Spanish Moro Wars PDF

SPANISH MORO WARS with Brunei out of the picture, it would be only a matter before Sulu, Maguindanao, and Buayan would be to accept Spanish By: Cesar Majul...

SPANISH MORO WARS with Brunei out of the picture, it would be only a matter before Sulu, Maguindanao, and Buayan would be to accept Spanish By: Cesar Majul missionaries and sovereignty. PHASE TWO: STRONGHOLDS It was a war described by the Spanish colonizers as “guerras The second phase of the conflict started with the Spaniards piraticas” or a fight against Moro pirates. By using piracy a reason, trying to establish forts and colonies in Muslim lands, to exact the colonizer gave their military depredations the color of a tribute from the Muslim and to wean them from their alliance domestic affair, a fight against evil forces justifiable even within Ternate. It ended around 1599. In this phase, the Sulu Sultan paid Christian doctrine, thereby effectively concealing that it was a a modest tribute, so did some of the chieftains in the Pulangi. war against the free sultanates; hence, a colonial war of Here also the 1587 conspiracy of Tondo chieftains led by Magat aggression. It was a war directed against the Muslim sultanates Salamat failed. Salamat tried to contact the Brunei Sultan for but affected other native people of Mindanao. It was a war that help against the Spaniards but failed in his endeavor. made use of thousands of converted colonial subjects, those misinformed Indios from whose ranks would rise the Filipino In 1591, the Spanish government decided to colonize Mindanao nation. and incorporate it into Its Philippine colony. It was planned to use Mindanao as a base for the eventual conquest of the Moluccas It was a war that made effective use of the Catholic Church and and the intimidation of Borneo and Java. In April 1596, the newly- churchmen against people who refused to be their subjects. designated governor of Mindanao, Esteban Rodriguez de There is no space for a detailed account of that event. But for Figueroa, landed in Cotabato, where he failed to contact the those who are interested, there is no substitute to the book Maguindanao Sultan. In the interior, Rodriguez was struck on the written by Dr. Cesar Majul, Muslim in the Philippines. What head with a Kampilan. He remained alive only for a few hours. follows in the summary by Dr. Majul himself and published in Nevertheless, the Spaniards were able to build a fort around Filipino heritage, Volume 4, pp. 1080-1086, he divided that war Sampakan (Tampakan), which was midway between the into six phases: Maguindanao and Buayan settlements. The Maguindanao and PHASE ONE: BRUNEI CUT-OFF Buayan Sultanates tried to dislodge the Spaniard. The first phase of the conflict between the Muslims and the Eight hundred warriors from Ternate, under the leadership of an Spaniard in the archipelago began around the time of Legazpi’s uncle of the Ternate sultan, came to help the Muslims, to no arrival in 1565 and ended with the Spanish invasions of Bornei in avail. Eventually, lack of supplies and difficulty in communication 1578 and 1581. The first act of war was committed by the led the Spaniards to abandon their fort. They retreated to the area Spaniards, when in March 1565, they captured a Bornean trading of Zamboanga, where they built a fort in La Caldera. Continuous vessel in the vicinity of Bohol. In 1569, nine Spanish tradings harassment, however, made them abandon this strong fort in successfully engaged 20 vessels owned by Borneans and Sulu. 1597. The second phase... thus ended in defeat for the Spanish This incident symbolized the commercial rivalry. What concerned invaders. Something to note in this phase is that the Ternatan aid the Spaniards after their capture of Manila was that the came not only on account of kinship relations between the disgruntled Bomean aristocracy in it might anytime seek the aid leading families of Mindanao and the Moluccas and religious ties of Brunei, which it did in fact also, the Brunei and the Sulu were but also because the Ternatans realized that the loss of still exacting tribute in Mindoro and the Calamianes, an action Mindanao would mean that it could serve as a base for Spanish considered by the Spaniards as an infringement of their operations against them. At least a strong Maguindanao and sovereignty over these islands. Moreover, the Brunei Sultan was Buayan meant a strong defense line for ternate. encouraging and supporting the preaching of islam. It was PHASE THREE: COUNTER ATTACKS deemed essential to have a tributary Brunei if the Spanish hold in its recently acquired territories in the Philippines were to be more The third phase of the conflict began in 1599-1600 when the secure and or legitimized. Thus, the Spaniards took the Maguindanaon launched an offensive against the Spanish forces opportunity to interfere in a dynastic dispute in Brunei by in the Bisayas to the extent of competing with Spain for the supporting a person who was willing to accept Spanish collection of tribute there. A few initial Spanish counteroffensives sovereignty. To put their man on their throne, they invaded Brunei utterly failed. However, the Spaniards later on succeeded in in 1578 and forced Sultan Seifur-Rijal to flee. This Sultan was, conquering Ternate and in 1635, they established a strong fort later on, able to recover his throne, with the consequence that in Zamboanga. Significant about this phase was that the Sulu, the Spaniards had to return in 1581. This venture was Maguindanao, and Buayan had Ternatan aids. The Dutch too had unsuccessful and was the last time the Spaniards directly appeared in the area, if not helping the Muslims, at least interfered in Brunei’s affairs. However, they succeeded in finally encouraging them to create more difficulties