Study Guide Answer Key Unit 1.pptx

 VOCABULARY Cell = - The most basic structural and functional unit of life; the smallest part of an organism that is still capable of all life’s processes Organelle = - Specialized structures within the cell that work together to help the cell function Macromolecu...

 VOCABULARY Cell = - The most basic structural and functional unit of life; the smallest part of an organism that is still capable of all life’s processes Organelle = - Specialized structures within the cell that work together to help the cell function Macromolecule = - Key large biological molecules that make up all living things Nucleotide = - The monomer of nucleic acids Fatty acid = - The monomer of lipids Monosaccharide = - The monomer of carbohydrates  VOCABULARY Amino acid = - The monomer of proteins Enzyme = - Biological catalysts; mostly proteins Catalyst = - Molecules that speed up biochemical reactions by lowering the activation energy needed to get the reaction going without changing the reactants or products Active site = - The highly specific location on an enzyme where substrates (reactants) bind Differentiation = - The process of stem cells, or undifferentiated cells, undergoing specialization to become specific types of cells with different functions  OBJECTIVES 1. List the characteristics that all living things share. Made of cells Respond to stimuli Able to grow and reproduce Use energy (have a metabolism) Contain DNA or RNA as genetic material Adapt to their environment  OBJECTIVES 2. Describe the role of each organelle in the overall function of the cell. Cell membrane – controls what goes in and out of the cell Centrioles – key role in cell division and the anchoring of spindle fibers Cilia – move fluid across the cell’s surface Flagella – moves the entire cell through extracellular fluid Nucleus – holds the DNA that controls the activities of the cell Ribosomes – make proteins Rough ER – makes proteins Smooth ER – makes lipids, chemical modifications, stores Ca+2 Golgi apparatus – processing proteins to be sent out Vesicles – transport proteins around and out of cell Lysosomes – breakdown of materials Vacuoles – storage Mitochondria – site of cellular respiration  OBJECTIVES 3. Explain the structure of the cell membrane and how its structure allows it to control what goes in and out of the cell. 2 layers of phospholipids - Polar hydrophilic heads - Nonpolar hydrophobic tails Carbohydrates embedded for structure and signaling Proteins embedded as channels for transport and also for signaling This creates a selective permeability - Can pass easily = small, nonpolar, hydrophobic, neutral molecules, and water - Water is polar but it is a really small molecule - Cannot pass easily = Polar molecules (need protein channels) and large molecules (use vesicles)  OBJECTIVES 4. Explain the importance of each macromolecule to the overall function of the cells and thus the human body. Carbohydrates – energy storage molecules - Structural uses, key for recognition in signal transduction pathways Lipids – energy storage molecules - Main structure in the cell membrane, protection, insulation Nucleic acids – informational molecules - Blueprint for making proteins, store/transmit/express our genetic information Proteins – everything else - Enzymes, signaling, receptors, structural components, regulation, contractions, protection against disease, transport, storage, etc.  OBJECTIVES 5. Distinguish between the following terms: DNA, chromosomes, and genes. Then explain their relationship to proteins. Your DNA is all of your genetic information, organized into 46 chromosomes stored in each of your body cells. Each chromosome can be sectioned off into thousands of genes, which provide the instructions for making proteins. Proteins are what essentially run all of your body processes. 6. Explain the role of enzymes in biochemical reactions, including the importance of their specificity. Enzymes are biological catalysts, speeding up reactions. They are highly specific and only bind to certain substrates. Nearly every biochemical reaction is regulated by an enzyme!!  OBJECTIVES 7. List the levels of organization within an organism. Organism  organ systems  organs  tissues  cells (the most basic unit of life) 8. Summarize the process of the cell cycle in somatic (body) cells. Include the name of each sub-phase, and the critical importance of chromosome duplication prior to cell division. Interphase: most of cell’s life; critical step is S phase - S phase = Synthesis = when DNA is doubled so that resulting cells after division have identical amount of chromosomes to parent cell Mitosis = Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase - The division of the chromosomes Cytokinesis = division of cytoplasm into 2 identical body cells  OBJECTIVES 9. Explain what is meant by the phrase “form dictates function” and why it will be an essential theme in this course. The structure of a cell or an organ or an organ system ultimately determines what it does. The anatomy of the body and its physiological processes are intrinsically tied. From a structure’s components we can often determine how it contributes to the body’s overall function.  