CRIM 210 Study Guide PDF

Week 10: Sykes and Matza’s “Techniques of Neutralization” 1. Sykes and Matza's theory was based on what earlier theory by Sutherland? How did they add to this earlier theory? - It is based on Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory by providing insight on what specific definitions...

Week 10: Sykes and Matza’s “Techniques of Neutralization” 1. Sykes and Matza's theory was based on what earlier theory by Sutherland? How did they add to this earlier theory? - It is based on Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory by providing insight on what specific definitions or beliefs might encourage offending/criminal behavior. 2. What is Sykes and Matza's theory about? They did not believe that most people were so entrenched in criminal values that they rejected norms and conventions of society. 3. What is the main argument/proposition of this theory? The argued that most youths cannot escape the powerful socializing influences of conventional society 4. What factors did Sykes and Matza believe led to crime? They believed that learned beliefs or definitions led to crime and that delinquents were not so different from conventional individuals. They believed in a dominant normative system. 5. What is the goal of this theory? To explain why individuals under certain circumstances ignore normative standard that they would typically believe 6. What are the five techniques of neutralization? Be able to describe them and identify them by example. 1. Denial of Injury - Recognizing the behavior was wrong, but it did not harm anyone. - A teenager vandalizes a public park by spray-painting graffiti on a wall. When confronted, they say, "It’s not a big deal—nobody got hurt, and the wall can just be painted over." 2. Denial of Victim - Justifies the criminal act as “not having a true victim and recognizing the harm their actions done but claims that the victim deserved it - A person hacks into a company’s computer system to expose sensitive information. When questioned, they say, "That company cheats its customers and deserves to be exposed." In this case, the perpetrator frames their actions as justified because the victim (the company) is perceived as unethical or deserving of harm. 3. Denial of Responsibility - Justifying the criminal act as “being caused by an outside force” and was not in their control therefore blaming their actions as them being forced into. - A student plagiarizes part of an essay and, when caught, says, "I didn’t mean to cheat; I was under so much pressure to meet the deadline, and my boss kept me working late every night." In this case, the student deflects blame by attributing their behavior to circumstances beyond their control, such as stress and lack of tim 4. Condemnation of Condemners - Justifies the criminal act by placing a negative image on those who are opposed to the behavior and blaming those who condemn them (such as cops, judges, teachers) - A teenager is caught shoplifting and responds by saying, "Why are you coming after me? The store owners are rich and overcharge people anyway—they’re the real thieves." In this case, the teenager shifts focus from their own wrongdoing to discredit the authority or moral standing of their accusers. 5. Appeal to Higher Loyalties - Justifies criminal act by arguing that the person felt they had to break the law to benefit a more personal and urgent group/issue (such as someone of higher power) - A student helps a friend cheat on a test and justifies it by saying, "They were struggling and needed my help—I couldn’t just let them fail." In this case, the student prioritizes their loyalty to their friend over the rules against cheating 7. Sykes and Matza based their theory on four basic aspects observed within society. What are these aspects? (1) Many delinquents feel or express remorse and guilt because of the criminal act (2) Delinquents frequently show respect for those citizens who are law abiding (3) There is a limit to whom they victimize” so therefore they must distance themselves from their victims (4) Delinquents can be affected by their surroundings and are susceptible to conformity Hirschi’s “Social Bond Theory” 1. What is Hirschi's "social bond theory" about? - People with strong social bonds, like connections to family, friends, and community, are less likely to engage in criminal behavior because they have a greater stake in conforming to societal norms 2. What inspired the theory? - He created the theory based on his work assessing the reasons why people commit crime because he felt there was some type of pattern within the lives of those who chose to commit criminal acts. 3. What is the theoryʼs main point? - People who have strong social bonds with others will follow the unwritten social norms of society opposed to those who have weaker relationships. 4. What question started Hirschiʼs theorizing? - “Why don’t people commit crime?” 