for their Spanish eliminating Bornean pretension in the Philippines. Significant in rivals. In-1599-1600, the rajahs of Maguindanao and Buayan this phase was that people of Brunei and Sulu were allies their made two devastating raids on the Bisayas. This expedition each Sultans were also brothers-in-law. The Spaniards believed that involved about 3,000 warriors. The 1602 raid of these rajahs had the help of the Sulu, principally from Basilan. It reached as far as leader of the Iranun and Maguindanao. This redoubtable leader the coastal towns of southern Luzon. About 1, 400 captives were became a chieftain around 1619 and kept the peace with the netted. A Spanish retaliatory attack in Jolo did not accomplish Spaniards until-he was able to consolidate his realm, build a war much except that the Sulu were prevented from cooperating fully machine, and accumulate more territory. He was allied with the with the Muslims of Mindanao in succeeding raids. The 1603 Dutch, who helped him with ammunition and enabled him to attempted Spanish invasion of Ternate also failed. In this same keep up with his commercial activities. In 1634, Kudarat was year, BUISAN the Rajah of Maguindanao attacked Bisayas towns. strong enough to attack the Visayas. His main intention was to In Dulag, Leyte he bumed the church, captured a few hundred weaken the Spaniards, who were slowly encroaching on inhabitants and destroyed the town. The Leyte datus were so Mindanao by establishing a mission and fortified outposts. He intimidated that they made a blood compact with him pledging resented the presence of the Spaniards in areas in the north and not to cooperate with the Spaniards. Datu Buisan returned some east of the Mindanao which he considered Iranun spheres of captives and gold and exhorted the datus to support and sweep influence. On Jesuit advice, in 1635 the Spaniards built a fort in the Spaniards of the islands. In these raids, the piratical Zamboanga. For this purpose, the 3000 Spaniards and 1000 inhabitants of the area of Kuran (called Camucones by the Visayan allies came to Zamboanga. The fort served various Spaniards) usually followed in the wake of the Muslim raids, purposes. It was to protect the mission in Mindanao. It served as taking advantage of the situation to pick up a few things for an outpost where the movement of Muslim fleets could be themselves. They often complicated the methodical plans of the watched. Soldiers quartered in it could at any notice attack Maguindanao and Sulu. nearby Muslim settlement. In 1606, one of the biggest fleets fitted out the Spaniards went to Noteworthy in the first three-phase… was that the Muslim Ternate, where after a series of fierce battles, the Ternatans lost, captured Spaniards for ransom purpose. The Spaniards did the and their Sultan was captured. The Rajahs of the Pulangi feared same when they captured Muslim leaders. The Muslim also that the returning victorious meet would attack them. They enslaved the natives from the Spaniards held territories in order decided to make peace with the Spaniards. Two years after, when to have them row their boats, thus allowed the warriors to they decided to fit a fleet against the Bisayas, they were concentrate on fighting. Aside from using them as household dissuaded from doing so by the Spaniards, who were prepared for enslaved natives. Were utilized in the plantations to do a kind of with another fleet. For some time, the Spaniards were to get work that was generally looked down upon by the warriors. some respite from the Maguindanao and Buayanun, but trouble Capturing natives also weakened the war machine of the came from another quarter... the Sulu. Spaniards, who recruited thousands of them to fight the Muslim. The sale of slaves to the Dutch was generally found later on in the last few years of the third stage where they were in demand in The presence of Dutch ships in Philippine waters in 1616 Dutch plantations. Slaves who had become Muslim were not encouraged the Sulu to attack settlement as far as Cavite and normally sold they would sometimes be freed but made to fight Camarines. They burned the Cavite shipyard and captured some together with the Muslim. Spaniards for ransom. There is evidence of Brunei aid in the above ventures. Certainly there was the inevitable Dutch encouragement. In 1627 in revenge for the humiliation of the Sulu Significant in the first three-phase is that the Muslim in the Ambassador, Datu Ache by the Spaniards who put him in a cell Philippines were helped by neighboring principalities. These and confiscated his pearls, the Sulu in about 30 caracoas and alliances did not only reflect marriage ties between ruling with about 2,000 warriors, attacked the shipyard in Camarines. families, they represented a concerted effort against the The fleet was led by the Sulu Sultan, Rajah Bongsu. Much intrusion of Western imperialism, colonialism, and Christianity in artillery, guns, ammunition, iron, and rice were captured. The the island of Southeast Asia. Spanish retaliation, the next year ended in the complete burning of Jolo and the destruction of the Sultan's fleet. Another Spanish expedition in 1630 failed; however, the Sulu this time were PHASE FOUR: FORTRESS WAR prepared. Lorenzo de Olazo, the commander, was wounded, and many of his men killed. The Spaniards and their native allies The fourth phase… beginning with the fortification of Zamboanga retreated terror-stricken. in 1635 up to its abandonment in 1663, represented the Spanish determination to conquer Sulu and the Sultanates in Mindanao once and for all and establish missions among them. The task of Governor Corcuera was threefold, to conquer and capture Kudarat and put Spanish puppet in the Maguindanao Sultanate; While the Spaniards were busy with the Sulu, another element