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MODULE 2 ▪ Science first emerged in places where Islam was practiced. However, it later gained ▪ Before the emergence of science, the momentum in Europe where Christianity was pre-scient...

MODULE 2 ▪ Science first emerged in places where Islam was practiced. However, it later gained ▪ Before the emergence of science, the momentum in Europe where Christianity was pre-scientific worldview provided human the dominant faith. According to social beings a context in their search for answers to historians, this growth of science in Christian their questions. These are some of the basic Europe was enabled by a brand of Christianity tenets of this worldview: that emerged out of the Reformation, which o Anthropocentrism—human beings lie was Protestantism, which emphasized the in the center of the universe both value of individualism and the secularization of spiritually and physically; the concept explanations to natural phenomena. This, of the universe was defined according according to Max Weber, also led to the to the limits of human imagination. development of the modern nation state and o Geocentrism—the earth lies in the its bureaucratic organizations, and has upheld center of this universe, with the sun, secularism where there is separation between the planets, and the stars revolving the church and the state. around the earth. ▪ The developments in communication and o All beings on earth have their assigned technology have facilitated the establishment places. of modern economies. This effectively o Human beings are above all other displaced the allegiances of the people from beings, in that they are created in the the feudal lords and the Church towards loyalty image of God. However, humans to the “Nation,” thereby giving rise to the ideal occupy a lower rank than angels. of nationalism. The modern state emerged Furthermore, every human being is from this, tasked to protect the rights and the ordained by God to occupy a specific welfare of its citizens. In this context, science place. was appropriated by the state to become one o There are supernatural beings like fundamental driver towards social and angels and spirits that possess magical economic progress. It became a secular and and extraordinary powers and exist in a rational force distinct from religion in the same hierarchy. manner that the state became distinct from o The secular is distinct from the holy, the church. and religion has a powerful influence ▪ The result of this development in the realm of on the human mind. the quest for knowledge was manifested in the o Inquiring into the natural world is not shift away from relying on sensory as important. Qualities are more experience—seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, important than quantities, even as touching—and from doctrinal and explanations to natural phenomena are philosophical treatises from “experts” as basis based not in any internal property but for the establishment of truth claims. Instead, on their causes and consequences. there was increasing use of logical reasoning to This worldview led to the emergence of religion augment sensory experience. This gave rise to as a source for providing explanations. the emergence of the scientific method as a Religious texts became the sources for powerful, and for many, the only valid, method explanation, while myths and sorcery provided for discovering knowledge and establishing alternative sources. truth. ▪ The beginning of science was driven by the ▪ The scientific method is the lifeblood of natural curiosity and the inherent rationality of scientific inquiry. It is a careful, systematic, human beings which provided the impetus for patient and deliberate process of study and the quest for knowledge. In 1600, Copernicus investigation geared towards the discovery or challenged geocentrism. In the 16th until the establishment of facts and principles. It tests 17th century, the unity and power of the church probabilities formulated as hypotheses, with was broken by the emergence of the the process concerned on gathering evidence Reformation. Luther challenged the power of to support or refute such hypotheses. the Catholic Church and offered to focus on the ▪ Scientific knowledge developed through a individual and his/her faith. This focus on the dynamic and complex process. There are individual was further given emphasis during competing perspectives on its nature, as there the 18th century Enlightenment, when the are debates. Two important debates center on locus shifted to the individual and his/her the goal of science and on the nature of the reason. Eventually, rationality replaced biblical progress of scientific knowledge. revelation as the foundation of religion. This led o On the goal of science. Some people to the emergence of the secular in many believe that science is a descriptive aspects of human life. It is in this context that activity where the main the philosophy of Deism emerged, by arguing preoccupation is to describe the that God created rational human beings, and it natural and social world. Others, is the possession of reason that enables them however, argue that science should be to discover knowledge and invent things. prescriptive, in that they have to  formulate recommendations vis-à-vis given field can only be accorded real world problems. provisional acceptance. Scientific o On the nature of the progress of knowledge, in fact, acquires such scientific knowledge. nature because it is falsifiable. In fact, ▪ Some people believe that this is the distinguishing trait of science science is a static body of vis-à-vis religion and myth. Scientific knowledge, that is, that there is knowledge can be subjected to a totality of knowledge falsification through alternative waiting to be discovered. This evidence provided by other scientists, view upholds the idea that while religion and myths, in their being scientific knowledge is simply manifested as existing