Adult Development And Aging Final Exam Study Guide PDF

STUDY GUIDE FOR ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGING FINAL EXAM 11/20 Know not only the definition of these terms but also how they relate to aging. Lecture 1: Introduction to Adult Development and Aging Four key features of the life-span perspective 1. Multidirectionality...

STUDY GUIDE FOR ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGING FINAL EXAM 11/20 Know not only the definition of these terms but also how they relate to aging. Lecture 1: Introduction to Adult Development and Aging Four key features of the life-span perspective 1. Multidirectionality With age there are growths and declines in different areas of life. Ex: With age, decline in memory, growth in vocabulary 2. Plasticity Although, there are declines in aging, one can improve on skills with practice Ex: Typing speed and accuracy can improve with age (time) 3. Historical context We develop within a historical time and culture in which we are born and grow up 4. Multiple causation How we develop results from a variety of forces 4 Forces of development 1. Biological forces: genetic and health-related factors 2. Psychological forces: perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and personality factors 3. Sociocultural forces: interpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethnic factors 4. Life-cycle forces: how the same event or combination of forces affect people at different points in their lives (e.g., high school graduation, starting kindergarten) Biopsychosocial Framework of Adult Development and Aging Biopsychosocial framework: includes biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces 4 Controversies in development 1. Nature-Nurture Controversy: examines the extent to which hereditary (nature) and environmental influences (nurture) determine who we are 2. Stability-Change Controversy: examines the degree to which people stay the same over time or change over time 3. Continuity-Discontinuity Controversy: examines specific developmental tasks from the perspective of being either a smooth evolution over time (continuity) or marked by abrupt shifts (discontinuity) 4. Universal versus Context-Specific Controversy: is there one pathway (universal) of development or several pathways (context-specific) Age effects occur because of the underlying age-related changes in biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors Cohort effects differences caused by experiences and circumstances unique to the generation to which one belongs 1 Time-of-measurement effects reflect differences in sociocultural, environmental, historical, or other events at the time the data is obtained Cross-sectional Designs developmental differences are identified by comparing groups of people varying in age at the same time Ex. research in 2005 on people born in 1950, 1960, 1970, and 1980. Cross-sectional designs allow researchers to examine age differences but not age change Longitudinal Designs same people are observed repeatedly at different points in their lives Ex: Memory measurement when the individuals observed/tested are 20 years old and observing/testing them every 10 years and recording any differences or changes that may have occurred. The researcher’s hypothesis might be that as individuals age their memory declines Sequential Designs using more than one cross-sectional (cross-sequential) or longitudinal (longitudinal-sequential) design simultaneously Cross-sequential: Ex: Compare performances on intelligence tests for people between the ages of 20 and 50 in 1980 and then repeat the study in 1990 with a different group of people. longitudinal sequential design: we may want to begin a longitudinal study of intellectual development with a group of 50-year-olds in 1980, using the 1930 cohort. We would follow this cohort for X years. In 1990 we would begin a second longitudinal study on 50-year-olds, using the 1940 cohort, and follow them for the same length of time as we follow the 1st cohort. 3 Domains of the cultural competency of working with older adults 1. Knowledge about multiple identities, biases, and power/privilege (e.g., as a clinician, what do I know about older adults? What biases are there about treating older adults? What is the level of power and privilege of older adults compared to the rest of the population?) Knowledge of scientific literature related to Individual and Cultural Differences (ICD) (e.g., psychopathology, diagnostic differences between young and older adults, special considerations in treatment for older adults, etc). 2. Skills in self-reflection and awareness (e.g., Am I aware of my limitations and possible bias in treating older adults?) Application of self-awareness and diversity competencies into clinical practice (e.g., how can I be mindful of my preconceptions and bias about older adults and how do I work through that? 3. Attitudes 2 Awareness about one’s identities, biases, and power/privilege (What are my cultural identity characteristics in terms of ethnicity, gender, age, socio-economic status and how do these things affect how I diagnosis and treat patients? Pikes Model for Training in Geropsychology 1. Normal aging is taught so that students have a basis for understanding abnormal aging experiences. 2. Bona fide professional geropsychologists using observational methods are employed as supervisors in geropsychology training programs so that students can develop appropriate skills in working with older adults. 