STS Chapter 1: Historical Antecedents of Science and Technology PDF

lOMoARcPSD|48991573 STS- Chapter-1 - this is so good Management Accounting (Batangas State University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])...

lOMoARcPSD|48991573 STS- Chapter-1 - this is so good Management Accounting (Batangas State University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 in cuneiform script, as “the land of the Science, Technology, & Society black-headed people.” They were known for building a walled UNIT 1 - Chapter 1 Historical Antecedents city-state and their many inventions are of Science and Technology still widely used ❖ Throughout history, science and Sumerians are known: technology have continuously provided humankind with various Inventing the cuneiform, one of the breakthroughs and inventions that earliest systems of writing, at around heavily influence the way people think, 3000 BC. It is characterized by wedge- act, and live. shaped scripts pressed into day tablets. This system of writing was adopted by IN THE WORLD: ANCIENT AGE other civilizations until the Science - comes from the latin word development of the Phoenician script. scientia meaning “knowledge.” Number System. It was helpful in their conduct of trade. Main base of 60 and - as a systematized body of auxiliary base 10. knowledge for it urges people to Sailboat. Made of planks of wood and find answers to questions, they have sails made of cloth. Allows them to regarding the things around them. travel by sea to trade goods with other - is about knowing how the world neighboring civilizations. works, which is why everyone is Wheel. First used for pottery in 3500 BC involved in its study. and later for transportation in chariots in 3200 BC. MESOPOTAMIA First Astronomers. They observed the The first recorded civilizations of the phases of the moon and the world around 3300-750 BC. movements of the planets and stars. The region now corresponds to most Referring to the phases of the moon, parts of present-day Iraq, Iran, Syria, they were able to develop a lunar Kuwait, and Turkey calendar that became the basis for From the Greeks, means “between two having 12 lunar months in a year. rivers,” which signifies its location within With the invention of sailboats and the Tigris-Euphrates River system. wheels, Sumer served as one of history’s Among early civilizations that flourished earliest trading grounds through their in Mesopotamia were the Sumerian, production of textiles, leather goods, Babylonian, and Assyrian civilization. and jewelry. SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION Sumer, now modern-day Iraq, is the Served as the center of Mesopotamian earliest known civilization in civilization for nearly two millennia. Mesopotamia. Babyloan is known to be derived from The Sumerians called themselves “the bav-il or bav-ilim meaning “Gates of black-headed people” and their hand, the Gods.” Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 The many biblical references to King Nebuchadnezzar II’s gift to Babylon reveal much about from the his homesick wife, Amytis. time of Hammurabi in 2000 BC to its downfall around 500 BC. BABYLONIAN Babylon is first mentioned in Genesis 10, Adopted the number system of the an account that traces the genealogy Sumerians and they were known for of Noah’s three sons. According to this, advancing the number system. Noah’s son Ham became the father of Archaeologists discovered the different Cush, who became the father of ways that the Babylonians used Nimrod, who became a great warrior mathematics in their daily lives in and built a kingdom that included the cuneiform tablets. Topics concerning city of Babylon. fractions, square and cube formulas, Genesis 11. The story of the Tower of and the Pythagorean Theorem were Babel, a structure that the Babylonians found written on the tablets. wanted to build “with its tops in the Babylonian priests were known to have heavens” to make a name for observed the sun, moon, and stars to themselves. God disrupted the tower’s make astronomical calculations and construction by confusing the predictions that they recorded on clay language of the workers so that they tablets. In some temples, they were could no longer understand one able to record the phases of Venus. another. The tower was never finished They derived a lunar calendar similar to and people, having different that of the Sumerians and divided one languages, spread out to different year into 12 months with each month parts of the world. divided into an alternate of 29 and 30 References to Babylon in the Biblical days. books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezequiel, The Babylonian invented sundials and Daniel, and the Revelations prompted water clocks to determine time. the expedition of German archaeologist Robert Koldewery, who AFRICA directed the excavation of Babylon in 1899. The excavation provided a Africans excel in various fields such: glimpse of the ancient city. 1. Agriculture (coffee, palm oil, 1. He was able to unearth the sugarcane, cotton, African rice, Temple of Etemenanki, which he and sorghum), believed to have inspired the 2. Metallurgy (bow, arrows, knives, biblical story of the Tower of and axes) Babel, and the 3. Engineering (buildings and Nebuchadnezzar’s palaces. monuments) 2. Koldewey’s team also 4. Textile production discovered a basement with 14 5. Medicine (plants for anesthetics, large rooms with stone arch analgesics, antidotes, ceilings believed to be the anthelmintics, and antimicrobials) Hanging Gardens of Babylon. It is believed that the gardens were Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 ANCIENT EGYPT similar to paper was used by the Egyptians as a writing surface. It was One of Africa’s most famous also used to make mats, baskets, civilizations was the ancient Egyptian rafts, ropes, and more. civilization, which was born along the d. Ancient Egypt was also responsible Nile River, and provided rich soil for for cosmetics inventions including agriculture. wigs and make up. The land of Egypt was known as Kemet, e. Developed medicines to treat meaning “Black Land”, because of the different kinds of illnesses. As a rich dark soil along the river. Nile helped physician, Imhotep wrote texts in cultivating crops, such as wheat and describing more than 200 diseases flax. and their corresponding treatments. One of the first scientific innovations of this civilization was the construction of INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION a canal for irrigation and other agricultural needs. Indus Valley was an ancient civilization