in the realm of the totality of all products of faith and belief, cannot be falsified. scientific inquiry in a particular Popper further claims that scientists field: are preoccupied less by a goal to validate existing knowledge and more Knowledge 1 + Knowledge 2 + by their drive towards falsifying existing..... + Knowledge N = Totality of knowledge to establish a new one. Thus, scientists become more prominent and known in the field if they have discovered new knowledge and scientific breakthroughs, instead of merely validating what is commonly held. o Lakatos (1970) has pointed out that the development of scientific knowledge occurs in the context of contradictions and conflict between competing research programs. ▪ Other, however, argues that o Feyerabend (1975) argues that scientific science emerge within a knowledge should always be subjected historical-dialectical context, to constant skepticism. That is, science wherein scientific knowledge is should always be the object of doubt, an outcome of the and should not be seen as expressions contradictions of previously of absolute truth. opposing scientific claims. This o Kuhn (1970) offered the idea of scientific prevailing knowledge will, in revolutions. He argued that a particular itself, be subjected to science is governed by a paradigm, or a challenges by an opposing set of belief, value systems and school of thought, and the techniques that define the resolution of the contradiction development of knowledge in a given will lead to the emergence of a field. He divides the period for the new set of knowledge claims development of science into a period of that will again be subjected to normal science, a period of instability, challenges later: and a period for scientific revolution. ▪ The period of normal science is Knowledge 1,1 ↔ characterized by Knowledge 1,2 → well-established paradigms Knowledge 2,1 that provide a stable body of theories, tools and techniques Knowledge 2,1 ↔ within which research in a Knowledge 2,2 → particular discipline occur. Knowledge 3,1 ▪ The period of instability occurs when researchers working Knowledge n,1 ↔ within the present paradigm Knowledge n,2 → generate anomalous findings Knowledge n + 1,1 and results inconsistent with the explanations provided, and that these anomalies are ▪ Several philosophers of science support the already beyond the faults of the latter view, which is also referred to as the researchers. historical-dialectical approach. Philosophers ▪ The period of scientific of science are people who study the growth revolution emerges when and development of scientific knowledge. anomalies pile up and new o Popper (1969), argued that the theories are now offered to prevailing scientific knowledge in a challenge the old paradigm. A  period of testing these new establishment of certain power theories, tools and methods will relations. An example would be ensue, and may eventually lead agricultural machineries that to the emergence of a new only the rich farmers can paradigm. An example of this is access, thereby further when the belief on widening of the gap between geocentrism (the earth as the the rich and the poor. center of the universe) yielded ▪ Some technologies have to heliocentrism (the sun as the designs that are compatible center of the universe), and with or require a particular later, the latter eventually social and political yielded to more sophisticated arrangement. knowledge of the cosmos (the o Some technologies universe has no center). absolutely require ▪ There is a social context for the production of certain social science and technology. However, there is this arrangement in order dominant belief that these are value-neutral for them to be and apolitical (that is, without politics). This operational. An view, which the Enlightenment project has example is the enabled, effectively rendered science into an technology involved in “Ideology” without it appearing ideological. flying aircrafts or of That is, science became a powerful domain for sea-vessels which the legitimation of knowledge claims, even as it require an extremely effectively delegitimized other competing centralized hierarchy, knowledge claims such as those offered by where the pilot or the traditional and indigenous knowledge, or ship captain possesses knowledge held by local communities. absolute power over ▪ Science and technology could become the crew and the ideological in two ways. passengers. Another o Science and technology have been example is the used to control people, or to provide technology for running justification to inequality. a nuclear reactor as ▪ Technologies of violence used source of energy, which in armed conflict and war to absolutely requires coerce people, even kill them heavily centralized, ▪ Technology of mass media and sensitive and secure communication used to operations. reshape minds and o Some technologies are consciousness compatible with, but ▪ Industrial technologies do not necessarily controlled by the elites lead to require certain political unequal distribution of wealth. arrangements. An This indirectly controls the example of this is the non-elites by denying them the technology for solar capacity to make choices or energy, which is excluding them from decision compatible with making processes decentralized systems, ▪ Some scientific theories give since solar cells can be justification to certain power installed even in every relations, which indirectly home, even as it could reproduce the inequality also be possible to have inherent in such relationships. centralized solar power Examples of this include facilities. theories in genetics used by some socio-biologists to justify claims that the Caucasian race is superior, and the theory on evolution used by Social Darwinians to justify racial and class inequalities. o The design or attribute of technology could enable or require certain types of power relations ▪ Some technologies have designs that lead to the  MODULE 3 define a