3. Training in geropsychology includes facilitated experiences to gain self-awareness about one’s responses to aging that vary by health status (e.g., frail as well as healthy aging), cultural and individual identities (e.g., wealthy or poor, rural or urban, ethnic identity, gender identity), and diverse historical cohort experiences. 4. Experiential professional training with older adults is provided across a variety of settings. Trainees need experience in diverse settings (e.g., nursing homes, assisted living, primary care medical practice, hospitals, clients’ homes). 5. Interprofessional team training is an essential part of professional geropsychology training. Trainees must learn about the knowledge base, scope of practice, and distinct professional work styles of other disciplines. 6. The distinct ethical and legal issues and practice standards that are part of practice with older adults are included in professional geropsychology training programs. Examples include late-life decision making and functional capacities, advance care planning and surrogate decision making, communication with caregiving families in a manner that respects the confidentiality of the older client, and end-of-life care Lecture 2: Physical Changes, Health and Functioning Structural Changes in the Eye Adjustment to illumination Decrease in the amount of light that passes through the eye, so increased illumination is often required. With age, the ability to adjust to changes in illumination takes longer and leads to slower light and dark adaptation (e.g., driving in and out of tunnels). Yellowing of eye The lens of the eye becomes more yellow with age causing poorer color discrimination in the green-blue-violet spectrum Presbyopia Because of stiffening, the lens has a harder time adjusting and focusing, making it difficult to see nearby objects Cataracts 3  opaque spots on the lens that limit the amount of light transmitted Glaucoma buildup of pressure on the eye due to fluid not draining correctly and can lead to vision loss Hearing loss Hearing loss is one of the most well-known normative changes with age Presbycusis reduced ability to hear high-pitched tones (e.g., women and children voices) Kinesthesis sense of body position, involves sensory feedback from passive and active movements Gender differences in cardiovascular disease by age Men have a higher risk than women at all ages, but the difference is most pronounced in middle age Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease a family of diseases which include chronic bronchitis and emphysema Aging Female reproductive system Climacteric: the transition from being able to have children to being unable to bear children Perimenopause: time of transition that usually begins in the 40s, as menstrual cycles become irregular, and is complete by the mid-50s. By the end of menstruation, a reduction in hormonal levels (estrogen and progesterone), changes in reproductive organs, and changes in sexual functioning (increased chance of painful intercourse due to: Smaller and thinner vaginal walls, smaller vaginas, reduced and delayed vaginal lubrication) Menopause: refers to the point at which ovaries stop releasing eggs Aging Male Reproductive System Men show a gradual decline in testosterone levels beginning the mid-20s. Sperm production declines gradually with age. At the age of 80 men are still half as fertile as they were at 25. Prostate gland enlarges, becomes stiffer, and may interfere with urination Sleep and Aging Take longer to fall asleep, more easily awakened, major shifts in their circadian rhythms, move from a two-phase rhythm (awake during the day and asleep during the night) to a multiphase rhythm (daytime napping and shorter sleep cycles at night Changes in Immune system due to aging Older adults’ immune systems take longer to build up defenses against specific diseases, as a result they are more prone to serious consequences from illnesses 4 Disability the effects that chronic conditions have on people’s ability to engage in activities that are necessary, expected, and personally desired in their society Resilience regaining normal/ more normal levels of functioning after setbacks. Avoiding negative outcomes, despite the presence of risk factors in person or in environment, with/ without external interventions Verbrugge and Jette’s model of disability Model emphasizes the fit between person and environment Risk factors: long-standing behaviors or conditions that increase one’s chances of functional limitation or disability Extraindividual factors: include environment and health care (e.g., surgery, medications, physical environment support) Intraindividual factors are behavioral- and personality-based (e.g., exercise program, positive outlook Activities of daily living (ADLs) include basic self-care tasks (e.g., bathing, eating, toileting, and dressing) Considered frail if one needs help with one or more of these tasks Instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) activities that require some intellectual competence and planning (e.g., paying bills, taking medications, and shopping) Lecture 3: Cognition: Attention, Processing Speed Automatic processing information processing that is fast, reliable, and insensitive to increased cognitive demands (or difficulties). Places minimal demands on attentional