ST1-LECTURE-1-TO-15 PDF

Lecture 1: Sociological Imagination INTRODUCTION SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION There are limited roles man played, they often do the Enable us to see how a person's personal troubles are same in their everyday lives like it can be kind of...

Lecture 1: Sociological Imagination INTRODUCTION SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION There are limited roles man played, they often do the Enable us to see how a person's personal troubles are same in their everyday lives like it can be kind of connected to broader, social and historical conditions routine. You go to work, come home after that and be of the society to which he belongs. a family man, that's why they tend to feel that their private lives are a series of traps. Example: Unemployment, it is a personal trouble Mills, the one who seems to provide answers why the when someone is unemployed and has a lack of skills, sociological imagination happens. low self-esteem, personal decision or reasons. Sociological Imagination is a way of thinking and However, it is a public issue when a lot of the nation's asking questions to look at the world sociologically. population is unemployed and the reason behind it is There are three types of questions sociologists tend to the social historical conditions of the society to which ask. First, what is the structure of society? (know how they live/belong. different groups are related in a society). Second, what is the place of society in history? (figure out how While in the Philippines, it has a rapid population societies change across time and how our society increase and 4,780 babies are being born every day. today is related to societies in the past). Third, what That's why a person who is part of the poverty section kinds of people does society produce? (It seeks to is always troubled because they sometimes cannot describe how people's personalities and moods and finish their studies due to financial problems. Also, it their beliefs and values are shaped by the social world can be the reason why most of the Filipinos are in which they Live). unemployed because in the Philippines work companies have high standards. Ofw is they're only We need to understand these three types of sociological option to make a living easier but even if that was the imagination in order to explain it: situation it is not enough, especially to Filipinos who Man and society have a big family (this topic has social historical History and biography conditions between them). Understanding the Self and world interplay between the existing social historical conditions and the person's personal trouble. CHAPTER 1: THE PROMISE It pertains to the rewards (or curse) of having RELEVANCE OF SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION sociological imagination (able to shuttle between the It is necessary for you to have that quality of personal and historical). mind...the sociological imagination to put into In the case of contemporary man who feels trapped context not just the theory, but the theorist as well. and powerlessness, sociological study explains how You cannot study the theories by mere reading and these are produced by something larger than an memorization. You have to take into consideration individual's life. It can be shaped by the society in the context of the theory. which he lives and the historical period to which he belongs. Example: Marx sought to abandon the capitalist Sociology connects the personal as historical ones and society. They questioned his works because he urged historical problems as personal ones. Personally, an for a socialist society, the reason is the communist’s individual feels trapped; sociology asks, what is going society in which they're in has no private ownership on in history that produces this feeling? that pushed him through to work $8 - $10 a week making it 10 cents an hour, the woman they have a PERSONAL TROUBLES relationship in received one-third or one-half the pay Occur in the individual, man or self-level, and is those men received while they're children received limited only by the scope of one's biography. less. The owners they make work in were not devastated about it because they're happy and PUBLIC ISSUES satisfied that the labor cost less. Many people wanted a job so they went to the cities to make a living, other Those that transcend the individual and include the people lived in slums and continued experiencing collective interest or values of people. poverty. Marx observed the industry's riches were concentrated in the hands of a few: Aristocrats and industrialists lived in fabulous mansions staffed by servants, where they enjoyed luxury and privilege. The majority of the population labored long hours for low wages and lived in slums or even slept in the streets, where many eventually died from disease brought on by poor nutrition. In a society so rich, how could so many be so poor? What the course requires you... Good grasp of history Imagination to relate to the context of the theorists Imagination to relate the theory of your context  Lecture 2: Introduction to Theory & Sociological Theory I. ELEMENTS OF A THEORY ABSTRACT According to Turner, these are the elements of a theory: A concept is abstract because it has a general Concepts & Theoretical Statements feature that is tied to a particular group or realm of time. CONCEPTS It pertains to the terms that denote a phenomenon, Example: The original meaning of the peace a process, or an action. symbol is now abstract for the younger generation It tries to capture an "event" - Events create – the symbol was passed down to the younger concepts to describe it. generation, but its origin story was left behind. Historically, the "peace symbol" was designed by Examples: Gerald Holtom as the logo for the British Campaign "Revolution" as a concept according to Marx for "Nuclear Disarmament". The symbol is a super- is different from that of People Power I's (EDSA I) imposition of the semaphore signals (look at the "revolution," given that the inspiration of the stickman with the flags below – these are examples former is class struggle, while the inspiration of the of semaphore signals) for the letter’s "N" and "D", latter is political (the presence of a dictator in a taken to stand for "nuclear disarmament". democratic society). Also, while Marx perceived the revolution to be bloody, People Power I is known in world history as the first "bloodless revolution. "Alienation" according to… Durkheim pertains to the low degree of integration of people in a given society brought upon by the increase in population, which resulted in the increasing division of labor that affected peoples' solidarity and morality. Marx pertains to the process whereby the worker is made to feel foreign to the products of There was a campaign against the use of nuclear their labor. weapons during the