very important field of inquiry. Contextualizing The work ethic of scientists is governed by four science and technology vis-à-vis the societal o Universalism—Scientists believe that there is only conditions within which they emerge is important for one truth, and the scientific method is the only way to us to understand their relevance as well as the establish this truth. problems that they create vis-à-vis society. Some of the o Professionalism—Scientists are associated with a more important questions that need to be asked in science community characterized by a common goal inquiring into this complex domain are the and consciousness. This is operationalized following: through a rigid mechanism for science education, and o What societal problems do science and well defined professional standards. technology address or respond to? o Skepticism—Scientists possess a strong sense of o What societal forces enable scientists and skepticism. They usually suspend their opinion, and inventors? That is, what factors their positions on issues are articulated only as provide incentives, or support the work of determined by data which are collected and analyzed scientists and inventors? through a neutral and objective process that upholds o What are the forces that constrain scientists the standards of logic and rationality. and inventors? That is, what are o Neutrality—Scientists are neutral and objective in those factors that limit the work of scientist and their research. Thus, scientists are primarily seen as inventors? neutral, apolitical and professional “discoverers” of o What are the problems created by scientist knowledge. However, there are arguments which and inventors as they respond to the challenge the claim that scientists are neutral and demands of society? Apolitical. o Are scientists and inventors responding to the o Mitroff (1974) argues that scientists are not needs of society, and if so, are actually detached, but are in fact emotionally attached their responses relevant? to their hypotheses and theories. In addition, while they Scientists emerge in the context of a society, and are adhere to a community where sharing of knowledge is members of a profession to which they are socialized. a norm, scientists often keep secret their own Thus, they become “social products” themselves. In researches and findings. It is also normal for scientists other words, a scientist is made, and not born. That is, to be influenced by their personal beliefs and biases one becomes a scientist. Somebody who when they evaluate the work of their peers. wishes to be called a scientist has to go through a o Kuhn (1970) believes that scientists are not well-defined process and should meet a specific set of actually open minded, but are in fact active advocates standards. of particular points of view. o A person wanting to become a scientist should first o Mulkay (1972, 1979) claims that science, enter a formal system of education. A student wishing which projects itself to be a neutral and objective to become a scientist enrolls in a particular field of activity, is in fact an interpretive activity. It is not based science, such as biology, chemistry, physics, botany, only on objective discovery but is also shaped by the zoology, or any of the applied sciences such as internal politics that exist within the science engineering, agriculture, forestry, medicine, among community. This internal politics is seen in the personal others. rivalries, insecurities, and groups which eventually At the undergraduate level, the student learns to be affect the way scientific work is done and judged by familiar with the basic concepts and the general and peers. well-established knowledge of the chosen field. o Scientific knowledge is a social product. Thus, it Students are trained in the scientific method, and their emerges within the conditions of a given socio-political skills on inquiry are developed through the conduct of and economic context. In this context, the credibility of experiments that are pre-designed and the results of the scientist is no longer determined solely by his/her which are already pre-determined. The main goal of work, but is also determined by who the scientist is, undergraduate science education is for the student to what school he/she graduated from, and the develop the necessary skills and discipline required in reputation of the university or organization he/she is the field. This is attained by a curriculum that is working with. designed to familiarize the student with the theories o The scientific method, as the key foundation that and methods specific to such field. guides the work of scientists, is rendered suspect by At the postt-baccalaureate level (Masters and those who argue that the process of observation is Doctorate degree), the prone to be limited by subjective selection. It is possible, student is exposed to a wider latitude, and is now for example, for different individuals to have different trained as an “apprentice” acting as an “understudy” observations for a single phenomenon. The process of a senior colleague acting as the academic adviser. of observation may also be influenced by what is The student, now treated as a junior scientist, is allowed expected, even as it cannot be certainly said that what a wider perspective and is granted more freedom to is observed at one particular time period is true for design her own program of inquiry. This allows him/her other time periods. to imbibe the system of values, ethics, rituals and myths that are associated with his/her discipline. The The relationships between science and technology on “student-apprentice” now begins to “act, speak, and one side with society on the other move” like a true-blooded scientist in his/her chosen field. The MODULE 4 “student- apprentice” gets formally accepted into the community of scientists in the field only when his/her The scientific method is attended by a scientific body of work—usually presented as a thesis