Egyptians also made use of and further located in present-day Pakistan and developed the plow to make farming Northwest India. It was a Bronze-Age easier in cultivating the soil for the civilization and the largest of the four planting of different crops. urban civilizations of Egypt, They also developed the shadoof, an Mesopotamia, South Asia, and China. irrigation tool composed of a pole and Indus Valley civilization – the 4,600- a bucket used to lift water. year-old city of Mohenjo-Daro proved Egyptians are also known for inventing that Mesopotamia, Babylon, and breath mints from frankincense, myrrh, Egypt were not the only ancient and cinnamon made into pellets and civilization. discovering honey. Introduced new techniques of The Old Kingdom of Ancient Egypt was metallurgy (bronze, tin, copper, and rich in architectural feats. lead) and handicraft (seal carving and a. Pyramids. Served as tombs for the carnelian products). kings and queens of Egypt. Djoser, Their cities are well known for having pharaoh of the third dynasty of the well-organized and baked brick houses Old Kingdom, build the first Step and clusters of large non-residential Pyramid in Saqqara designed by buildings, a complex drainage system, Imhotep his architect and and a sophisticated water storage physician. The great pyramids of system. Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure were People who reside also developed also constructed during the reign of accurate weighting systems and Djoser. measurements for trade and a writing b. Great Sphinx of Gaza. A 20-meter- system consisting of 250 to 500 high statue made of white limestone characters. depicting a reclining sphinx with a Also known for its advanced lion’s body and a human head. agricultural practices. People grew c. Papyrus. A material made from the crops such as barley, mustard, peas, pith of the papyrus plant that is and even cotton. They also had domesticated animals that included Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 dogs, cats, cattle, fowls, camels, and leaves and create the cocoon where buffaloes. they will later develop. Gunpowder, initially used for fireworks, ANCIENT CHINA was also one of the popular creations of Chinese Taoist alchemists who mixed Is known to be one of the oldest and sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate longest-lasting civilizations in the world. in hopes of creating a potion for “China” derived from the Sanskrit Cina immortality in 142 AD. Later on, used in from the name Qin Dynasty, the Mongol Wars of the 10th century pronounced “Chin”. The Greeks and and, ironically European domination of the Romans called China Seres China in the 1800s. meaning “the land where the silk comes from.” AEGEAN CIVILIZATION China was the first to record astronomical phenomena such as the ANCIENT GREECE solar eclipse and one of the few to witness a guest star supernova in 1054 Refers to a time between 800 BC and BC, that created the Crab Nebula. 500 BC after the so-called Greek Dark The Chinese also developed a Ages. counting device called the abacus Greek is a country in Southeastern sometimes between 1000 BC and 500 Europe also known as Hellas or Ellada, BC. It was used for basic and complex which is “Greece” in Greek. mathematical operations. Early inhabitants of Greece relied on Responsible for introducing and trade. Various commodities were developing medicinal treatments traded such as fruits, vegetables, including acupuncture and herbal wines, and herbs. medicine. Acupuncture is the practice It is also known for its achievements in of relieving pain, healing illnesses, and politics, art, philosophy, and science. It improving the general metal needles vastly democratized education, thus at precise points into the skin and tissue. nurturing great philosophers and Under Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) scientists. o Paper Greek Philosophy is undeniably the o Movable printing press most renowned contribution of the Another famous invention from China Greeks to Western Civilization. was porcelain. Porcelain is a type of Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates ceramic clay pottery used to craft questioned human existence and how vases, plates, cups, and decorative the world came to be. These furniture which were treasured by other philosophers and many who came nations at the time of its invention. It has after them denied the explanation of a hard surface and is made from religion, superstition, and myths in special clay that turns crystalline when decoding the human condition and heated. the mechanisms of the world. Silk originated in China as early as the Pythagoras, who was also a Chinese Neolithic period. It is produced philosopher, was best known for the by silkworms that feed on mulberry Pythagorean Theorem, which was used to measure distance and space. Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 He also believed that “number” is the ANCIENT GREECE only objective concept in the understanding of reality. Innovations in engineering and Thales of Miletus, regarded as the first mechanics. Western philosopher and o Water mills will be used to grind mathematician, became popular for grain. his precise prediction of the solar o Perachora wheel was the eclipse on May 28, 585 BC. He is also pioneering invention that the founder of the Milesian School. contributed to the creation of Hippocrates, considered the “Father of water mills. Western Medicine,” made big leaps in o Aqueducts were also the field of medicine by observing constructed for water wounded soldiers, the veins and management in Samos and arteries of the body, and by Athens. determining the correlation of diet and o Ctesibius is known for developing lifestyle to diseases. Oath formulated the water clock or clepsydra. after his death is an oath of ethics Ctesibius water alarm clock taken by physicians and medical worked by using water practitioners to promise to uphold droppings and clay vessels to values and ethics in the practice of track time. He also used bells that medicine. were supposed to be hit by dropping pebbles in order to ANCIENT ROME make sounds. o Odometer is attributed to Ancient Rome was originally a small Archimedes of Syracuse during town near the Tiber when Augustus the First Punic War. Was used to Caesar became its first Emperor. measure the distance covered Eventually grew greater and stronger by a vehicle. It has since then because of trade. Rome borrowed paved the way for the and enriched the culture of Greece advancement of transportation and became a powerful empire. and the construction of roads. Ancient Rome’s