to capture the main cotta of the Sulu sultan and establish arose in Maguindanao, which was to give them great difficulties colonies in Sulu; and to invade Brunei once again and put it for the next 50 years. This was the rise of Katchil Kudarat as a securely under Spanish sovereignty. Kudarat’s capital, Lamitan, was captured in 1637, but his major cotta in the nearby Ilihan The 1720-1721 attack of the Sulu and Iranun to dislodge the heights offered a quite strong defense. However, even these fell Spaniards from the fort failed in spite of the use of hundreds of to the invaders. The wounded Muslim leader went to the interior, war vessels and thousands of warriors. The Sulu then tried to where he raised an army of Iranun to harass the Spaniards. The have peace treaties with their enemies while dealing with the triumphant Corcuera was given a hero’s welcome in Manila, and Dutch as a source of arms and ammunition. It was then that the his battles were enacted in the play’s celebrating his victory. Spaniards changed their techniques in their program of These were the first moro-moro plays in the country. The next evangelization. In exchange for commercial relation and treaties year, 600 Spaniards and 1000 native allies laid siege to the Sulu of alliance, they requested the Sultanates to accept the sultan’s cotta in Jolo. The defense was superb and many of the preaching of Christianity. Their sovereignty was assured, and no invaders were killed, but an epidemic in the cotta forced the priest was to enter their territories without the permission of the sultan to surrender after three months. After a brief truce with Sultans. To this phase belong the visit of Sulu Sultan Azim-ud-Din Corcuera, the sultan went to the interior to continue the struggle to Manila for his baptism, imprisonment and eventual return to the subsequent Spanish attempt to subject the Mranao was Sutu. On the pretext of the restoring the Sultan to Jolo, the shortlived since Kudarat was able to galvanize their opposition. Spaniards at various times tried to conquer Jolo, to no avail. The The Spaniards, found, too great difficulty trying to pacify the Sulu Sultan Mu’izz ud-Din, had the fierce loyalty of the datus and Buayanons. The guerilla warfare of the Sulu was taking its toll. the resistance was strong. He went as far as to seek aid from The Spanish reaction to all these was to pursue a policy of China and the Ottoman Empire, but it was more through the destroying all Muslim orchards, plantations, and seacrafts. They British that he was able to strengthen his realm. The wars during also adopted a plan of depopulating Muslim settlement while this phase reached a considerable proportion in terms of human enslaving as many Muslims as possible. But Qudarat’s gaining lives lost and property destroyed. Hundreds of Muslim were strength forced the Spaniards to make a treaty with them in 1645. carried into captivity, while hundreds of Christian natives were The next year, they concluded a treaty with Sulu pledging to captured and sold as slaves in Makassar and Java. So fierce were abandon all their forts in Sulu. A factor which led to this peace the Muslim raids in the Visayas that in some settlements the treaty was the Dutch threat. collection of tribute by the Spaniards went below 50%. The British invasion of Manila in 1762 created a full in the fighting. The Muslim remained unconquered. They again began to accelerate The peace with Kudarat was broken In 1655 when the Spanish their commercial activities-this time concentrating on the British ambassador was Assassinated on account of his insistence to trade, convert the Sultan. To prevent Spanish retaliation, the sultan PHASE SIX formally declared jihad the next year and asked the aid of the Sultan of Makassar, Sulu, Ternate, and Brunei on the principle of Spanish policy in the middle of the 19th century was once more to the protection of Islam. Spanish initial successes against conquer the Muslim Sultanates, especially that of Sulu. This time Maguindanao were nullified by later events. With the eventual the Christianization was not an overriding motive. The main absence to additional Spanish provocations, relative peace reason was that the British and the Dutch were extending in the ensued. In 1663, due to the Koxinga threat, Zamboanga was island of Southeast Asia. British intrigues in Sulu to secure a base abandoned. There would be an interlude of peace between the for the China trade had become well-known. While the Dutch Muslim and the Spaniards for the next 50 years. were progressively extending their territories in Borneo, the Spaniards had to secure their southern frontier. In brief, before the British gained a secure economic and polit”cal foothold in Left to themselves, the Sultanates tried to recapture their former Sulu, it was deemed important for the Spaniards to be there first. commercial prosperity. Plantations were once again flourishing The excuse used by the Spaniard’s government to resume war and new vessels built. Sulu came to possess the North Borneo was that the Samal subject of the Sulu sultan as well as the territory of Brunei and began to fill part of the power vacuum in Iranuns living in his land were professional pirates and acting in Borneo. Tributary relations were resumed with China and connivance with him. Sultan Pulalun at various times protested commercial relation renewed with the Dutch. against this charge, and his reason was that his difficulty in controlling the pirates was the very same one encountered by the PHASE FIVE Spaniards. Actually, the sultan and the chief datu were traders, and the economic prosperity of the realm depended on the safety The Spanish King, on account of Jesuit insistence, issued various of sea lanes, but, the Spaniards utilized the existence of piracy