5. What is Hirschiʼs logical reasoning behind control theory? - Individuals are naturally inclined towards delinquency (to commit crime), but strong social bonds with family, friends, school and community act as deterrent, preventing them from engaging in criminal behavior 6. What is the goal of social bond theory? - Goal is to explain how strong connections with others, such as family, friends, and community institutions can prevent individuals from engaging in criminal or deviant behavior 7. What are the four elements of social bond theory? Be able to describe them and identify them by example. (1) Attachment - Refers to the emotional connection individuals have with others, particularly those who adhere to societal norms and values. - Example: A teenager refraining from skipping school because they don’t want to disappoint their parents or let down their favorite teacher, who has high expectations for them. (2) Commitment - Refers to the investment an individual has in conventional activities, goals, and aspirations. The more a person has invested in socially acceptable pursuits (such as education, career, or relationships), the less likely they are to engage in deviant behavior. - Example: A college student avoiding getting involved in criminal activities, like shoplifting, because they don’t want to jeopardize their scholarship or future career opportunities (3) Involvement - Refers to the amount of time and energy an individual spends on conventional activities, such as school, work, sports, or hobbies. The more involved a person is in these productive, rule-abiding activities, the less time they have for deviant behavior. - Example: A teenager who is heavily involved in after-school sports, part-time work, and volunteer activities is less likely to engage in delinquent behavior. (4) Belief - Refers to the acceptance of societal rules and norms as legitimate. It emphasizes an individual’s commitment to the moral values of society. People who believe in the legitimacy of rules and laws are less likely to engage in deviant behavior because they feel a moral obligation to obey these norms. - Example: A young adult who chooses not to cheat on a test, even though they know others are doing it, because they believe in the importance of academic honesty and integrity. 8. What are the theory's overarching conclusions and findings? - Hirschi argued that delinquency would be low amongst youth who are… ○ Attached & care about the opinions of others ○ Committed to conventional standards and goals ○ Involved in conventional activities that occupy their time ○ Believe they should obey rules - Hirschi also argued that prime candidates for delinquency had traits such as… ○ Not being close to their parents ○ Having few prospects for a successful future ○ Are idle after school hours ○ Have no allegiance to conventional morality Gottfredson and Hirschi’s “General Theory of Crime” 1. What is Gottfredson and Hirschi's "General Theory of Crime" about? - Argues that low self-control is the main cause of criminal behavior. People with low self-control act impulsively, seeking instant gratification without thinking about the consequences. This leads them to commit crimes like theft or violence. 2. What inspired the theory? - Hirschi shifted his focus from control within society to control within the individual 3. What is the primary focus of this theory? - One’s level of self control 4. What is the main argument/proposition of this theory? - Individuals who were inadequately parented before the age of ten develop less self-control because their parents did not monitor their behavior enough and discipline them accordingly. Therefore they are more inclined to participate in crime. 5. What is the goal of this theory? - To explain why some people engage in criminal behavior while others do not. 6. What are the six elements of self-control? (1) Impulsivity (2) Insensitive (3) Physical As Opposed To Mental (4) Risk-taking (5) Short sighted (6) Nonverbal 7. What are the limitations of the theory? Limitations included questioning - Whether it is an accurate assessment of self control - Should other factors be included in the measurement of self control - Is self control a static trait or can it fluctuate - Is child rearing the most important predictor of self- control 8. What are its overarching conclusions and findings? - It is consistently a significant predictor of deviant and or criminal behavior - Continues to predict old and newly emerging forms of criminal behavior 9. How has the study found empirical support? - It has received an exorbitant amount of support from criminological research Week 11: Feminist Theories 1. What is the background of the feminist theory in criminology? - Criminology has focused almost exclusively on crimes and behaviors committed by men 2. How did this theory come to prominence? - The emergence of the Women’s Movement and it’s fight for equality between the sexes 3. Why was feminist theory neglected in criminology? - Partly stemmed from the disproportionate involvement of males in crime 4. What is the goal of feminist theory? - To reveal and change the structural relationships in society that result in the discrimination and oppression of women 5. What are the 4 main questions that feminist theorists seek to answer? (1) How can we explain female crime? (2) How can we explain the gender gap in crime and changes in the gender gap over time? (3) What roles does gender play in the generation of male crime? (4) How does gender “intersect” with race/ethnicity and class to affect crime? 