capacity (e.g., driving a familiar route) Effortful processing Processing of specific information (that goes beyond sensory memory) that needs to be consciously attended to for a task. Uses more attentional resources that are limited in capacity (e.g., driving in an unfamiliar city during rush hour) Limited capacity of attention 5 We have limited amount of processing capacity or attention, & activities vary in the amount attention they need Selective attention How we choose which information will get processed further into a smaller attention capacity Divided attention the ability to successfully perform more than one task at the same time Older adults have difficulty dividing attention 6 Sustained attention or vigilance Sustained Attention: ability to attend over long periods of time (e.g., air traffic controllers looking at radar screens.) Vigilance performance: number of targets correctly identified Vigilance decrement: decrease in detection accuracy over time There are age-related declines in vigilance performance, but not in vigilance decrement Conclusion for aging research on attention Age differences are greatest when OAs perform complex tasks, especially more than one at a time. The easier or more automatic the task is, the smaller the age differences The processing resources hypothesis Older adults have fewer processing resources than younger adults Neural networks model Due to age-related neuronal loss, it takes more connections among neurons to make decisions, thereby slowing down the decision process Information loss model suggests more information is lost at each step in the process for older adults than younger adults Minimizing age differences in reaction time (exercise, practice and experience) Experience allows older adults to compensate for slowing speed, especially on real-world tasks, by anticipating what is likely to happen. Regular aerobic exercise and fitness training also helps speed up performance, possibly due to improved cerebrovascular, cardiovascular, and/or neurological functioning Driving and Highway Safety as Information Processing Older drivers lose a certain amount of vision and hearing which makes it harder for them to read highway signs, read instrument panels, or see the road, especially at night. They may experience chronic diseases, such as arthritis, which can limit their ability to reach for the seatbelt or turn their head in order to back up or change lanes. They may also suffer from changes in information processing, such as memory loss, delayed reaction time or a lack of reading comprehension, which could limit their ability to understand signs or warnings; interfere with turning properly; or interfere with their understanding of yielding the right of way. The useful field of view (UFOV) assesses visual attention in older drivers. Proven helpful in identifying drivers at risk for accidents 7  Lecture 4: Cognition: Memory Working Memory The active processes and structures involved in holding and using that information, sometimes in conjunction with incoming information, to solve a problem, decide, or learn new information. WM capacity declines with age and seems to be related to declines in storage capacity, ability to allocate capacity to more than one task, and slower rates of information processing Episodic memory memory having to do with the conscious recollection of information from a specific event or time. Older adults perform worse than younger adults on episodic memory recall tests Recall versus Recognition performance Recall: remembering information without hints or cues (i.e., an essay exam) Recognition: selecting previously learned information among several items (i.e., a multiple- choice exam) Semantic memory concerns learning and remembering the meaning of words and concepts that are not tied to any specific occurrences of events in time. Very small changes in semantic memory with age Tip of the Tongue effect the temporary inability to recall a word, while feeling like you're close to retrieving it Age Differences in Encoding and Retrieval Research suggests age-related decrements in encoding, not in storage False fame effect when a previously observed non-famous name (on an original list) is mistakenly identified as a famous name at testing Source information ability to remember the source of a familiar event & whether the event was imagined or experienced declines with age False memory remembering things that did not occur. Older adults are more susceptible to false memories thus, misinformation can cause OAs to be more susceptible to deceptions and scams Memory for discourse collectively includes reading books, magazines, newspapers, and pamphlets and watching television and movies Route learning- Spatial memory 8 OAs & YAs are equally able to learn routes, but gender & age differences exist when using maps as learning aids. In familiar environments OAs may do as well as YAs, but not in unfamiliar environments. Older men do more poorly when provided no aids, but with a map they are same as younger men. Older women do more poorly when they used a map, but when the map was called a “diagram”, no differences between younger & older women. Why? Cohort effect: older women may not have success with maps. Event-based prospective memory Action is performed when a certain external event happens (i.e., phone rings, so you pick up the phone.) Time-based prospective memory involves performing an action