepletable Potentially renewable An energy source that can be regenerated indefinitely if it is not overharvested.  Renewable energy is either potentially renewable or nondepletable Nondepletable An energy source that cannot be used up. Renewable energy is either potentially renewable or nondepletable Renewable In energy management, an energy source that is either potentially renewable or nondepletable.  Module 38 Biomass and Water After reading this module you should be able to describe the various forms of biomass. explain how energy is harnessed from water.  Biomass is energy from the Sun Energy from the Sun. The Sun is the ultimate source of almost all types of energy.  Modern Carbon Versus Fossil Carbon Biofuel Liquid fuel created from processed or refined biomass. Biomass can be used to produce renewable electricity, thermal energy, or transportation fuels biofuels. Biomass is defined as living or recently dead organisms and any byproducts of those organisms, plant  Solid Biomass: Wood, Charcoal, and Manure Modern carbon: Carbon in biomass that was recently in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, taken in by the trees, and by burning it we are putting it back into the atmosphere Wood, charcoal and manure are used to heat homes throughout the world. In the developing world, people often cannot afford fossil fuels or do not have access to them.  Modern Carbon Versus Fossil Carbon Carbon neutral An activity that does not change atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Xbox To Be First Carbon Neutral Game Console Video game companies are rallying together to try to save the planet 21 major game companies--including Sony and Microsoft--work together to share best practices for becoming more environmentally friendly. Microsoft is launching a pilot program to make 825,000 carbon neutral Xbox consoles. Sony’s PS5 will have a "low power" suspend mode, which is one part of Sony's plan to have more energy efficient technology overall. In total, the efforts undertaken by the 21 game companies is estimated to result in a "30 million ton reduction of CO2 emissions by 2030."  Solid Biomass: Wood, Charcoal, and Manure Net removal The process of removing more than is replaced by growth, typically used when referring to carbon. Use of wood is unsustainable if forest growth does not keep up with forest use. Charcoal is lighter than wood and contains twice as much energy per unit of weight. It also produces less smoke. Solid Biomass The primary difference between coal and charcoal: Coal occurs after living materials like plants and animals collect in a swampy region decay and degrade by decomposition of microorganism resulting in solid products, which can produce heat. Charcoal occurs after plants, especially woods and plant stumps are exposed to heat and a limited supply of oxygen. It is, therefore, necessary to highlight that coal is naturally occurring while charcoal occurs because of human actions. Biofuels: Ethanol and Biodiesel Liquid biofuels can be used as a substitute for gasoline and diesel. Ethanol Alcohol made by converting starches and sugars from plant material into alcohol and CO2. Biodiesel A diesel substitute produced by extracting and chemically altering oil from plants. Flex-fuel vehicle A vehicle that runs on either gasoline or a gasoline/ethanol mixture.  The kinetic energy of water can generate electricity Hydroelectricity Electricity generated by the kinetic energy of moving water. Run-of-the-river Hydroelectricity generation in which water is retained behind a low dam or no dam. In river generation, the water flows in one direction and is more or less constant.  The kinetic energy of water can generate electricity Tidal energy Energy that comes from the movement of water driven by the gravitational pull of the Moon. In tidal generation, the water flows in two directions: during the flood, the water flows from the ocean toward the land or river; and during the ebb, the water flows back toward the ocean  Hydroelectricity A water impoundment hydroelectric dam. Water impoundment, a common method of hydroelectricity generation, allows for electricity generation on demand. Dam operators control the rate of water flow by opening and closing the gates. This determines the amount of electricity generated. The arrows indicate the path of water flow. Water impoundment The storage of water in a reservoir behind a dam. Hydroelectricity and Sustainability Hydroelectricity has many benefits: Hydroelectric projects bring renewable energy to large numbers of rural residents worldwide. Hydroelectricity does not create air pollution, waste products, or CO2 emissions. Electricity generated from hydroelectricity is less expensive. Reservoirs create recreational opportunities. Hydroelectricity and Sustainability Hydroelectricity has some negative environmental consequences: Creating the reservoir may flood agricultural land or places of archeological significance, and force people to relocate. Impounding a river can interfere with organisms that depend on a free-flowing river. Downstream ecosystems are affected. Siltation The accumulation of sediments, primarily silt, on the bottom of a reservoir.  Module 39 Solar, Wind, Geothermal, and Hydrogen After reading this module, you should be able to list the different forms of solar energy and their application. describe how wind energy is harnessed and its contemporary uses. discuss the methods of harnessing the internal energy from Earth. explain the advantages and disadvantages of energy from hydrogen. Solar  The energy of the Sun can be captured directly Geographic variation in solar radiation in the United States. This map shows the amount of solar energy available to a flat photovoltaic solar panel in kilowatt-hours per square meter per day, averaged over a year.  