6. What is the "Liberation Thesis" about? - Women’s liberation resulting in “equality” across the board, including with crime 7. Describe the liberation thesis’s purpose and main argument. - It suggests that women’s crime rates are increasing due to more opportunities of women to commit crime - Argued that if girls were raised like boys and girls life course had the same types of opportunities as boys their behavior would become more like boys - Socially raising girls in the same manner as boys would result in similar traits 8. How did Adler contribute to the "Liberation Thesis?" - Adler proposed that the emancipation of women increased economic opportunities for women lead to an increase in the female crime rate 9. What are the limitations of the "Liberation Thesis?" - Empirical predictions of the thesis have not been proven correct - Crime was more common among those who did not achieve equality - Does not consider the structural roots of the inequality between men and women 10. What is "Patriarchy and Crime?" - Focuses on how the law is used to reaffirmed traditional subordinate female roles and to control women’s sexuality - Focuses on the victimization of women by men 11. What are the main arguments of "Patriarchy and Crime?" - Theory claims that girls are frequently the receipts of violence and sexual abuse 12. What is Messerchmidt’s "Masculinities and Crime" theory? - Challenges both traditional and feminist criminological theories of criminal conduct 13. What is the theory’s main argument and overarching objective? - Masculinity is a social construct that is closely tied to crime, particularly in the context of male behavior. - Men are socialized to adhere to certain gender expectations and that crime can be a way for men to prove or perform their masculinity, especially when they face challenges or threats to their status. 14. Can you explain what “doing gender” is? - Demonstrating masculinity by engaging in crime such as acts of violence and committing robbery Week 13: Deterrence Theory: 1. What is "Deterrence Theory" about? - It is one of the main explanations under classical theory/classical criminology 2. What is this theory’s main argument? - That people are rational and pursue their own self-interests which inherently mean more pleasure and less pain 3. What are the three main elements of "Deterrence Theory?" Can you explain how they differ from one another? - Swiftness/Celerity of Punishment - Focus on how hard the punishment is - Certainty of Punishment - Is about how likely the punishment is to occur if a crime is committed - Severity of Punishment - Is about how quickly the punishment follows the crime 4. Which of the three elements is the most significant/impactful according to the research? - Swiftness/Celerity of Punishment 5. What has research found on all three elements? - Harsher punishment does not deter crime - Swift punishment does not deter crime - Certain punishment is mixed 6. What are the two sub-types of "Deterrence Theory?" Can you explain how they differ from one another? - Specific Deterrence - Focuses on stopping an individual from re-offending by punishing them. - Example: Someone gets a speeding ticket and doesn’t speed again because they don’t want another fine. - General Deterrence - Focuses on preventing others in society from committing crimes by showing the consequences of breaking the law. - Example: Harsh penalties for theft are widely known, so most people avoid stealing. Specific deterrence is about discouraging one person, while general deterrence is about discouraging everyone else. 7. What are the limitations of these two sub-types of deterrence theory? - Many people have little idea of the true certainty and severity of punishment - Law-abiding citizens often overestimate the certainty and severity of punishment (inaccurate understandings) - General deterrence may work with certain people in some circumstances 8. What has research found as to why punishment may not deter criminal behavior? - Offenders don’t always think rationally about consequences - Threats of punishment often fail to stop future crimes - Punishment can make things worse by adding stress, weakening social connections, and exposing people to criminal behavior - The likelihood of being punished is often very low, which reduces its effectiveness as a deterrent - The justice system doesn’t always apply punishment in a way that effectively prevents crime Rational Choice Theory 1. What is this theory about? - Individuals making calculated decisions to commit crimes by weighing the potential benefits of a criminal act against the potential costs 2. What is Clarke and Cornish’s "rational choice theory?" - It involves some consideration of cost and benefit, but not “full consideration” 3. What is the major assumption of this theory? - Your rational choice is bounded by the information you possess 4. What are the main tenets and principles of this theory? - “You know what you know and you don’t know what you don’t know” - “You do not know if the assumptions are true or not” 5. How does this theory explain the cost-benefit calculation? What is meant by “bounded rationality”? - People will weigh the costs and benefits of their actions so if the outcome of the crime is greater than the risk they will commit - Bounded rationality means people don’t always make perfect decisions because of limited information time or biases Week 14: Environmental Theory 1. What is "Environmental Theory" about? - The environmental conditions that provide opportunities for individuals to commit crime such as physical and socially 2. What is the main focus of this branch of theory? - Explain crime events - Explore the causal role of opportunity - Investigating how features of the physical and social environment influence the availability of criminal opportunities 3. Crime only occurs when what two things are present? - The offender and the opportunity to offend 4. What does this theory believe with regard to changing environments v. changing human nature? - That crime can be prevented by removing the criminal opportunity necessary to commit crime - Manipulating opportunities is far easier than trying to make people less criminally motivated 5. What is target hardening? - When the security of an entity (object/person) is strengthened to reduce victimization or harm 6. What are the implications