OBJECTIVES 10.Identify an organelle based on a diagram or description of its structure. 11.Given the description of a cell’s function, determine the most essential organelles needed in the cell to carry out that specific function. 12.Given appropriate context, be able to arrange a list of body organization levels from smallest to broadest, and vice versa.  VOCABULARY Homeostasis = - Stability of the internal environment and the mechanisms that maintain that stability Receptor = - Sensory organ that receives the stimulus Stimulus = - An action that evokes a response Effector = - An organ that does the response Response = - The effect, caused by the stimulus Feedback inhibition = - When the output of a process is used as an input to control the behavior of the overall process itself, usually leading to inhibition of the process  VOCABULARY Passive transport = - The movement of molecules across the cell membrane that doesn’t require extra energy, moving down the concentration gradient Active transport = - The movement of molecules across the cell membrane that does require extra energy, moving against the concentration gradient Hypertonic solution = - A solution with a water concentration lower than the cell’s cytoplasm Hypotonic solution = - A solution with a water concentration higher than the cell’s cytoplasm Isotonic solution = - A solution with a water concentration identical to the cell’s cytoplasm Ligand = - Molecules that bind to other molecules (receptor proteins) for signaling purposes  VOCABULARY Signal transduction pathway = - A sequence of events initiated by a signal that leads to a cellular response Inhibitor = - Any molecule that blocks the normal ligand from binding, thus preventing communication along the signal transduction pathway Transduction = - The passing along of the signal until the desired response is reached Phosphorylation = - Addition of a phosphate group by kinases that changes a molecule’s shape and contributes to transduction Dephosphorylation = - Removal of a phosphate group by phosphatases that changes a molecules shape and contributes to transduction Second messenger = - A small molecule that serves as an intermediate between the receptor and the cascade of responses after  OBJECTIVES 1. Differentiate between dynamic and static equilibrium. A static equilibrium would be constant and unchanging. A dynamic equilibrium fluctuates above and below the constant state, but the overall rate of “loss” balances out with the overall rate of “gain”. 2. Describe the relationship between response to stimuli and homeostasis. Our bodies are designed to take in different stimuli via receptors, communicate the messages of those stimuli, and then initiate a response. This is how our bodies maintain constant internal stability, also known as homeostasis.  OBJECTIVES 3. Differentiate between positive and negative feedback loops. Include an example of each. Positive feedback loop – the output of a system intensifies the response, leading to amplification - Ex. Hormones released in human child birth Negative feedback loop – the output of a system causes a counter response to return to a set point, leading to stabilization - Ex. Thermoregulation  OBJECTIVES 4. Draw an example of a feedback loop, clearly labeling all parts.  OBJECTIVES 5. Summarize the role of enzymes in the regulation of homeostasis. Enzymes speed up biochemical reactions by the lowering the activation energy needed to get the reaction going. All biological processes are highly regulated and controlled by the presence (or absence) of specific enzymes. 6. Summarize the role of cellular transport in the regulation of homeostasis. Cells maintain homeostasis with highly regulated transport mechanisms. The selective permeability of the cell membrane allows the cell to control what moves in and out as it brings needed resources in, expels waste, and transports signals in and out of the cell to maintain constant and stable internal conditions.  