after a fixed amount of time or a fixed point in time (i.e., remembering an appointment) Age differences are less likely on event-based prospective memory because there are more contextual cues than on time-based prospective memory tasks Lecture 5: Cognition– Intelligence Baltes et al. dual-component model Mechanics of intelligence involves the neurophysiological architecture of the mind, including basic information processing components, problem solving, spatial orientation, and perceptual speed Pragmatic intelligence includes everyday cognitive performance and adaptation, such as verbal knowledge, wisdom, and practical problem solving Psychometric approach focuses on standardized test performance with an emphasis on correct answers (e.g., Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Adults WAIS) Cognitive-structural approach emphasizes the ways in which people conceptualize and solve problems rather than scores on tests (e.g., Piaget’s developmental theory of cognition) Findings from Seattle Longitudinal Study Increases in primary mental abilities until one’s late 30s or early 40s. Scores stabilize until the mid-50s or early 60s. By late 60s, declines on all primary mental abilities, although declines tend to be small until the mid-70s. Within-individual differences show that very few people decline equally in all primary mental abilities. Age differences in Fluid intelligence Fluid intelligence tends to show normative age-related decline 9 Age differences in Crystallized intelligence Crystallized intelligence does not normally decline with age until very late life Piaget's Theory of Intelligence 1. Sensorimotor period: babies and infants gain knowledge by using sensory and motor skills 2. Preoperational period: young children’s thinking is not logical and is often egocentric (belief that all people experience the world just as they do) 3. Concrete operational period: logical reasoning emerges but unable grasp abstract concepts 4. Formal operational period: the endpoint of cognitive development acquired during adolescence; characterizes all adult thought. Lecture 6: PERSONALITY Costa and McCrae’s personality factors Costa and McCrae developed a model of personality with five independent dimensions: neuroticism, extroversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness Stability of personality Costa & McCrae: personality traits stop changing by age 30 & then appear to be “set in plaster.” Research evidence shows high stability in personality traits across long time periods (up to 30 years) and across a wide range of ages (20 to 90 years) Change of personality  Certain personality traits (self-confidence, cognitive commitment, outgoingness, and dependability) show some change over a 30- 40 year period o Neuroticism may increase and extroversion may decrease as we get older. May be due changes in life events, such as loss of a spouse or transition  Changes are more frequent in men than in women. Cohort differences in personality characteristics exist.  None of the Big Five personality traits remained stable after age 30  Individual differences in personality change across the adult life span Erikson’s Theory of personality 10 Generativity Desires and actions to improve the well-being of younger generations. In middle and older adults, there is greater preoccupation with generativity themes than in YAs. Middle-aged adults make more generative comments than YAs. Generativity may be a stronger predictor of emotional well-being in midlife adults Loevinger’s Theory of personality Loevinger’s Theory: 4 important areas to developmental progression at each stage 1. Character development: reflects a person’s standards and goals 2. Interpersonal style: represents the person’s pattern of relations with others 3. Conscious preoccupations: reflect the most important things on the person’s mind 4. Cognitive style: characteristic ways in which a person thinks Midlife crisis and correction Little data supports the claim that all people inevitably experience a crisis in middle age. Most middle-aged people point to both gains and losses, which should be viewed as change. Transition may be better characterized as a midlife correction; reevaluating ones’ roles and dreams and making the necessary corrections. 11  Lecture 7: Social Cognition and Relationships Negativity bias OAs let their initial impressions stand because negative information was more striking to them & affected them more strongly Causal Attributions explanations people construct to explain their behavior Age-based double standard attributing an older person’s failures in memory as more serious than a memory failure observed in a young adult Implicit stereotypes of older adults automatically activated unconscious negative stereotypes about aging that guide our behavior Stereotype Threat evoked fear of being judged in accordance w/ a negative stereotype about a group you belong to Change in Singlehood  #s have been increasing in the last few decades but similar in all industrialized nations  In 2010, 99.6 million unmarried individuals over age 18 in the United States, accounting for 44% of the total adult population  Single, or never-married, individuals are found in higher concentrations in large cities or metropolitan areas, with New York City being one of the highest Change in cohabitation in adulthood As marriage rates have fallen, the number of U.S. adults in cohabiting relationships has continued to climb Roughly half of cohabiters – those living with an unmarried partner – are younger than 35. An increasing number of Americans ages 50 and older are in cohabiting relationship Gay Male and Lesbian Couples similarities and differences to heterosexual couples  There are more than 547,000 married same-sex couples nationwide  (e.g., finances, household chores, and power differentials) gay male and lesbian couples are similar to different-sex couples.  