as royal order for the occupation and refortification of Zamboanga. a reason to launch in 1845 the Balangingi expedition which led to In 1718, the royal order was complied with the soon the fort was the depopulation of the Samales island and the transfer or many garrisoned and made stronger than before. The fifth phase… was survivors to Luzon in order to have them converted there. Thus to commence soon. the sixth phase of the wars commenced. The Spanish expedition to Sulu in 1851 forced the Sultan to a treaty. Although the Spaniards interpreted the treaty as one where the Sultan accepted Spanish sovereignty, the Sultan simply took it as a friendly treaty between sovereign equals. Another Spanish thinking and rhetoric of both Americans and Filipinos. The campaign in 1876 to capture Jolo was-intended to represent a fait general "mandate" for the Philippines was also the particular accompli to force foreign powers to accept Spanish territorial mandate for Moroland. "To develop, to civilize, to educate, to train claims in return for recognition of their corresponding claims in the science of self-government" - these words, and the attitude elsewhere. The Spanish excuse for the campaign this time was they represented, established the character of Muslim-American that Sultan Jamal ul-Azam had ignored previous treaties. The relations - at least from the American point of view. Spanish government in Manila tried to get public opinion on its This paper focuses on the development of American side by pointing out that the issue was one of piracy. The Spanish governmental policy toward Muslim Filipinos between the years clergy insisted that the war was a “just and holy one” against the 1899 and 1920.2 These years are especially important in the “wicked sons of the Quran.” Thousands of pesos were general story of Muslim-American relations because they cover contributed to the campaign by rich Chinese towns, the period of direct American administration of Moroland. During schoolchildren, and friars. It has been estimated that public this time Moroland (and its inhabitants) became effectively a part subscription reached 250,000 pesetas. of the Philippine national concept, and it became integrated into the Philippine governmental framework as well. An understanding of the policies pursued and problems Jolo had to be abandoned by the Sulu, with the Sultan fleeing to encountered in this period yields some important insights with the interior. It was during this time that he leased his Sabah respect to the relations between Muslim and Christian Filipinos territory to the British company. A treaty among Britain, Germany, today. and Spain finally provided that Spanish sovereignty extended to Sulu. Abandoned by all was eventually forced to accede to the The American administration of Moroland developed in three peace treaty of 1878. It was the last treaty entered into between successive stages between 1899 and 1920. First, there were the Spaniards and the Sulu. It provides a sort of Spanish protectorate years of initial Muslim-American contact and military occupation for Sulu while giving the Sulu a great deal of autonomy. The sultan of Moroland, beginning in May of 1899 and ending with the tried to abide as much as possible with the treaty, but he could inauguration of the Mora not control those datus and their followers who kept on harassing MUSLIM-AMERICAN RELATIONS the Spaniards to the extent that Jolo became in effect a town under siege. Juramentados became more frequent. Province in July of 1903. Next came the decade (1903-1913) of the existence of the Moro Province which exercised poltico- Meanwhile, the Spaniards tried to consolidate their hold on military control over the region and prepared the Muslims for civil Mindanao. A few expeditions were sent to the Maranao areas and government. And, finally, there folllowed a six-year period (1914- Buayan. Cotabato became a Spanish outpost and Spaniards 1920) wherein the process of bringing Mindanao and Sulu into the were able to build a strong fort along the Pulangi. The only real- general governmental framework of the Philippines was opposing force against them was Sultan Anwar ud-Din (Datu accelerated. During this third stage, administrative control over Utto). The Maguindanao sultanate had become a shadow of its Muslim affairs was rapidly transferred from Americans to former self. Filipinos. By the time the American arrived in the Philippines in 1898, the The Military Occupation, 1899-1903 Spanish force in tradition Muslim lands was confined to a few well-guarded outposts that were often harassed. The Muslim still Military occupation of Moroland was occasioned by American remained, in general unconquered. This was the situation the concern to secure Muslim Filipino acknowledgement of United Americans found in them. States sovereignty in Mindanao and Sulu. The Americans also sought to keep the Muslims neutral in the Philippine-American MUSLIM-AMERICAN RELATIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES, 1899- War (1899-1901) which raged in the northern provinces.3 Since 1920 U.S. Army authorities in Manila could not spare many troops from PRESIDENT WILLIAM MCKINLEY IN A MESSAGE TO THE operations in the north, they depended on garrisons at a few American Congress in 1899 defined the basic policy of the United strategic points in Moroland4 and sought by diplomacy to win States towards the Philippines: Muslim friendship and neutrality. The Philippines are not ours to exploit, but to develop, to civilize, To this end, the Bates Agreement (signed August, 1899) was to educate, to train in the science of self-government. This is the negotiated with the Sulu Sultanate. Similar, though unwritten, path we must follow or be recreant to a mighty trust committed to agreements were made with