legacy can be traced o Surgical instruments such as to its civil and military engineering that rectal speculum, bone levers, led to the construction of roads, and cupping vessels were used bridges, aqueducts, and architectural by Roman Physicians in the feats such as arenas, monuments, diagnosis and treatment of pantheons, and more. diseases. These were typically In Pergamum (present-day Turkey), the made of lead, steel, or bronze. physician Galen was the first to Use of concrete, known for its durability describe and diagnose symptoms of due to the volcanic ash present in the different diseases and their mixture. corresponding treatment. His medical Appius Claudius Caecus built the first books were considered the standard Roman aqueduct called Aqua Appia for many years. in 312 BC. It transported water to Rome from different bodies of water and was Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 the precursor of Rome’s development Most Mayan texts written on tree bark of sewage systems, sanitation are called codices containing records, management, and public baths. culture, rituals, and scientific Roman’s also constructed great observations. Most of the texts were architectural feats, two of which are burned by the Spaniards because they the Colosseum – the largest were considered pagan literature. amphitheater ever built – and the The Maya was also known for pictorial Pantheon – a former Roman temple. scripts (glyphs) inscribed on stone These two monuments are well- monuments. One of the three texts that preserved today. were salvaged was the Dresden Codex Ancient Rome was famous for its which contains accurate predictions of powerful military characterized by solar eclipses, celestial writings, and formidable leadership and advanced astronomical tables of the Maya. machinery. Romans used the ballista to The knowledge of the Mayan people in penetrate the enemy frontier. astronomy and mathematics enabled The Greek fire, adopted from the them to refer to the 365-day solar year Greeks, was a combustible weapon and 260-day sacred year annual capable of propelling bombs at the cycles. These two annual cycles were opponent. known as the calendar round. They also devised another calendar called MESOAMERICA long count that measured days by cycles or sets. Is a historical region and cultural area The Maya civilization was also in North America that spans territories technologically advanced for its from Mexico to Guatemala, Belize, innovations in architecture, art, and Honduras, and El Salvador. The earliest warfare. Artifacts evidence that the known Mesoamerican civilization is the Maya used various metals an Olmec civilization which was Maya cities were well developed with established in the northeastern part of formidable structures such as large Mexico at around 1,200 BC. Other early pyramids and temples made from Mesoamerican civilizations, the Maya, limestone bricks. The Mayan used Aztec, and Inca, existed from about mica, plants, and other minerals to 900 to 1,500 AD and thrived until the decorate the temples. arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in They built complex waterways using Mexico. hydraulics technology that aided their MAYA CIVILIZATION agricultural practices. They also produced textiles using looms The Maya people were considered by to weave colorful patterns. The women many scholars as one of the most made tunics called huipiles with unique scientifically advanced individuals in designs and colors. Mesoamerica. The Mayan also used rubber products They had a system of writing called from rubber trees and morning glory Maya hieroglyphics with 1,000 plants which they used for binding characters They had writing tools books, gluing materials, and crafted from animal hair and feathers. manufacturing cloth. Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 AZTEC AND INCA CIVILIZATION They also produced textiles: tunics, long shirts, and delicate clothing. Persisted for 200 hundred years before They also had musical instruments such the Spaniards conquered their lands. as flutes, drums, panpipes, and horns. The Aztec thrived in the capital city of The Inca’s official language is called Tenochtitlan, present-day Mexico City. Quechua which is still spoken by Where they built chinampas or artificial natives today. islands. They also developed the Quipu, a set Aztecs were able to predict of strings used for recording information astronomical events and performed such as tax records, census records, celestial observations. They used and calendar information. Mayan calendar in agricultural and religious activities. IN THE WORLD: MIDDLE AGE One of the notable artifacts of the Aztec civilization is the sun stone with Is usually associated with the time when the image of the Aztec sun god at the people were seen as tasteless, vulgar, center. and old-fashion. This is a common The Aztec were also advanced in terms misconception because many scholars of their established cultural and social were biased against this historical systems, particularly in the context of period. Although many innovations religion and education. They used from the Roman empire were lost pictographs as their systems of writing, during this time, the Middle Ages still and their language was called the boast of many valuable inventions and Nahuatl, the modern variation of which technological advancements, some of is still being spoken today. which are considered to be the The Aztecs were also known for having touchstones of many innovations of the massive stone temples where religious present. rituals and offerings were made before Middle Ages is also known as the Dark the statues of their gods. Ages due to the invasion of various The Inca civilization, also known as the Germanic tribes on the previous Incan Empire, was the largest domain of the Roman Empire. Mesoamerican civilization. The Inca The Middle Ages is generally believed were known as great and innovative to have coincided with the fall of the engineers. Roman Empire. Alaric 1, king of the They had an elaborate system of roads Visigoths – one of the many Germanic from mountains to valleys. They built tribes of Northern Europe – invaded bridges over bodies of water and Rome thrice, which was critical to the canals for irrigation. fall of the empire. He was appointed Their architectural buildings, which still Magister Militum meaning Master of the stand today, were designed to be Soldiers. robust and pleasing to the eye. Scholars believe that the Middle Ages In the field of medicine, the Inca also lasted from the 6th century up to the performed cranial surgeries end of the 15th century. It is split into (trepanation) and amputation for three different periods: early, high, and injured warriors. late Middle Ages. Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 BYZANTINE EMPIRE The House of Wisdom in Baghdad was built – as a result of translations of Greek The only Easter part remained with and Syriac texts to Arabic. Belonging to Byzantium as its capital later renamed the Abbasid Caliphs the house of Constantinople when it was captured wisdom housed a community of by Emperor Constantine in the early 4th intellectuals and scientist, and century (320-330). researchers. The peak of the Byzantine Empire was One of the first works to be translated witnessed during the rule of Emperor into Arabic was Ptolemy’s Al-Magest Justinian who was able to reclaim the which described an Earth-centered land invaded by the various Germanic universe. tribes. The Golden Age of Islamic Science also Notable weapons utilized by this began in the 8th century and empire include the Greek Fire and the continued up to the 13th century. Handheld Trebuchet also called In the field of medicine, cheiromangana was made as an Mathematician Ibn Al-Haytham or alteration of the counterweight Alhazen laid the foundation for trebuchet that uses a siege engine in its moderns’ optics when he applied the mechanisms to throw a projectile. scientific method to his optic Various inventions were also made experiments and he made him known during Middle Ages to improve as the “Father of Modern Optics,” agriculture. One is the tidal mill which Abu Ali al-Hussein Ibn Sina, also known like the water mill, it uses running water as Avicenna, was a physician and to grind grains. One of the earliest tide philosopher who wrote al-Qanum fi al- mills was discovered in Northern Tibb, or The Canon of Medicine. This Ireland. medical encyclopedia was the first to describe the anatomy of the human ISLAMIC EMPIRE eye and recognize the contagious Islamic Empire grew as one of the natures of tuberculosis and meningitis. largest empires in history. The Canon of Medicine had been Islam has been instrumental in the study translated into Latin and used as a and development of science in the standard medicinal textbook. region. The holy book of the Muslims, Abu Qasim Khalaf ibn Abbas Al the Koran, encouraged the Zahrawi or simply Al Zahrawi is development of science by allowing recognized as the “Father of Surgery” believers to seek knowledge and and considered the greatest surgeon observe nature for signs of Allah of the Middle Ages. through scientific study. Algebra is known to be developed by Papermaking technologies spread to Persian scholar Muhammad ibn Musa different parts of the world during the al Khwarizmi as manifested in his book Middle Ages. The Arabs improved upon Al-Kitab al-mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr the Chinese techniques by using starch wal muqabala or The Compendious instead of mulberry bark for using pens Book on Calculation by Completion rather than brushes for writing. and Balancing. Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 Al-Biruni devise a method of involves the division of a single piece of determining the radius of the earth by land into three smaller plots where observing the height of a mountain in different seasonal crops would be Nandana (now in Pakistan). He also planted. proposed the theory of the earth Aristotle’s works, Physics and rotating on its own axis and made Metaphysics, were revived in the 12th precise calculations of the specific and 13th centuries. Among the gravity of 18 precious stones and translator of Aristotle’s works were minerals. Averroes and William of Moerbeke. Jabir ibn Hayyan, known as the “Father Claudius Ptolemy was also translated of Chemistry,” is believed to have into Latin. Mathematicians Euclid and authored a multitude of books on Archimedes also help with Latin alchemy, cosmology, astrology, translation. medicine, mysticism, and philosophy. The translated works of Greek philosophers became part of the MEDIEVAL EUROPE curriculum of Europe’s first set of universities. These first medieval Charles the Great or Charlemagne, universities were colloquially called assisted by the English monk Alcuin of Stadium Generale. York, founded the Carolingian Empire The blending of such ideas established that forged the Carolingian the pillars of Christian scholasticism – a Renaissance. method of critical thought that Viking Age (793-1006 AD). Vikings are integrated religious theology with known to be cruel warriors, pillagers, scientific truth. The Franciscans were and skillful navigators. founded by St. Frances of Assisi in 1209 Axe was the most commonly used and the Dominicans were founded by weapon of the Vikings both for battle St. Dominic in 1215. scholars such as and as a tool. Dane Axe was used for Albertus, Magnus, Robert Grosseteste, battle. Viking men were also required and Roger Bacan belonged to either to have shields, typically made out of the Franciscan or Dominican order. wood and lined with leather. Roger Bacon contributed to the Vikings also developed a magnetic development of one of modern-day compass, which uses the Sun to help science’s greatest tools – the scientific them navigate the seas. method. Opus Majus’s book described Crusades were a series of religious wars a repeating cycle of scientific inquiry sanctioned by the Latin Church to curb that took the following steps: (a) the spread of the Islamic faith in observation, (b) formulation of Europe. Pope Urban II of the Latin hypothesis, and (c) experimentation. Church of Western Europe gave a Alchemy is an ancient branch of sermon at the Council of Clermont. natural philosophy that mainly seeks to Crossbow key invention in weaponry convert base metals into noble metals and was considered an essential such as gold. weapon in battle. Astrology, on the other hand, The improvement of agricultural establishes the connection between technology and practices, an example the position of heavenly and celestial of which is the three-field system, this Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 bodies to the dwellings of human life artists of the Renaissance was Dante and the natural world. known as the “Father of Italian Poetry” Mathematician Nicholas Oresme was for his Magnus Opus The Divine able to establish the mean speed Comedy. theorem or theorem on uniform Francisco Petrarca, more commonly acceleration. known as Petrarch, rediscovered John Buridan developed a theorem Greek and Roman classics and was that described how a body in motion hailed “The Father of Humanism,” continues to stay