or worldview that has four characteristics: mathematical, dissertation, but in some cases could also require additional publications—meets the strict standards of analytical, experimental, and totalitarian. the field. o Mathematical—the process of inquiry gives value to quantification as the o Posadas (1982) differentiates a scientist from a foundation for analysis. The use of scholar or professor of science, and from a technologist. mathematics, as an exact science, provides A scholar or professor of science is someone who certainty, and improves the tractability and the merely studies or teaches science. On the other hand, predictability, and consequently a scientist refers to a person who, after getting the right credentials, is actively engaged in generating the controllability of natural phenomena. This is new knowledge through research and publications. A premised on the belief that all technologist is someone who is oriented more relationships present in the natural world can towards products and processes. be expressed in and abstracted through mathematical terms. Consequently, Scientific knowledge is a product of the research primary qualities, which refer to work of scientist whose motivation is those qualities that are objectively located in an mainly to discover answers to questions. The result of this is new knowledge that is usually published as object and can be easily papers in scientific. A research paper which results from quantified, such as size, weight, and position, the work of scientists is submitted to science journals are given more value in scientific for examination and review by peers. If it inquiry than secondary qualities. The latter refer meets the standards set by the profession, it is to those qualities that are published. Such publications enable subjectively perceived or seen by an observer of other scientists to access the results. The knowledge is then reproduced when it is used an object, such as color, smell, by other scientists as an input to the research activities and taste. This has also led to a change in the of other scientists and used by way concepts are science scholars in their teaching. operationalized. For example, “time” is no Unlike science, technology is usually the product of longer operationalized in terms of the work of a technologist or inventor subjective perceptions of duration, such as whose main motivation is to invent tools and “quick” or “long,” but in terms of exact techniques that will be used by human Beings. and precise measurements such as hour, minute and seconds. The concept of According to Posadas (1982), technological activity “distance” is now operationalized in terms of leads to new products or exact distances measured as processes that are made commercially available, with kilometers, miles, inches, or centimeters, and rights therein protected by not in relative terms such as “near” patents. Unlike the process of producing scientific or “far.” knowledge, technology is produced through a process that is not exclusive. That is, o Analytical—scientific inquiry adheres to a invention is not limited only to those with method wherein “wholes” are formal education, but can include other persons who understood through an analysis of their do not have formal training but “parts.” For example, the human body have the skills to “invent.” For example, many modern can be analyzed through the different organs gadgets are invented by people that comprise it; a forest can be without a Ph.D. Simply put, “necessity is the mother of all invention.” However, with the understood as a collection of different living advance of capitalism, industries become even more and non-living parts. competitive and have to devise o Experimental—science establishes mechanisms to enable them to develop their own knowledge through the conduct of industrial complexes. They eventually experiments, which are practical activities that hire their own “inventors” whom they pay to do seek to empirically verify research to update the design of their knowledge claims, instead of just through products. For example, Microsoft has in its workforce a big number of computer reflections and discussions alone. This engineers who continue to do research and “invent” generation of knowledge through experiments new ways to improve their computer distinguishes science from hardware and software. philosophical inquiry, with the latter relying more on philosophical discourses to establish knowledge claims.  o Totalitarian—the scientific worldview holds Humans have been commanded by God to the belief that science has no limits subdue and dominate nature in its scope. The coverage of scientific inquiry Consequently, this belief has led to a philosophical continues to enlarge in the course tradition, mainly Western in character, that denies the of its development. Domains which were existence of any direct moral relationships between previously not subjects of scientific humans and the natural environment. In this context, inquiry are now legitimate and valid objects for most ethical theories argue that: scientific investigation. Only humans have moral standing All other things have ethical value only in so far The scientific method entails a systematic as they serve human interests process of inquiry. It consists of the following The concept of “modernity” found its beginning in the Activities: Enlightenment, during the 18th Century. The basic o Identification and definition of the assumptions of the Enlightenment, which found their problem—the process begins with an way in modernity, are the following: identification of a problem, which is usually Ignorance is the basic source of all human manifested as a disturbance that misery disrupts the normal routine or those that The elimination of ignorance and its threaten the achievement of desirable replacement with scientific knowledge would outcomes. Problems could also be seen as an pave the way for endless human progress unexplained phenomenon