the Muslim chiefs of Mindanao and us. Basilan. By these agreements the Muslims seemingly acknowledged American sovereignty and agreed to help This policy was, as a matter of fact, a kind of self-assumed suppress piracy and apprehend persons charged with crimes mandate (though many Americans at the time would have against non-Muslims. In return, the United States pledged to insisted that it was bestowed by Divine Providence!) and it came respect the dignity and authority of the Sultan of Sulu and the to occupy, for quite different reasons, an important place in the other chiefs. Muslims were to be protected from foreign Impositions. The United States agreed not to interfere with the The Muslim Filipinos could not but speculate as to what this religion of the Muslims and, with respect to Sulu, to pay certain escalation of American activity meant in terms of the security of emoluments to the Sultan and his principal chiefs. their religion and way of life. Sometimes their uneasiness and suspicion erupted into violence. Isolated instances of attacks on The Muslim Filipinos undoubtedly saw these arrangements from American soldiers occurred with increasing southern. Lanao; the a different point of view than the Americans. The Americans freedom of Army troops to move wherever they pleased was believed that they were keeping the Muslims peaceful and at the openly challenged by the Muslims in March of 1902 and resulted same time securing acknowledgement of United States in the first major military action since the American arrival in sovereignty. The Muslim leaders seemed to believe that their Moroland almost three years earlier. diplomacy had kept the Americans out of their internal affairs and guaranteed their way of life on terms no worse than those The Americans interpreted Muslim hostility as defiance of United which had been imposed by the Spaniards. At the beginning, the States sovereignty. Yet the problem was certainly much more arrangements were satisfactory to both sides as a modus vivendi. complex. The growing number of Americans in Moroland after the Philippine American War and the multiplication of their activities, During the years of military occupation, the U.S. Army was brought two quite different cultures into more abrasive contact related to the Muslim Filipinos in much the way it had long been than had been the case earlier in the military occupation. related to the North American Indians. The Muslims, like the Moreover, the decision to take a direct hand in the control of Indians, were regarded as living in "a state of pupilage" on Moro affairs was made towards the end of the period of military territory oW1led by the United States. The Army's main task was occupation. When that decision was implemented under the to keep them peaceful. The Army was not to antagonize the Moro Province, the conflict between Muslim Filipino and Muslims by attempting to regulate their affairs except "to prevent American cultures was exacerbated. barbarous practices".Army activities were limited mainly to suppressing piracy, curtailing the slave trade (though-not The Moro Province, 1903-1913 abolishing slavery) and keeping Muslim internecine conflicts The Philippine Bill of 1902 formally committed the United States within bounds. to the ultimate independence of the Philippines. Civil and military The American mandate in the Philippines was only mildly authorities then began to take a closer look at the American implemented in Moroland during the period of military policy in Moroland. It was decided to abandon the policy of non- occupation.. The policy of non-interference in Moro internal interference and to exercise direct rule over the Muslims with a affairs precluded any vigorous effort to develop, civilize, educate, view to preparing them for integration into the body politic of the and train the Muslim Filipinos in the science of democratic self- Philippines. One factor which influenced this decision was the government. Army authorities were generally unhappy with the insistence of the Christian Filipino nationalists that Moroland non-interference policy because certain features of Muslim· was inseparable from the Philippine nation. Furthermore, both Filipino society :._ judicial procedures, slavery, the "tyrannical'' Americans and Filipinos fully realized the importance of the relationship of the chiefs to their followers - offended their natural resources of Mindanao and Sulu to the economic future Occidental sense of justice and good order. Some officers were of the country. eager to take a direct hand in "civilicing" the Muslims. The decision to exercise direct control of Muslim affairs resulted Within the limitations imposed by the non-interference policy, in the abrogation of the Bates Agreement and other assurances the Army did what it could to carry out the mandate, especially of non-interference by Americans. In this respect, the American after the Philippine-American War ended in 1901. The proper policy toward the Muslims again resembled the treatment of the authorities took notice of Moro affairs, studied conditions, and Indians: "treaties" made with "savages" were not considered began to formulate policies for the future administration of binding and could be unilaterally set aside as convenience or Mindanao and Sulu. Modern medical care was made available to changes in policy demanded. Naturally, the Americans the Muslims at Army hospitals and clinics. Public health and rationalized their action in terms of the misbehavior of the sanitation regulations were introduced. A few schools, taught by Muslims and also in terms of the new policy ultimately being in soldiers as well as civilian teachers, were opened and the their (the Muslims') best interest. Muslims invited to attend them. Bridges, roads, trails, and The