in motion through the Leonardo da Vinci was a painter, body’s intrinsic and natural quality sculptor, and scientist known for his which he called impetus. works Mona Lisa, Vitruvian Man and Scientific and technological The Last Supper. innovations of the Late Middle Ages Michaelangelo is famous for painting include spectacles (a precursor to the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in modern eyeglasses), windmills, Vatican with scenes from the Book of magnets (which lead to the Genesis. development of the world’s first Rafael, an Italian painter, and architect compasses), and spinning wheels. were known for embodying both the Medieval scholars’ interest in alchemy clear arrangement of elements and and astrology also led to the invention clarity of form as seen in his paintings, of astrolabes and clocks. The School of Athens and The Sistine Madonna. IN THE WORLD: MODERN AGES The era also ushered in major shifts in science and technology. Scientific Renaissance is a period from the 14th Revolution, a series of events that to the 17th century marking the marked the rise of modern science transition from the Middle Ages to during the early modern ages. This modernity. Renaissance is a French period is credited for introducing the word that means “rebirth”. The term most prominent scientists of the West. was used to represent the rebirth of Among them are: Greek and Roman interests in the o Nicolaus Copernicus, the sciences and arts. It’s characterized by heliocentric theory that went marine expeditions, discoveries, against the general belief that inventions, and scholastic the Earth is at the center of the controversies. universe. One of the highlights of this period is the o Galileo Galilei an Italian invention of the printing press by astronomer, eventually proved Johannes Gutenberg. Gutenberg a Copernicus’s theory to be known goldsmith during his time who correct. used his expertise in metalwork, was the o Sir Isaac Newton, eradicated all creator of the first movable printing doubts of heliocentrism’s validity press. through a mathematical Literary and artistic achievements description of the motion of the pioneered by notable writers and artists Earth and other celestial bodies were evident during the Renaissance. around the Sun. Among the renowned writers and Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 The use of fuel began during this period the rise of shipbuilding in Europe, due to the demand for mass particularly in Italy. production, lessening the use of The Mariner’s compass, quadrant, and animals and humans for mechanical fore staff were among the instruments work, and employment of machines for developed for navigation and voyage. various purposes. Fuel from coal was The introduction of the wheel barrow used to convert raw materials to and wooden tracks for mining led to manufacture different products. the development of railway The use of the iron and steel became transportation. common in the 15th century due to the invention of the blast furnace, a type of INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION metallurgical furnace used to produce Begun in the 18th century, a period industrial metals. characterized by the shift from The rise of the textile industry was agricultural processes to urbanized evident in the production of high- and industrial processes. During this quality fabrics such as cotton, silk, time, machineries and factories rose in figured fabrics, and tapestries. order to give way for mass production. Agricultural techniques were also Arnold Toynbee is widely regarded as developed to accumulate more the one who popularized the term income with less capital and “Industrial Revolution,” manpower. Sheep farming was England is considered to be the first popularized because it required less country to be industrialized. human effort and provided larger yields of food to support the growing Iron and Steel Industry population. The sickle was replaced by the scythe for cutting both crops and Tobern Bergman, a Swedish grass., while horses replace oxen for metallurgist, discovered the important carrying and delivering goods. role of carbon in steel in 1750. There were significant advancements Henry Bessemer and William Kelly in navigation and expedition that improved the methods of contributed greatly to the exploration manufacturing steel from iron. of more territories and trade with other Robert Mushet discovered an alloy of nations. One of whom was the Italian iron that combined carbon and explorer and navigator Christopher manganese with the formed iron. Columbus. Textile Industry The construction of canals for inland transport also began during this period John Kay invented the flying shuttle to though it made less progress in early increase the output of yarn. modern times than sea transport. James Hargreaves developed the Masts, sails, and sternpost rudders were spinning jenny, also called Saxon among the various inventions for Wheel in 1764. It is a machine that is maritime transport. Aside from great able to spin more than one spindle at a ships such as Henry VIII’s Great Harry, time. merchant ships became common with Richard Arkwright patented a textile machine powered by water and not Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 by hand called a water frame. This vehicle. It was named the New Castle. machine was developed to cater to However, it was unsuccessful due to its the spinning of multiple threads in 1769. weight which made the rails collapse. Samuel Crompton invented the George Stephenson, considered to be spinning mule in 1779, which combines the “Father of Railways,” designed an the features of the spinning jenny and effective locomotion called The water frame. Blucher that was used to tow coal in Edmund Cartwright created the power Northumberland in England. Together loom for spinning and weaving in 1787 with his brother they improved the to increase the production of cotton locomotion and named Locomotion 1 from plantations in England. which can manage to go 12 miles per Eli Whitney invented the machine hour. called the cotton gin and multiplied Robert Fulton utilized the steam engine the amount of cotton that could be from Boulton and Watt and developed cleaned, which increase the the North River Steamboat, which was production of cotton for textiles. later on called Clermont. Thomas Saint, a cabinet maker, submitted a patent for a mechanized SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE 18TH sewing machine in 1790. AND 19TH CENTURIES Barthelemy Thimonnier, a French tailor, Charles-Augustin de Coulomb made invented the chain