of "Environmental Theory?" - States that the behavior and development are shaped by the surroundings 7. What types of policy recommendations does this theory branch lend itself to? - Situational Crime Prevention - Environmental Design - Community Policy - Urban Planning and Housing Routine Activities Theory (RAT) 1. What is the background of RAT? - Created by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson 2. What is this theory about? - Deals with the factors that influence the range of choices available to individuals 3. What is the major assumption of this theory? - Crime occurs when 3 key elements are involved 4. What are the core three elements of crime causation? - Presence of a motivated offender - A suitable target (has to do with benefits of the crime) - Absence of a capable guardian (has to do with costs of the crime) 5. Is the theory a victimization theory or an offending theory? - Victimization theory 6. What are the limitations of the theory? - Whether the core elements have to meet in time and space - How does this theory contribute to a victim blaming narrative - Is it fair to assume there will always be a supply of motivated offenders 7. What is a suitable target and a capable guardian? - Suitable target is anything that can be an attractive target - Capable guardian are those that can deter crime by increasing the cost/risk 8. Are offenders motivated by special forces or mundane (everyday) factors - Mundane forces Week 15: Developmental Theory 1. What is developmental theory? - Focuses on the individual and how the person’s life unfolds as they transverse through different context 2. What is the history/background of developmental theory? - Psychologists long believed that human personality and behavior emerge through a developmental process 3. How is developmental theory different from traditional criminological theory? - It is dynamic whereas traditional is static 4. Why did criminology neglect developmental theory for so long? - Criminologists never gave thought to what living in disorganized neighborhood over long period of time does to one’s development as an issue 5. What are the two main types of developmental theory in criminology? - Life course theory: behavior changes over time based on life factors - Trajectory theory: people follow different paths in life and it depends on your life factors Moffit’s “Developmental Theory of Crime” 1. What is this theory about? - Focuses on how individuals involvement in crime develops at different stages of life 2. What are the main arguments? - That these individuals start antisocial acts early and continue their delinquency beyond adolescence 3. Can you define and distinguish between life-course persistent (LCPs) and adolescence-limited (ALs) offenders? - LCP offenders start committing crimes at a young age and continue throughout their live - AL offenders only commit crime during their teenage years but eventually grow out of it - One grows out the other doesn’t 4. What are some limitations of Moffit’s theory? - Moffit does not deny the existence of other offender groups that have distinct developmental pathways - Are these the only two groups to exist? 5. Why is this theory referred to as "continuity or change?" - Because it explains how criminal behavior can either remain the same (continuity) or change over time. Sampson and Laub’s “Age-Graded Theory of Informal Social Control” 1. What is this theory about? - Criminal behavior is not static throughout life but can be significantly influenced by life events and trajectories (turning points) that occur during different stages 2. What are its main arguments? - Criminal behavior can change throughout life based on the strengths of social bonds - Complex factors combine to put a child on an antisocial pathway 3. How is it different/similar to Moffit’s theory? - SIMILAR: Both theories focus on change over time and role of events - DIFFERENT: Moffit’s theory is about different types of offenders based on their life trajectory, while Sampson and Laub’s theory focuses on how social bonds across the lifespan can influence whether or not a person continues or stops committing crime 4. Can you describe what a “turning point” is? - Events that establish conventional social bonds such as getting married - A significant life change 5. Why is this theory referred to as "continuity and change?" - Because the same individual can experience both continuity or change in the offender - It can evolve over time Week 16: White-collar crime 1. Who was the main white-collar crime theorist in criminology? - Edwin Sutherland 2. How did he define white-collar crime? - A crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of their occupation 3. What are some problems and limitations with his definition? - He introduced the concept of “white collar crime but did not clearly outline what it means - His definition was rather inclusive 4. What are the four prominent explanations/theories for white-collar crime? - Differential Association Theory (Sutherland) - Strain Theory (Merton) - Routine Activities Theory (Cohen & Felson) - Control Theory (Hirschi) Critical Criminology 1. What does it mean to be a critical theory in criminology? - Not inherently toxic or divisive - Challenging traditional theories that are often regarded as being blind to the realities of society 2. What are the essential elements in a critical theory? (1) Inequality and power are rooted in crime (2) Crime is a political concept (3) Legal system supports capitalist class (4) Capitalism is the root of criminal behavior (5) Solution to the crime is a more equitable society