American authorities recognized that preparation of the Moro wharves were constructed which both directly and indirectly for integration into a modern Philippine state required, for the benefited the Muslims. time being, a different form of government from the regularly At the same time, other activities were easily misunderstood by organized provinces wherein most of the Christian Filipinos the Muslims. Customs regulations were imposed, taxes were enjoyed a large degree of autonomy. Taking their model from the levied, land surveys were made, and mapping and exploring Spanish "politico-military district" system, the Americans. expeditions became frequent. The 1903 Census was also begun. organized the Moro Province... The administrative structure of Mter July of 1901, more U.S. troops were sent to occupy ports in the Province was admirably suited. for direct rule of the Muslims: Mindanao. the line of responsibility stretched from the Provincial Governor in Zamboanga to the datu who served as headman of the inheritance.15 During the administration of General Bliss, the remotest tribal ward. Muslim pandita schools were encouraged and in some places were given limited governmental assistance. The officials of the government were carefully selected. Those in the higher offices were, at first, mostly Army officers. A few Even so, the American policy of direct rule and attempts to American civilians were appointed to such posts as Provincial implement the mandate struck at the authority and prestige of Treasurer, Provincial Attorney, and Provincial Superintendent of the Muslim chiefs and, to some extent unwittingly, at the religion Schools. The. government of the Province was relatively free from and attitudes of all Muslim Filipinos. The policy of direct rule was "politics" during· the ten years of its existence because it was ipso facto an adverse judgment on the social structure, customs, placed under the direct' supervision of the Governor-General in and laws by which the Muslim Filipinos had lived for centuries. Manila and the Philippine ( dominated by Americans until 1913). From the Muslim standpoint, "to develop" and "to civilize" seemed to mean the imposition of strange laws and infiCTel The successive governors of the Mora Province - Generals customs. Laws against slavery threatened the politico-economic Leonard Wood, Tasker Bliss and John J. Pershing - were men of structure of traditional society. The establishment of the exceptional ability. For this reason they were given considerable provincial and district governments, whose officials issued latitude in administering provincial affairs. The power of decrees enfroced by troops, undermined the power and status of supervision retained in Manila was used sparingly, giving the traditional Muslim leaders. By-passing Muslim courts and governors "the authority of a Roman pro-consul" and holding refusing to recognize the customary judicial functions of the them responsible for the results. headmen offended M11slim sensitivities.17 The collection of the The Mora Province offered more opportunities to implement the cedula and other taxes was disliked because payment was made American mandate. Slavery was made illegal. The common to a foreign, infidel government.18 The Muslims resented the people, as far as possible, were protected from the "tyranny" of parcelling out of lands, which they had occupied (but not tilled) their traditional leaders, the depradations of lawless persons, for centuries, to foreigners and Christian Filipinos. They also and unscrupulous traders. Through the "tribal ward court' resented the licensing of foreign vessels to fish waters of system, attempts were made to introduce American concepts of Moraland. The Muslims suspected that the American ambition justice. Under American supervision, selected Moro leaders were "to educate" them meant to inculcate Christian teachings and given limited political authority as headmen in the tribal wards. Christian values through the public school system. These The program of public works was expanded and more schools, teachings would alienate their children from their religion and hospitals, and dispensaries were built. Agriculture and traditional way of life. commerce were encouraged. The American administrators of the Moro Province were either As part of the program to "civilize" the Muslims and at the same unaware of, or chose to completely ignore, the fact that Muslim time exploit the natural riches of the region, Americans and Filipinos saw no separation whatever between the sacred and the Christian Filipinos from the northern provinces were encouraged secular. Separation of Church and State, religion and politics, to settle in Moraland. The immigrant's industriousness and etc. was a peculiarity of the West unknown to the Muslims. They agricultural know-how would, it was felt, provide both the saw Islam in everything they did; their land was dar-al-Islam, "the example and the incentive for the Muslim Filipinos to become household of Islam." They believed that their laws and customs more productive farmers. The organized municipalities, were consistent with the precepts of the Holy Qur'an. Any move dominated by the non-Muslims, were designed to be models of to change their society or to enforce obedience to the laws of well-ordered and democratically governed local communities, foreigners was seen as a fundamental challenge to their religion demonstrating to the Muslims "civilized" community life. and to their very existence as human beings. The Moro Province and it policy of direct rule, then, constituted a severe threat to the The American officials believed that it was essential to get the ideology of the Moros. Many of them resisted to the death. Muslim Filipinos into the practice of paying taxes in support