stitch machine in noteworthy progress in the field of 1829. physical science when he published a Transportation Industry series of studies on electrodynamics, which later on culminated into Thomas Newcomen developed the Coulomb’s Law. steam engine this invention is one of Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen the most important inventions during gas by collecting colorless gas from this period. heated mercury in 1774. Denis Papin, the inventor of the This colorless gas was later named pressure cooker. oxygen by French scientist Antoine John Calley together with Newcomen Lavoisier. developed an engine based on pistons By 1803, John Dalton had proposed the that were more efficient but used a lot Atomic Theory which primarily states of energy. that all matter is composed of tiny James Watt perfected and patented indivisible particles called atoms. the steam engine that produces the In 1820, a huge breakthrough for Hans needed power without consuming too Christian Oersted occurred when he much fuel. discovered that electric current Matthew Boulton, an industrialist, produces magnetic fields. became interested in the steam This discovery will later on help Michael engine and he continued to develop it Faraday construct his first crude as it became important in powering electric motor in 1821. Soon Faraday ships and trains. conducted experiments on Richard Trevithick, developed the first electromagnetic induction in 1831 and locomotive, an engine or rail transport Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 published two volumes of books on thorium, radium, and polonium from electricity. the late 19th century until the early 20th James Clerk Maxwell had managed to century. formulate a theory on electromagnetic Telegraph and wireless communication radiation which poses that light, became widespread in the later part of magnetism, and electricity are the 19th Century. variations in manifestation of the same In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell filed a phenomenon. His work published in patent for the telegraph because of his 1865, A Dynamical Theory of success in developing a means to Electromagnetic Field explains that exchange messages in real time electric and magnetic fields, in the through electric current. form of waves, travel through space at Other investors improved and the speed of light. By 1873 he had upgraded the telegraph system published A Theatise on Electricity and including Elisha Gray, Philip Reis, and Magnetism, a two-volume discourse on Thomas Edison. electromagnetism. In the field of biology, Carolus Linnaeus, In 1874, George Johnstone proposed dubbed as the “Father of Taxonomy,” the theory that electrons have developed a system of naming fundamental quantities of electricity. organisms called the binomial In 1879, cathode rays were discovered nomenclature. Linnaeus is known for his by William Crookes when he utilized the works Species Plantarum (1753) and vacuum tube created by Heinrich System Naturae (1758) that list down Geissler. every species of plant known at the Several years later, Eugen Goldstein time and laid down the Linnaean discovered the positive particles called Taxonomy. protons from a tube filled with In 1759, Scottish geologist James hydrogen gas. Hutton proposed that there are still In the 19th century, x-rays, electrons, gradual mechanisms on Earth that and radioactive elements were explain the variability of fossils. discovered. X-rays were accidentally George Cuvier, a pioneer in the fields discovered by William Roentgen while of Paleontology, the study of fossils, doing research on cathode rays in proposed the Theory of Catastrophism 1895. in 1813, which hypnotized those The electron was discovered by J.J. extinctions must have been common in Thomson when he placed Crooke’s the Earth’s history. tube within a magnetic field in 1897, In 1830, Charles Lyell proposed the wherein the cathode rays were principle of Uniformitarianism based on negatively charged, leading to his Hutton’s theory, which states that the conclusion that all atoms have a same geological processes are negative charge. operating today as in the past. Henri Becquerel discovered In 1809, Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, a radioactivity, which was later on French naturalist, proposed the Theory expounded by Marie Curie and Pierre of Acquired Characteristics through Curie. Marie Curie discovered the Use and Disuse, also known as the radioactive elements in uranium, Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 Characteristics, which theorizes that an In 1953, Francis Crick and James organism can pass on some of its traits, Watson proposed the double helix obtained from either use or disuse, to its model of the deoxyribonucleic acid or offspring. DNA, which depicts the double- In 1859, Charles Darwin published his stranded appearance of DNA, work explaining the variability of living opposite each other. organism entitled On the Origin of In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered Species by Means of Natural Selection, penicillin, a drug against bacterial or the Preservation of Favoured Races infections caused by staphylococci in the Struggle for Life. and streptococci. Similar research by Alfred Wallace In 1945, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain entitled On Tendency of Varieties to developed the first antibiotic that Depart Indefinitely from the Original could be mass produced. Type was published in the same year. By 1955, Niels Jerne expounded the Austrian monk Gregor Mendel, known anti-body formation process that states as the “Father of Genetics,” wrote a that the body has its own antibodies paper on his experiments on breeding that could fight antigens. pea plants, which he conducted from In the same year, Jonas Salk 1856 to 1863. developed the first polio vaccine. In 1961, Albert Sabin improved on Salk’s SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE 20TH work and proposed the oral polio CENTURY vaccine. Before the end of century, the World Health Organization (WHO) Modern physics advanced with the announced the eradication of the discovery of quantum theory in 1900, smallpox virus. whose originator was Max Planck. In 1983, the human immunodeficiency The theory of relativity, which was virus (HIV) was discovered by Luc established by Albert Einstein in 1905. Montagnier and Robert Gallo, which Einstein also explained the led to the awareness of the causes of phenomenon called photoelectric acquired immune deficiency effect where electrons are released syndrome (AIDS) and the measures from materials when hit by light. needed to avoid contracting HIV. In 1926, an equation on quantum The first cloning in animals, through a mechanics was proposed by Erwin sheep named Dolly, was successfully Schrodinger that enabled scientists to performed before the end of the 20th develop semiconductors and atomic century. It was a huge success in the power. field of genetic research that Gregor Robert Goddard launched the first Mender pioneered in 1866. successful rocket at a farm near The first manned engine-powered Auburn, Massachusetts. aircraft flight was launched by Orville James Chadwick discovered the and Wilbur Wright in 1903. neutron in the nucleus of an atom. In terms of land transportation, the first In 1944, Oswald Avery discovered that production model of the automobile genes and chromosomes are caried was launched by Henry Ford in 1908. by DNA cells. Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the The use of a transmitter by the first artificial satellite named Sputnik Shannon-Weaver model revolved and instigated the first manned space around the idea of pulse-code flight in 1961. modulation (PCM), a binary and digital A few years later, the National way of transmitting analog-type data. Aeronautics and Space Administration Alec H. Reeves a British engineer (NASA) spearheaded the space adapted the use of PCM technology program Mercury and Apollo. for voice communication. In 1938 and In 1969, Apollo 11 landed on the moon. 1939, he was granted French and British patents, respectively, for his PCM COMPUTER AND THE AGE OF machine. INFORMATION Bell Laboratories was responsible for developing SIGSALY – a secure speech The invention of the computer from the system during World War II. SIGSALY, early systems of calculation of Charles also known as the Green Hornet, X Babbage in 1812 significantly made an System, Project X, and Ciphony I. as a impact on how the world progressed in secure speech system, it used a highly the age of technology. secure one-time pad (OTP) encryption. Claude E. Shannon the “Father of Between the years 1936 and 1937, Information Technology” working as a English mathematician Alan Turing researcher at Bell Laboratories in the introduced the universal Turing 1940’s, he formulated his ideas on machine (UTM). Mathematical digital communication and published computation was done manually by his work, A Mathematical Theory of individuals referred to as “computers,” Communication. Proposed the notion German civil engineer and that information media can be entrepreneur Konrad Zuse devised the encoded as a series of 1s and 0s world’s first programmable computer through various devices such as between 1936 and 1938. His television, radio, and many more. electromechanical computer; the Z3, Shannon worked with Warren Weaver, was the first Turing-complete digital an American mathematician and computer to be created, which scientist to formulate the Shannon became operational in 1941. Weaver Model of Communication. It is Around 1939, John V. Atanasoff, with also called the “mother of all models” the help of his graduate student, because it integrated the various Clifford Berry, created the first concepts at work in the field of electronic digital computer called the technological communication. Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). The The transactional model involves both machine was able to solve for variables the sender and the receiver as one at a time until an entire system of communicators who exchange equations is solved. messages rather than have messages Despite the machine’s success is up for come from a single sender. debate, its method of storing data The interactive model operates similarly known as dynamic random-access to the transactional model; however, it memory (DRAM or RAM), became the is often in the context of studying new media such as the internet. Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 model of the main memory systems of their own companies, such as modern computers. Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) and In 1942, Perry Crawford, a graduate Intel Corporation, laying the student at MIT, described in his thesis, foundation for what is now known entitled Automatic Control by today as Silicon Valley, a center of Arithmetic Operations that a magnetic digital and technological research and drum could be used to store electronic development. digital information. In 1948, the International Business A pioneering computer firm of the Machines Corporation (IBM) built the 1950s known as Engineering Research 604 Electronic Calculating Punch. Associates (ERA) used parts of By December 1957, IBM used the 604 captured German Magnetophones to model as a basis to create the 608 build magnetic drums and disks under models, the first solid-state computer the alias Project Goldberg. The available on the commercial market. mechanism called the magnetic drum American engineer Jack Kilby is memory system was used by the US credited for being the first to create Navy to decipher encryptions and was and patent the integrated circuit (IC) later developed for computers in US chip. The IC chip was patented in 1959 military universities. under the title of a miniaturized Tommy Harold Flower, a British Post electronic circuit. Office employee, invented the world’s By 1961, IBM released the 7030 Data first programmable electronic Processing System known as the IBM computer in 1943 called the Colossus. Stretch computer. It was the first IBM Harvard Mark 1, a general-purpose supercomputer that ran completely electromechanical computer devised through transistors. The first by Howard Aiken and built by IBM in commercially viable storage device 1944, was able to compute and print was the floppy disk which was originally mathematical tables. designed by IBM. The creation of the Small-Scale By 1977, floppy disks gained popularity Experimental Machine (SSEM), with the introduction of the Apple II. nicknamed the Manchester Baby The floppy disk was improved on to computer, was spearheaded by create the computer disc (CD). The English engineer Frederic “Freddie” beginnings of the CD can be traced to Calland Williams in 1946 and English James Russel’s invention of a system mathematician and computer scientist that can record digital information on Tom Kilburn in 1947. an optical transparent foil lit by a high- William Shockley and his team of power halogen lamp. Russel was engineers were the first to granted a patent for his invention in commercially mass-produce 1970, which was licensed by Sony and transistors. In 1957, members of his Philips in the 1980s. team, later called the “traitorous The Advanced Research Projects eight,” founded their own company Agency Network (ARPANET) was a called Fairchild Semiconductors. packet switching network that In a similar manner, engineers from this grouped data in a message into parts company also eventually left to start or “packets” that are sent Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 independently to other computers in revolutionary ideas were often the system through the most optimal branded as heretics or outcasts of route. society. Many were ostracized, When ARPANET was decommissioned imprisoned, and prevented from in 1990, it was replaced by a system publishing their writings. called the internet. The internet is a One of them was Nicolaus collection and interconnection Copernicus, an astronomer of the between and among numerous Renaissance period who networks from around the globe. To challenged the previous notion access information from this global about the cosmos, led the so-called network, the World Wide Web (WWW) Scientific Revolution, and was created in 1989 by Tim Berner-Lee, permanently changed the way a British computer scientist and people viewed the world. researcher at the Conseil Europeen pour la Recherche (CERN) in Geneva, Pre-Copernican System Switzerland. Berners-Lee was also able The geocentric model, also to establish groundbreaking concepts known as geocentrism related to the WWW including popularized by the thinker HyperText Markup Language (HTML), Ptolemy in 140 AD, was a the standard language used to create description of the universe with websites and applications: Uniform the Earth as the center. Resource Identifier/Uniform Resource In the 6th century BC, the Greek Locator (URI/URL), the resource or philosopher Anaximander (c. address of a webpage; and HyperText 610-546 BC) drew the first map of Transfer Protocol (HTTP), the protocol the world with the Earth taking that defines how information is the shape of a cylinder floating formatted and distributed on servers in the center of the universe. He and browsers. believed that the Sun and Moon To properly identify each individual were hollow rings of fire and that device connected to the internet, eclipses were the result of these Internet Protocol (IP) addresses were rings closing. used. Pythagoras (c. 570-495 BC), a Chapter 2 student of Anaximander, on the other hand, was the first to The term Revolution denotes a suggest that the Earth was a drastic change in what is sphere. He was able to come up established, believed, and with such a conclusion by embraced by society. studying the constellation and Intellectual revolutions throughout the Earth’s circular shadow on history heavily influenced politics, the moon during a lunar eclipse. religion, and cultural institutions by Plato (c. 428-348 BC), a famous impacting people’s views of the student of Socrates and was said world. to be a follower of the teachings In the fields of science and of the Pythagoreans, believed technology, people who shared that the Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 cosmos is made up of matter in For Copernicus, the geocentric geometric shapes. model did not explain the Not much later, Aristotle (c. 384- occasional backward movement of 322 BC), having studied under the planets that were regarded as Plato, posited that the Earth was retrograde motion. at the center of the universe with Between 1507 and 1515, all other celestial bodies Copernicus laid down the principles arranged in concentric of his heliocentric model. He crystalline spheres around it. proposed that the Earth is not the The version of the geocentric center of the known universe but model by Ptolemy (100-170 AD), the Sun. was a refined explanation Copernicus finished his research in behind the movement of 1532 but was hesitant to publish his planets. The people at the time ideas because he knew it would be openly accepted the idea that considered controversial by many. the Earth was unmoving while As a devout Catholic, he was afraid the Sun, planets, and stars of judgment and religious revolved around it. objections because the ancient This belief was left uncontested Greek and biblical teachings until Copernicus (1473-1543), supported the geocentric model. considered the “Father of At the age of 70, Copernicus Modern Astronomy,” formulated published the book De the heliocentric model of the Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium universe that triggered a major (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly shift in worldview. Spheres). Which challenged the perception regarding the universe Copernican Heliocentrism and detailed the heliocentric model. Copernicus attended the University It took almost a hundred years of Krakow where he studied before Copernicus’s theory formally astronomy, mathematics, gained respect and recognition philosophy, and science. He through further explorations by became the apprentice of Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), Johannes Domenico Maria de Novara, who Kepler (1571-1630), and Galileo introduced him to studies on Galilei (1564-1642). These scientists Johamm Muller’s Epitoma in worked to validate the heliocentric Almagestum Ptolemaei (Epitome of model despite the opposition of the Ptolemy’s Almagest) and church. Disputationes adversus astrologiam Tycho Brahe, although inspired by divinatricem (Disputations against the Copernican model, rejected Divinatory Astrology). The first book the idea that the Earth is not the discusses the foundation of center of the universe because it Ptolemy’s studies in astronomy, defies the laws of physics that were whereas the second book is about taught and accepted. Tycho planetary models. System, which combined the Downloaded by Shaine Cabaccang ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48991573 Copernican and Ptolemaic systems. Key Figures of the Scientific Revolution His model is geometrically identical to that of Copernicus, except that GIORDANO BRUNO (1548-1600), the Earth is the fixed center, with the WAS A MARTYRED ITALIAN MONK Sun and Moon orbiting the Earth, WHO SPREAD COPERNICUS’S and the other planets revolving THEORY OF A HELIOCENTRIC AND around the Sun. SCIENTIFIC UNIVERSE. Meanwhile, Copernicus’s claim that ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK (1632- planets moved in a perfect circle 1723), THE HISTORY OF A remained undisputed until HELIOCENTRIC AND “FATHER OF Johannes Kepler proposed his law MICROBIOLOGY” WHO of planetary motion in 1609, DISCOVERED BACTERIA including the theory that planets ROBERT BOYLE (1627-1691), IS move in elliptical orbits with the