Gay couples tend to be more egalitarian than different sex couples, and lesbian couples were the most egalitarian  Same sex couples show the same changes over time, patterns of satisfaction, and predictors of relationship success as different sex couples  Different sex couples seemed to be slightly more equal in their relationships (e.g., division of “feminine” and “masculine” housework) from 1975 to 2000.  Gay men and lesbians seemed to be slightly less equal in the same time on division of “feminine” housework, “masculine” housework, and finances). 12   Same-sex couples remain much more egalitarian than different sex couples Factors influencing marital success Age of the two partners at time of marriage (Divorce is 50% less likely for someone who is 25 years old when they wed, as compared to someone who gets married at age 20). Getting married after your mid-30s is riskier than getting married in your late 20s. The age at which to get married for best success (least likely for divorce) is between 28 and 32. Homogamy: marriage based on similarity of values and interests Personality: changes in personality over time were associated with spouses’ marital satisfaction trajectories. The feeling of equality Exchange theory: marriage based on each partner contributing something to the relationship that the other would be hard pressed to provide Developmental course of marital satisfaction  Marital satisfaction is highest at the start, falls until kids leave home, & rises again in later life  The potential factors contributing to change in marital satisfaction begins with the newly married couple. Satisfaction is high currently because everything is new and interesting.  After the children are born the stress of raising a family, paying a mortgage and planning for the future lead to a decline in marital satisfaction.  After the children are grown, the couple can begin to relax and enjoy each other again making marital satisfaction rise again, perhaps to its highest level. Vulnerability-stress-adaptation model of marriage marital quality is a dynamic process resulting from the couples’ ability to handle stressful events in the context of their vulnerabilities & resources Factors predicting early versus late divorce Negative emotions displayed during conflict predicts early divorce, but not later divorce Later divorce is predicted by lack of positive emotions during discussions & conflicts Gender differences in adjustment to widowhood Over half of women over 65 are widows, but only 15% of same-aged men are widowers Average American woman can expect to live 10 to 12 years as a widow During the first few months, widows and widowers are more likely report physical illness and depressive symptoms, loss of status, economic hardship, and lower social support Neugarten et al. (1964) 5 styles of grandparents 1. Formal: traditional roles (e.g., occasional babysitting, occasionally indulging grandchild) with hands-off attitude toward childrearing; most common with one third of grandparents classified as formal 2. Fun seeker: characterized by informal playfulness and is second most common 3. Distant: appears mainly on holidays or other formal occasions with ritual gifts 13  4. Surrogate parents: filling in for working parents 5. Dispenser of family wisdom: assume authoritarian position offering info & advice Sandwich generation being caught between 2 generations; middle-aged parents can be squeezed by competing demands of children, who want to gain independence and their parents, who want to maintain independence Filial obligation to care for their parents if necessary Lecture 8: Mental Health and Optimal Aging Prevalence rates of psychiatric disorders in OAs versus younger age groups prevalence of psychiatric disorders are lowest for the older adult age group EXCEPT for cognitive impairment. Cognitive disorders are highest in the older adult age group Risk factors for depression in OAs  Female, unmarried, widowed; less than a high school education; experiencing stressful life events; lacking social support  Having a chronic illness, living in a nursing home, or being a caregiver increases one’s risk for depression  Being an ethnic minority: African Americans, Hispanics, non-Hispanic persons of other races or multiple races Geriatric Depression Rating scale versus Beck Depression Inventory Beck Depression Inventory II: commonly used with adults who’s questions focused on feelings and physical symptoms. Confound: Physical symptoms of depression is similar to normal aging. Geriatric Depression Scale (Preferred for Older Adults) physical symptoms have been removed and the Yes/No format is easier for OAs Treatment considerations for older adults Drug therapies (SSRIs, HCAs or heterocyclic antidepressants, MAO inhibitors) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): used to treat very severe depression that do not respond to medication. Side effects are more severe and last longer in older