or an The “Enlightenment Project” emerged as a concerted unanswered question, or an unexplained activity that sought to install the following core beliefs: discrepancy in knowledge, or a Everything worth knowing can be unified into a knowledge gap. set of beliefs that all human beings can o Formulation of a hypothesis—a hypothesis is rationally accept. This acceptance is based on an educated guess about a universally valid set of methodological possible solution to, or an explanation of the assumptions based on the scientific method. cause of or answers to the problem. Universal, rational and moral principles are It could also be a prediction of an expected binding on all rational beings everywhere and result or outcome. This is not based provide guides and standards for conduct and on intuition, but on the available body of related judgment. knowledge relevant to the Beliefs, values, claims, or factors that question at hand. contradict or impede these two goals are an o Testing of the hypothesis—the hypothesis is obstacle to human progress and happiness. tested against an empirical reality Only a society based on science and universal or experience. This is done through a process of values is truly free and rational; only its data collection, organization and evaluation, inhabitants can be happy. and where deductions and conclusions are The truth shall make us free; and that the more made on the we know about ourselves and the world, the hypothesis vis-à-vis the data gathered. better human life will become. This is because ignorance is the cause of unhappiness and MODULE 5 immorality. The relationship of human beings to their natural Thus, science is at the core of the Enlightenment environment is largely governed by a dominant project. The concept of the “modern men”—Inkeless worldview within which human beings relate their (1964) sought to focus on the effects of modernization existence to their world. This is largely an on individual’s attitudes, values and ways of living. He anthropocentric worldview that looks at humans as the identified the following traits associated with “modern center and the primary entity from whose point of view men.” the natural world is analyzed This worldview, in turn, Openness to new experience: Modern men derives much of its logic from the Judeo-Christian are willing to try new activities or to develop tradition that upholds the following beliefs: new ways of doing things Humans are created in the image of Increasing independence from authority God—hence we have moral and metaphysical figures: Modern men are not under control of uniqueness such figures as parents, tribal heads, and Humans are naturally good emperors Humans are superior to nature; we are separate Belief in science: Modern men believe that from, and transcend, nature human beings can conquer nature  Mobility orientation: Modern men are highly political science, history and economics, and their ambitious; they want to climb up the sub-fields. An inquiry into the natural sciences uses occupational ladder well-established principles, theories, concepts and Use of long-term planning: Modern men methods that take advantage of the predictability and always plan ahead and know what they will tractability of natural phenomena. It is easy to put into accomplish in the next five years abstract forms natural phenomena, and as such, they Activity in civil politics: Modern men join become reducible to a set of relationships that could voluntary associations and participate in local easily be presented as “laws.” For example, chemicals community affairs. “react” in predictable ways; plants “behave” in definite This idea of a modern man emerges in the context of a patterns; and animals “operate” through instincts. Western philosophical worldview, which considers the However, human beings behave not only according to following (Quito, 1991): instinct, but through will power, enabled by the Human beings are looked upon as individuals, capacity for rational thinking that can be harnessed special and unique, with definite specification towards “intended” action. This makes the process of based upon a personal set of characteristic inquiry into social phenomenon unique and distinct emanating from a soul that is unique for every from those that are in the natural sciences. However, person social scientists, have tried to emulate the methodology There is only one way to arrive at of the natural sciences, and apply it in the study of ideas—through science making use of our human communities. They also attempted to senses, through the process of abstraction formulate their own laws for human behavior. This Emphasis is on the material aspect of practice in the social sciences is generally referred to as knowledge to the exclusion of the spiritual; empirical-positivism. Empirical-positivism is Science is of supreme value considered as an epistemology. As such, it is a Essence and existence are separate entities; the dominant framework that governs the production of individual has but one life knowledge and truth about human societies. Its The laws governing the earth are not the same dominance stems from the fact that it relies on the as those that govern human beings; human scientific method. The following are its features: beings are free, the earth is not Observability—Knowledge is valid if it is On the other hand, the non-Western perspectives, formed out of actual observation of a which includes not only the Oriental beliefs but also phenomenon. those held by indigenous peoples, hold the following Objectivity—Knowledge is valid if it describes views that differ from the dominant Western characteristics which is objectively observed in perspective (Quito, 1991): an object, and not based on opinions and Human beings are looked upon as a speck in subjective perceptions of the observer or the the universe of things; they do not possess a “subject” unique importance. Their existence is merely a Neutrality—Knowledge is valid if it is