OBJECTIVES 7. Describe the six types of cellular transport, including an example of a substance transported for each. Simple diffusion: net movement of molecules from high to low concentration; Ex. O2 and CO2 Facilitated diffusion: uses a transport protein (channel or carrier) to aid in the movement of molecules from high to low concentration; Ex. Polar molecules like Ca+2 and large molecules like glucose Osmosis: diffusion of water from high to low concentration; Ex. Water Molecular pumps: use energy to pump molecules through a protein channel against the concentration gradient; Ex. Na+/K+ Pump Endocytosis: uses energy and vesicles to move particles into the cell; Ex. White blood cells engulf bacteria for destruction Exocytosis: uses energy and vesicles to move particles out of the cell; Ex. Neurons secrete neurotransmitters for signaling  OBJECTIVES 8. Explain the importance of cell signaling and communication in maintaining homeostasis. Include a brief description of a real-world example of a breakdown in cell communication and how that impacted homeostasis in the organism. Cell signaling and communication is critical for maintaining homeostasis in humans because we are made of trillions of cells. It allows cells in the body to process information from the environment and communicate to other cells in order to coordinate a response that maintains homeostasis. Example: - Caffeine acts as an inhibitor by binding to receptors on nerve cells in our brains to block and not activate the receptors that tell our body we are tired, so that instead we remain feeling alert.  OBJECTIVES 9. Draw a sketch of a signal transduction pathway, labeling the key parts.  OBJECTIVES 10. Distinguish between the types of chemical signals that can initiate a signal transduction pathway. Autocrine: ”self”; affect the same cell that releases them Paracrine: diffuse to nearby cells Juxtacrine: require direct contact between the signaling cell and the receiving cell Hormones: chemical signal that travels to distant cells 11. Explain the importance of specificity in receptor proteins. Include the difference between intracellular and membrane receptors and the types of ligands they would bind to. Only certain ligands can bind certain receptors. This specificity allows for highly regulated signaling pathways. - Intracellular receptors: inside the cell, thus bind small and/or nonpolar molecules that can easily diffuse through cell membrane - Membrane receptors: on surface of the cell, thus bind large and/or polar molecules that cannot easily diffuse through cell membrane  OBJECTIVES 12. Describe the importance of a second messenger in certain signal transduction pathways. A second messenger is a small molecule that serves as an intermediate between the receptor and the cascade of responses after Plays a critical role in regulation as it can either distribute and/or amplify an initial signal received by a receptor 13. Explain several types of responses that can be triggered by a transduction pathway. One signal can cause several responses, like: - Opening ion channels by changing the balance of concentration in and out of the cell - Altering gene expression by upregulating and downregulating them - Altering an enzyme’s activity to either happen (and thus make a reaction happen) or not (and thus prevent a reaction from happening)  OBJECTIVES 14. Be able to analyze data to determine the effect of a feedback mechanism on homeostasis. 15. Be able to process information about a real-world feedback mechanism and translate it into a feedback loop diagram. 16. Classify a type of cellular transport based on a diagram or description. 17. Classify solutions as hypertonic, hypotonic, or isotonic based on a diagram or description. 18. Be able to interpret a diagram of a signaling mechanism and infer what type of response is being triggered.  VOCABULARY Anatomy = - The study of bodily structures Histology = - The study of tissues Cytology = - The study of cells Physiology = - The study of bodily functions Anatomical position = - The standard position used as a reference point for directional terms; where a person is standing up with feet slightly apart and arms at their sides Axial = - Head, neck, and trunk  VOCABULARY Appendicular = - Appendages (limbs) Superior (cranial) = - Toward the upper part; above Inferior (caudal) = - Away from the upper part; toward the lower part; below Anterior (ventral) = - Toward or at the front of the body; in front of Posterior (dorsal) = - Toward or at the back of the body; behind Medial = - Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of  VOCABULARY Lateral = - Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of Intermediate = - In between Proximal = - Closer to the point where a limb attaches to the body trunk Distal = - Farther from the point where the limb attaches to the body trunk Superficial = - Toward or at the body surface Deep = - Away from the body surface  VOCABULARY Body planes = - Flat surfaces used to divide the body into different sections Sagittal = - Vertical plane that divides the body into left and right sections Midsagittal = - A sagittal plane that crosses through the midline of the body Parasagittal = - A sagittal plane that does not cross through the midline of the body Frontal (coronal) = - Vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior sections (front and back) Transverse (cross section) = - Horizontal plane that divides the body into superior and inferior sections (above and below)  VOCABULARY Cutaneous membrane = - Skin, the covering of the body’s surface Mucous membrane = - Mucosae; lines all body cavities that open to the outside of the body Serous membrane = - Serosa; lines ventral body cavities that are closed as well as covers many organs Parietal membrane = - Type of serous membrane that lines the body cavity Visceral membrane = - Type of serous membrane that covers internal organs Meninges = - The membrane that covers the brain and spinal cord in the dorsal body cavity  VOCABULARY Tissues = - Groups of cells that are similar in structure and work together for a common function Organ = - A distinct structure made up of at least 2 different types of tissues Glands = - One or more cells that create and secrete different products - Exocrine = externally secreting (Ex. Sweat as a product) - Endocrine = internally secreting (Ex. Hormones as products) Neuron = - Highly specialized nerve cells that make up nervous tissue and generate and conduct nerve impulses  OBJECTIVES 1. Create a chart to distinguish between the functions and key structures of the 12 main organ systems. ORGAN SYSTEM MAIN FUNCTIONS KEY STRUCTURES Support, protection, and Bones, tendons, Skeletal system movement ligaments, and cartilage Movement and Skeletal, smooth, and Muscular system stabilization cardiac muscles Collect, process, and Brain, spinal cord, nerves, Nervous system respond to sensory info and sensory organs Production and secretion of Hypothalamus and Endocrine system hormones for regulation glands Gas exchange and Heart, blood vessels, Cardiovascular system nutrient transport and blood Lungs, nose, mouth, Respiratory system Gas exchange trachea, and diaphragm  OBJECTIVES 1. Create a chart to distinguish between the functions and key structures of the 12 main organ systems. ORGAN SYSTEM MAIN FUNCTIONS KEY STRUCTURES Break down food and Alimentary canal Digestive system absorb nutrients (GI tract) Water balance, waste Urinary system elimination, blood filter and Kidneys and bladder volume regulator Protection, temperature Skin, hair, nails, and Integumentary system and water regulation associated glands Blood vessels, thymus, Immune system Protection bone marrow, spleen Lymph nodes, blood Lymphatic system Filtering and protecting and lymphatic vessels Reproduce and nurture Testes, penis, vagina, Reproductive system developing offspring uterus, and ovaries  OBJECTIVES 2. Contrast the dorsal and ventral body cavities. Dorsal – entire cavity encased in bony structures for protection of the fragile nervous system organs, and includes the cranial and vertebral cavities Ventral – a less protected cavity to allow more mobility, housing the visceral organs in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities  OBJECTIVES 3. List each type of body cavity covered in class with a brief description of its purpose. Cranial: holds the brain Vertebral (spinal): holds the spinal cord with bony vertebrae Thoracic: holds the heart (pericardial cavity) and lungs (pleural cavity) Abdominal: holds the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, etc. Pelvic: holds the bladder, some reproductive organs, and rectum Oral: holds mouth, teeth, and tongue Digestive: connects oral cavity all the way to the rectum Nasal: within and behind the nose Orbital: holds the eyes Middle ear: contain tiny bones medial to the eardrums Synovial: joint cavities  OBJECTIVES 4. Explain the importance of each of the four types of tissues that make up the human body. Epithelial tissue – covers body surfaces and lines body cavities to form boundaries as well as protect, absorb and filter substances Connective tissue – supports, protects, insulates, transports, and binds other tissues together Muscle tissue – tightly packed cells working together to allow contractions that cause movement Nervous tissue – make up nervous system organs that control communication and regulation  OBJECTIVES 5. Differentiate between the functions of the 4 types of connective tissue. Connective tissue proper – insulates, protects, and stores energy Cartilage – supports, cushions, and protects organs from external environment Bone – supports and protects organs from external environment Blood – transports substances throughout body  OBJECTIVES 6. Sketch a flowchart/concept map to show the diversity among the different types of connective tissue.  OBJECTIVES 7. Draw an example of each type of muscle tissue and explain the unique role each plays. Skeletal – muscles attached to bones that control voluntary movements Smooth – muscles that involuntarily propel substances or objects along internal passageways Cardiac – muscles of the heart that involuntarily contract to propel blood into circulation throughout the body  OBJECTIVES 8. Given a diagram or description, identify the body region, body plane, and/or body cavity. 9. Describe the location of various body parts in relation to others using appropriate anatomical vocabulary, including regional terms. 10.Given a diagram or description, be able to differentiate and identify the type of tissue. 11.Classify epithelial tissue based on the number of cell layers and cell shape.