adults. Psychotherapy, behavioral therapy, cognitive therapy Dementia 50% of people over 85 have dementia. Because more people are living to older age, the number with dementia is also increasing. The most comment type of dementia is Alzheimer’s Disease Major symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease declines in memory, learning, attention, and judgment 14 disorientation in time and space difficulties in word finding and communication declines in personal hygiene & self-care skills inappropriate social behavior changes in personality Sundowning symptoms of AD are generally worse in the evening than in the morning Kurt Lewin’s Person-Environment Interaction Formula One of the earliest models of optimal aging. One's perception of the environment is important. The person-environment interactions is defined as the interface between people and the world in which they live that forms the basis for development, meaning that behavior is a function of both the person and the environment. Kurt Lewin (1936) used the following equation to illustrate this concept: B=f(P,E) or behavior (B) is a function of both the person (P) and the environment (E). Environmental Press Model by Lawton Competence: the theoretical upper limit of a person’s capacity to function Competence Involves 5 domains: 1. biological health 2. sensory-perceptual functioning 3. motor skills 4. cognitive skills 5. ego strength Environmental press: the varying demands environments place on the person. They can be any combination of physical, interpersonal, or social Rowe and Kahn (1997) model of successful aging: three components 3actions that positively influence the aging process and enhance quality of life in later years: 1. Avoid Disease and Disability and Stay healthy. E.g., heritability, lifestyle, and age- related risk 2. Maintain High Cognitive and Physical Function 3. Stay Involved with Life and Living by maintaining interpersonal relations and continuing productive activities. 4 types of prevention of disability 1. Primary prevention: any intervention that prevents a disease from occurring. (E.g. Immunizations) 2. Secondary: is instituted early after a condition has begun (sometimes before diagnosis) & before significant impairments occur (E.g., cancer screenings) 3. Tertiary: efforts to avoid development of complications or secondary chronic conditions, manage pain associated with primary chronic condition, & sustain life through medical intervention (e.g., sitting person up in bed to reduce chance of contracting other diseases) 4. Quaternary: efforts specifically aimed at improving the functional capacities of people who have chronic conditions (E.g. maintain independence with occupational therapy 15 2 lifestyle factors for optimal aging 1. Staying Fit (regular moderate exercise can prevent, delay the onset of, or ease diseases and chronic conditions 2. Eating Right (OA need fewer calories, more water, and more protein) Body mass index (BMI): is a predictor of health and mortality 16  Lecture 9: Elder Abuse Types of Elder Abuse Physical Emotional or Psychological Financial or material Neglect Self-neglect What are the most common types of abuse? The most common forms of abuse are neglect (60%), physical abuse (16%), and financial or material exploitation (12%) Characteristics of abuse victims People over 80 are abused 2 to 3 times more often than people under 80 Recent studies found that lower older age (60 to 70 years) was related to increased risk of physical, emotional, and stranger-perpetrated financial mistreatment of older adults Most perpetrators are known to the victim (97%) and 76% are spouses or adult children Mandating reporting procedures California State Law states that certain persons have mandated reporting requirements if they know or suspect elder abuse. The law requires reporting the abuse of persons aged 65 or over, or any "dependent adult." A "dependent adult" is any person over age 18 who has physical or mental/development limitations which restrict his or her ability to carry out normal activities, or who has been admitted as an inpatient to a 24-hour health facility. Mandated reporters are any person who has assumed fill or intermittent responsibility for the care or custody of an elder or dependent adult, a care provider, regardless of whether they receive compensation for their services, a health practitioner: physicians, psychiatrists, dentists, nurses, podiatrists, chiropractors, pharmacists, psychologists, licensed nurses, religious practitioners, paramedics and EMTs, in-Home Supportive Services providers, law enforcement personnel, Dept. of Social and Employment Services staff What must be reported: Physical Abuse. E.g., physical abuse inflicted by the person on his or her self, or physical abuse inflicted by another; assault, battery, sexual assault, unreasonable physical constraint, prolonged or continued deprivation of food or water, or some types of physical or chemical restraints Neglect by Others Neglect by self Financial Abuse Abandonment Isolation Report as soon as possible by telephone to APS Hotline, file an SOC 341 within 48 hours. 