generated continuation of another existence in a long from the observations of the “subject” continuous chain. independent of his or her biases. Ideas could also be reached through other Measurability—Knowledge is valid if it can be ways, such as intuition, inspiration, and expressed in quantitative terms, or through mysticism some kind of numerical index. Emphasis is on the spiritual and non-material Externality of Expertise—Knowledge is valid form of knowing; does not have a philosophy of when it is generated from the observations of a science and does not put any value on it professional that is detached and who Individuals are mere links in a chain and hence possesses the necessary scientific credentials or are of very little importance in the great chain experience in a certain field of expertise of being; belief in reincarnation However, there are certain limitations to the validity and The earth is part of the entire universe of things; applicability of empirical positivism. Empirical rules or laws govern both human beings and positivism puts a lot of weight on the process of nature observation. However, there are many hidden Typically, when we talk about the sciences, most would structures in society that are unobservable. For refer to the natural sciences—the biological and the example, the public manifestation of human behavior physical sciences. However, there are areas of inquiry does not necessarily reflect their true feelings. What is that are not concerned with the natural world, but on visible may not necessarily be authentic. Furthermore, human beings as they live in society. These studies the biases of the observer may influence the manner he are collectively referred to as the social sciences, and or she makes conclusions, particularly if it is about a would include anthropology, sociology, psychology, human situation in which he/she is a part of or has interest. Thus, empirical positivism does not the social scientist is to be engaged in social inquiry necessarily lead to neutral and objective conclusions. that would challenge these established systems of The value placed on quantification is challenged by the truth and knowledge. Thus, the process of radical fact that not all social phenomena can be measured analysis becomes emancipatory, transformative and quantitatively. It is quite difficult to quantify with liberating. Here, knowledge is produced to empower precision, or to develop valid numerical indices for people and to transform the structural conditions human emotions like love or pain. It could also be said which marginalize and oppress them. Thus, it is the that not all things that “count” or those things that process of radical analysis that distinguishes radical humans consider important can be “counted.” The social science from mainstream social science. Radical reverse is also true, in that not all things that can be social science acquires the following characteristic quantified or “counted” actually count as important in elements: human societies. An external expert may not be in a Analysis in the context of political struggle and better position to make conclusion in all cases, and that as an input to collective action. the externality of the expertise does not assure better Holistic and integrative approach that goes analysis of a human condition. In fact, it has been beyond the boundaries of the disciplines; shown that those people directly involved in problems attempts to evade reductionism who are not social scientists in the professional sense Participatory in nature, where the process is are equally capable of producing knowledge about given equal importance relative to the their own conditions. For example, the poor are in the outcome. best position to provide explanations about their Qualitative indicators are given equal value poverty. Furthermore, people more involved in the compared to quantitative indicators situation could have a different perspective compared Radical social science could be illustrated in the to the outsider experts. The practice of borrowing conduct of participatory action research where the methods and techniques from the natural sciences research process is done as part of a larger project of poses many problems for the social scientist. In fact, social mobilization (usually as part of a community critical social scientists have raised several questions development effort) vis-à-vis a particular social about social science research in general (Fraenkel and problem. Here, the various stakeholders are involved all Wallen, 1993). These are as follows: throughout the research process, as active participants Question of reality—how can a researcher in the identification of the research problem, gathering claim that what she observed is “real”? of the data, and the analysis of such data, as well as in Question of communication—how can the the formulations of solutions based from the analysis “real” be captured by a single language, which in most cases is English, when one can also argue that a particular language reflects a specific reality? Question of values—how can one claim to be neutral and value free, or objective, in describing reality, when human beings, including scientists, are also products of their own social contexts? Question of societal consequences—traditional research efforts are seen as uncritical of the status quo, and eventually end up being used by, or become favorable to, the dominant political interests, which are conservative and/or oppressive. In response to these questions, critical social scientists propose an alternative epistemology, or radical epistemology, in conducting social inquiry. Its features are the following: Radical epistemology considers the production of knowledge as a political process. In this view, knowledge and truth are produced in the context of the existing power relations in society. Thus, the dominant knowledge and truth is a reflection of the dominant forces that prevail. Hence, the role of