of the Provincial Government. Accordingly, the cedula (head-tax) General Leonard Wood, the first Governor of the Moro Province, and, later, the road tax were introduced. Fees were charged for typified American New England Puritanical Calvinist values and the registration of vessels above a certain size. Export and import AngloSaxon ethnocentrism. He found nothing in Muslim Filipino duties were imposed on Muslims engaged in foreign trade. laws and customs worth preserving. He had only contempt for Property taxes were levied on Muslims living in organized many of the Muslim leaders, including the reigning Sultan of Sulu, municipalities. J amalul Kiram II.20 With all the passion of a medieval crusader he fought those Muslims who defied American laws. Thousands The Moro Province adopted the policy of respecting the Islamic of them were killed battling his troops. He called them bandits religion and associated customs of the Muslim Filipinos provided and outlaws. they did· not conflict with the basic principles of American law. The American administrators of the Province made some effort to Wood's successors, Generals Bliss and Pershing, continued to accommodate the special features of Islamic law and adat, fight "bandits" and oultlaws". To be sure, the majority of the especially in cases· concerning domestic relations and Muslim Filipinos acquiesced in the government of the Americans, some because they found it to their personal advantage to co- operate, others because they felt powerless to resist, and the rest of education, public works, health, and agricultural development because their contact with the foreigners was so infrequent that was transferred from Zamboanga to Manila. their life-ways were very little affected. The progressive development of the seven provincial Yet the Muslim Filipinos who chose the path of resistance had a governments and the expansion. of centralized administration large base of moral support among the people. J. Ralston Hayden and control of public s·ervices in Moroland were intended remarked that never during the continental expansion of the eventually to make the Department Government obsolete as an United States were armed encounters between the Indians and intermediary between the Insular Government and the provinces American troops so frequent and so serious as the conflicts that of Mindanao and Sulu. In May of 1920, the Department took place between the Muslim Filipinos and the American forces Government in Zamboanga was formally abolished and its from 1904 to 1914 In the end, the Muslims realized that powers of supervision and administration were transferred to the continued resistance in the face of the mo-control dern Insular Department of the Interior in Manila. Thereafter Moro weaponry of the Americans meant annihilation. They were affairs were controlled by the Insular Government directly conquered, and, under General Pershing, they were disarmed. through the Bureau of NonChristian Tribes in the Department of This accomplished, the Mora Province could be safely and fully Interior. converted to civilian Before its abolition, the Department of Mindanao and Sulu went The Department of Mindanao and Sulu, 1914-1920 quite far in implemeting the American mandate among Muslim Filipinos. This was possible, of course, partly because the power The appointment in December, 1913, of Frank W. Carpenter as of the Muslims to. resist had been broken under the Moro the first civilian governor of the Moro Province, and the Province. But the American policy-makers, and later the subsequent reorganization of the Province into the Department of Philippine Legislature, which assumed legislative· control of Mindanao and Sulu, marked a new development in American affairs in Moroland, exhibited genuine humanitarian concern for policy towards the Muslims. Many Americans at the time felt that the condition and progress of the Muslim Filipinos. Under preparing the Muslims for integration into Philippine national life Governor Carpenter's wise and tactful supervision, Filipino would require at least two or three generations. They were officials got down to the hammer-and-tongs work of educating, convinced that a strong American military presence would be civilizing, and training in self-government the half-million essential for the maintenance of peace and order for a long time Muslims in their care. In the process, the old ·mandate was given to come. And they were certain that if the government of a new name: it was called "the policy of attraction." Moroland were turned over to Christian Filipinos, the result would be Muslim uprisings. Christian Filipino nationalists disagreed, of Public schools multiplied (from 72 in 1913 to 336 in 1919) and course, and throughout the ten-year existence of the Mora attendance was made compulsory. Muslim pensionados Province they agitated for more Filipino involvement in the (Government scholarship awardees) were sent to Manila and government of Mindanao and Sulu.22 The Democratic Party in America for higher education. Hospitals and field dispensaries the United States, which came to power in 1913, proved more were provided in such numbers that medical care came' within responsive to the demands t'lf Filipino nationalists than the the reach of nearly all the inhabitants. Public works were greatly Republican Party had been. President Woodrow Wilson and expanded; hundreds of kilometers of new roads and trails ended Governor-General Francis B. Harrison, in accord with the desire the isolation of thousands of inhabitants and brought them into of the Democratic Party to accelerate the move towards contact with commercial and governmental centers. The selfgovernment and independence for the Philippines, virtually Muslims were given greater participation in local and provincial