17  Lecture 10: Work, Retirement, and Residence Gender Differences in Occupational Choice 60.6% of women work outside of the home (US Dept of Labor, 2009) and shift to emphasizing skills for occupations outside the home Women’s reasons for leaving well-paid occupations Family obligations (i.e., childcare) for women working part-time Workplace issues (i.e., lack of occupational development, unsupportive work environments) for women working full-time Vocational identity Vocational interests predict educational and career choices, job performance, and career success. Men were higher on Realistic, Investigative, Enterprising, and Conventional vocation interests. Women were higher on Artistic and Social vocation interests Sticky floor when one’s ethnic or gender group dominates only entry-level positions, then leadership opportunities are restricted to supervising entry-level workers Glass ceiling the level to which women may rise in a company but beyond which they may not go. About 90% of women believe there is a glass ceiling. Evidence of the glass ceiling has been found in government, nonprofits, and private corporations Glass elevator men in traditionally female occupations rise at a quicker rate than female counterparts. Pay discrimination-Women paid fraction of what men with similar jobs earn Comparable worth equalizing pay in occupations that are determined to be equivalent in importance but differ in the gender distribution of the people doing the jobs Age discrimination Denying a job or promotion to someone solely on basis of age U. S. Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1986 U.S. Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1986 protect workers over age 40. It stipulates people must be hired based on their ability The major predictors of retirement 1. Health 2. Gender differences Gender differences in Adjustment to Retirement 18 Retirement is an important life transition & can be stressful. Adjustment to retirement evolves over time because of interrelation with physical health, financial status, voluntary retirement status, feelings of person control. Most are satisfied with their retirement, as long as they have financial security, health, and supportive network of relatives and friends. For men, being in good health, having enough income and having retired voluntarily is associated with high satisfaction in early retirement Types of Long-Term Care Facilities Nursing homes: skilled care facilities & intermediate care facilities Assisted living facilities: provide supportive living arrangements for those who need assistance w/ personal care but not with 24hr care Patient Self-Determination Act (PSDA) requires people to complete advance directives (AD) when admitted to a health care facility that receives Medicare & Medicaid Eden Alternative views skilled care environments as habitats for people rather than facilities 19  Lecture 11: Dying and Bereavement Clinical death lack of heart beat and respiration Brain death brain is not working on its own. includes eight specific criteria all of which must be met, and is the most widely used definition in the US & other industrialized societies Persistent vegetative state when brain-stem functioning continues after cortical functioning stops Active euthanasia deliberately ending someone’s life through an intervention or action, which may be based on a clear statement of the person’s wishes or a decision made by someone else who has the legal authority to do so Passive euthanasia allowing a person to die by withholding treatment Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) medical order which is used when cardiopulmonary resuscitation is needed The Patient Self-Determination Act requires health care facilities receiving Medicare money to inform pts about their right to prepare advanced directives stating preferences for terminal care Age differences regarding feelings about death Young Adults report a sense of being cheated by death Shift from formal to postformal thought should reduce feeling of immortality as YAs begin to integrate personal feelings and emotions with their thinking Middle-aged adults begin to confront their own mortality and undergo a change in their sense of time lived and time until death. This change can often be accompanied by occupational changes or improving relationships Older adults are more accepting of death Kübler-Ross’s 5 stage theory of dying 1. DENIAL: First reaction is likely to be shock & disbelief; it is normal part of getting ready to die 2. ANGER: hostility, resentment, frustration, & envy 3. BARGAINING: People look for a way out 4. DEPRESSION: When one can no longer deny the illness, feelings of depression become common 5. ACCEPTANCE: Discussing feelings can help move a person to the acceptance stage; a accepts inevitability of death & seems at peace 20 Death Anxiety: Terror management theory (Pyszczynski) proposes that people engage in certain behaviors to achieve certain psychological states Ensuring that one’s life continues is the primary motivation underlying behavior All other motives can be traced back to this one Death anxiety is essentially a reflection of one’s concern over dying Fear of death is related to lower religiosity, less social support, and greater external locus of control End-of-life issues Final scenario Hospice Bereavement Grief Mourning Levels of Grief in expected versus unexpected death Death of one’s spouse: gender and age differences Lecture 12: Competency in Aging Competency in Aging Knowledge Skills Attitudes Big 5 that decreases with age Glaucoma Roh Kahn Forms of sensory loss Neurodegenerative diseases Causes of memory issues DNR advanced directives General vs geriatric depression 21