Solar Kilowatt Hours Huston, TX: 5.0 – 5.5 kWh/m2/day New York City: 4.5 – 5.0 kWh/m2/day Phoenix, AZ: 6.0 – 6.5 kWh/m2/day Cleveland, OH: 4.0 - 4.5 kWh/m2/day What is the kilowatt hours per square meter per day in Arizona? If you were the governor of the state of Arizona, what type of incentive would you recommend to increase the number of photovoltaic cells used used in residential home? Active Solar Energy Video Active solar energy Energy captured from sunlight with advanced technologies. Technologies that employ active solar energy include: Solar water heating systems Photovoltaic systems Photovoltaic solar cell A system of capturing energy from sunlight and converting it directly into electricity. Large-scale concentrating solar thermal systems for electricity generation (CST) Benefits and Drawbacks of Active Solar Energy Systems Active solar energy systems offer many benefits: Generating hot water or electricity without producing CO2 or polluting the air or water during operation. Producing electricity on hot, sunny days when demand for electricity is high. Producing electricity during peak demand hours helps reduce the need to build new fossil fuel power plants. A photovoltaic system may be less expensive than running electrical transmission lines to some home sites. Benefits and Drawbacks of Active Solar Energy Systems Drawbacks have inhibited the growth of solar energy use in the United States: Photovoltaic solar panels are expensive to manufacture and install. Manufacturing requires energy, water, and a variety of toxic metals and industrial chemicals. There are environmental costs associated with the batteries for systems that use batteries for energy storage. The end-of-life reclamation and recycling is another potential source of environmental contamination. WIND Wind Energy Wind energy Energy generated from the kinetic energy of moving air. Wind energy is the fastest growing major source of electricity in the world. Installed wind energy capacity by country. (a) China generates more electricity from wind energy than any other country. (b) However, some relatively small countries, such as Denmark, generate a much higher percentage of their electricity from wind. Generating Electricity from Wind Wind turbine A turbine that converts wind energy into electricity. The blades of the wind turbine transfer energy to the gear box that transfers energy to the generator. Wind turbines on land are typically installed in rural locations, away from buildings and population centers. Turbines are typically grouped into wind farms or wind parks. Generating Electricity from Wind Generating electricity with a wind turbine. The wind turns the blade, which is connected to the generator, which generates electricity. Wind Energy Advantages of wind energy include: It is a nondepletable and free energy resource. After manufacturing and installation, little energy input other than wind is required. Wind-generated electricity produces no pollution and no greenhouse gases. Wind farms can share the land with other uses. Wind Energy Disadvantages of wind energy include: Most off-grid residential wind energy systems rely on batteries to store. Wind turbines can be noisy and unattractive. As many as 40,000 birds are killed by wind turbine blades in the United States each year. Bats are also killed by wind turbines. Geothermal Earth’s internal heat is a source of nondepletable energy Geothermal energy Heat energy that comes from the natural radioactive decay of elements deep within Earth. Geothermal energy can be used directly as a source of heat. Many countries obtain clean, renewable energy from geothermal resources. The United States, China, and Iceland, all of which have substantial geothermal resources, are the largest geothermal energy producers. Ground Source Heat Pumps Ground source heat pump A technology that transfers heat from the ground to a building. Although the heat tapped by ground source heat pumps is often informally referred to as “geothermal,” it comes from solar energy. Ground Source Heat Pumps Heating and cooling with a ground source heat pump. By exchanging heat with the ground, a ground source heat pump can heat and cool a building using 30 to 70 percent less energy than traditional furnaces and air conditioners. Fuel Cell Hydrogen fuel cells have many potential applications Fuel cell An electrical-chemical device that converts fuel, such as hydrogen, into an electrical current. Electrolysis The application of an electric current to water molecules to split them into hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen Fuel Cells Power from a hydrogen fuel cell. (a) Hydrogen gas enters the cell from an external source. Protons from the hydrogen molecules pass through a membrane, while electrons flow around it, producing an electric current. Water is the only waste product of the reaction. (b) In a fuel cell vehicle, hydrogen is the fuel that reacts with oxygen to provide electricity to run the motor.  Module 40 Planning Our Energy Future After reading this module, you should be able to discuss the environmental and economic options we must assess in planning our energy future. consider the challenges of a renewable energy strategy. Our energy future depends on efficiency, conservation, and the development of renewable and nonrenewable energy resources No single energy can replace nonrenewable energy resources in a way that is completely renewable, nonpolluting, and free of impacts on the environment. A sustainable energy strategy must combine: Energy efficiency Energy conservation Development of renewable and nonrenewable energy resources Our Energy Future A sustainable energy strategy must consider the costs, benefits, and limitations of each energy source. Convenience, reliability, and logistical considerations are also important. Smart grid An efficient, self-regulating electricity distribution network that accepts any source of electricity and distributes it automatically to end users. Our Energy Future Video Using a smart grid. A smart grid optimizes the use of energy in a home by continuously coordinating energy use with energy availability.