put control of the Insular Government into the hands of the governments. Later, some were even appointed to the Philippine Filipinos. A policy of "Filipinization" was vigorously pursued. Legislature. Frank Carpenter, appointed by Harrison as Governor of the Muslim leaders were periodically taken to Manila as guests of Department of Mindanao and Sulu, was assigned the task of the Government so that, on their return, they would be apostles irpplementing this "Filipinization" policy. of peace and even more co-operative with government Under Carpenter's firm and watchful supervision, Filipino officials.28 The agricultural activities of the Muslims were given officials (mostly Christians) assumed increasingly greater every encouragement. In Cotabato Province, Muslim families responsibilities in the government of Moroland.23 The region l together with Christian families successfully participated, at together with Agusan and Bukidnon) was divided into seven least for a few years, in the 1'agricultural colonies" estab- lished provinces, the governments of which were designed for easy by the Government as experiments in land development and transformation into replicas of those in the Visayas and Luzon, intergroup living. chiefly by the eventual substitution of elective for appointive These developments under the Department of Mindanao and public officials. The unification of the administrative structures of Sulu were no less threatening to traditional Muslim life-ways the Mindanao and Sulu with those of the Philippine nation was activities of the Mora Province. But as was said earlier, the rapidly advanced by extending to Moroland the jurisdiction of the Muslims were in no position to resist by force of arms. What bureaus and agencies of the Insular Government. Thus, direction evidence there is concerning their general attitude in this period seems to suggest that it might have been a sullen acquiescence the Mora Province before it, properly and inevitably passed into in a situation they were powerless to change.30 Perhaps no history. single event better illustrates and symbolizes this attitude than But it is one thing to lay a foundation and quite another to the abdication (at the insistence of Governor Carpenter) by construct the. edifice. A few years of American administration Sultan Jamalul Kiram II of all his claims to temporal power in could hardly be expected to solve all the problems standing in Sulu. The abdication was formalized in an Agreement signed on the way of the integration of the Muslim Filipinos into Philippine March 22, 1915. national life. The biggest problem in 1920 was - and still is - the Of course, some Muslims readily submitted to the program of centuries-old animosity between Muslims and Christian assimilation enthusiastically pushed by the Government. Many, Filipinos.34 The American Government did not exacerbate that however, clung tenaciously to the old ways, and a few - far fewer animosity. It went to considerable trouble to improve relations than tmder the Moro Province·- chose to become "outlaws." between the two groups. However, after 1920, the American Government exercised little direct control over the relations With the abolition of the Department of Mindanao and Sulu and between MusMuslims and Christians in the Philippines. The the transfer of Governor Carpenter to other service in the Insular future was in the hands of the two principals. And because they Government, the effective period of American administration in were left with the greater power, the responsibility rested Moreland came to an end. There continued to be American primarily with the Christian Filipinos. governors in the Provinces of Lanao (until19SO) and Sulu (until1935), and the American GovernorGeneral continued to have considerable power to interfere in the conduct of government in Mindanao and Sulu. 32 But, for the most part, administrative as well as legislative control of Moreland was firmly in Filipino hands where it has remained ever since (except for the years of Japanese occupation). Concluding Reflections In his final report as the last of the "politico-military" governors of the Moro Province, General Pershing summed up what, in his view, was the total achievement of a decade of government largely by Army officers: "Up to the present we have gorie no further than to suppress crime, prevent injustice, establish peaceful conditions, and maintain supervisory control. Certainly it can be shown that something more than that was achieved by the Moro Province. The fact is that the ground was prepared for civil government. The development of the land and people of Mindanao and Sulu was carried forward. In short, there was a direct connection between what had been accomplished by 1918 and what had been achieved by 1920. The work of the Moro Province made it possible for the Department of Mindanao and Sulu to pursue its "policy of attraction" toward the inhabitants; to reduce greater Muslim participation in governmental affairs;' to further the integration of the people of· Moroland into the body politic of the Philippine nation; and to gain their acceptance of - or at least acquiescence in - the collection of taxes, the operation of schools, the abdication of the Sultan of Sulu, and the presence of Christian Filipino officials in. positions of authority among them. Under Governor Carpenter's administration, all these possibilities became realities. In the process, the usefulness of the Department Government diminished; The Department accomplished what it was established to do: it laid· the foundations in Mindanao and Sulu for an enduring edifice of economic, political, and even social solidarity with Luzon and the Visayas. Having finished this task - or at least having.carried it fairly far along - the Department, like