Cold War – remember your history: the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and Weber pertains to the effect of the other allied nations) and the Western Bloc (US, establishment of a bureaucracy, which created UK, and other allied nations) had entered into a the iron cage. "Nuclear Arms Race" – they developed nuclear weapons to flex their powers and threaten each CHARACTERISTICS OF A CONCEPT other. PRECISE A concept should be precise, not an ambiguous The aforesaid is a perfect example of a concept definition of a given phenomenon. (such as the peace symbol) becoming abstract because its original meaning was tied only to Example: "Overseas Filipino Worker" as a concept those generations living during the Cold War. At is defined as "a person from the Philippines who is present, our generation may attribute the peace living and working in another country, typically on symbol to the symbol of the hippies (or even a temporary basis." Hence, a Filipino student who j3j3m0ns here in the Philippines). is living abroad, but who is not working there is NOT an OFW based on the aforesaid definition. CONSTANTLY DEVELOPED A concept is constantly developed because it must UNIFORM capture and measure a changing reality. A concept should be uniform in terms of usage. All who make use of the concept in a similar context Example: The concept of "SALVAGE" in the should have a similar definition and understanding Philippines. Originally, the word "salvage" means of the concept. "to retrieve". However, during the term of the late President Marcos, the term evolved – salvage Example: When we talk about "Social Facts" pertains to the victims of EJK because the bodies of during our discussions on Emile Durkheim as a these victims are often found dumped in areas such classical sociological theorist, it is understood that as rivers or rice fields. Originally, a person who can "Social Facts" in this context pertain to those find a dead body would call others for help to "external to and coercive of the individual" – the "salvage" the body. Later, the term was associated definition of the said concept is uniformed. with the murdered bodies to the point that when  II. FOUR TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE one mentions "salvage", it means someone was killed! Does it capture the changing reality? Of course! It captured the reality that during the administration of Marcos, many were extrajudicially killed to the point that people had ascribed the concept of "salvage" to someone who was murdered. OPERATIONALLY DEFINED A concept must be operationally defined when used in actual studies. Example: In conducting research, there are instances that we make use of a concept but limit its definition due to some issues like time and budget WHAT IS EMPIRICAL & EVALUATIVE? constraints. So, for example, I am conducting a EMPIRICAL study on OFWs. However, an "Overseas Filipino Worker" as a concept is defined as "a person from To say that something is "empirical," it must be the Philippines who is living and working in based on, concerned with, or verifiable by another country, typically on a temporary basis." I observation or experience rather than theory or have time and budget limitations! I cannot pure logic. interview all OFWs falling under the aforesaid broad definition. Hence, I will make a narrower Examples: definition of an OFW as "a person from the Empirical research is research using Philippines who is currently working in Saudi empirical evidence. It is also a way of gaining Arabia as a Domestic Worker for at least one year." knowledge through direct and indirect observation This is an example of an "operationally defined or experience. concept" – meaning the definition is only operative in the context of the research. Empirical evidence is the information received through the senses, particularly by THEORETICAL STATEMENT observation and documentation of patterns and Are statements that express connections and behavior through research or experimentation. interconnectedness of concepts which now Empirical evidence can be analyzed quantitatively expresses explanations. or qualitatively. Combining concepts to create theories. EVALUATIVE Examples: To say that something is "evaluative," it must be The DOL (Division of Labor) has led to the based on or related to an assessment to form an difference between men and women in terms of idea of the value of something. work experience. These differences resulted in the To evaluate is defined as "to judge" the value or lack of collective conscience that binds people worth of someone or something. together, which created "anomie". In evaluating, you exercise subjectivity. The bourgeoisie's private ownership of the NOTE: When you exercise objectivity, your means of production is the material basis of the evaluation should not be influenced by personal exploitation and alienation of the proletariat. feelings or opinions in considering and representing facts. On the other hand, when you exercise subjectivity, your evaluation is based on or is influenced by your personal feelings, tastes, or opinions. Examples: Supervisors exercise subjectivity in making evaluative judgments of their work. The religious exercise subjectivity in applying their faith to their everyday lives – is my action acceptable or unacceptable according to the teachings of the Bible?  It is empirical for it employs the use of observation WHAT ARE THE FOUR TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE? or experience, but it is not evaluative given that it IDEOLOGY necessitates objectivity. A set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group of persons, especially as held for Example: Sociological theories are under the reasons that are not purely epistemic; although it realm of science because it requires empiricism to applies knowledge and science, it is value-laden (it be proved or disproved (though qualitative, allows the exercise of subjectivity). quantitative, or experimental research), and it Ideology is empirical (applies knowledge and necessitates the application of objectivity in the science) and evaluative (allows the exercise of conduct of empiricism. subjectivity). III. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY (Mills & Turner) Example: Democracy, a system where political SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY leaders and representatives are elected by the A statement or a series of statements that uses people, is an example of a political ideology. concepts in understanding and explaining the Democracy as a political system employs the use of following: knowledge and science, but it also requires evaluation - is this the best system in a given Classical Sociological Theories society? Societies, their structures, features, and processes; RELIGION Historical development of societies and the The belief in and worship of superhuman process of social change; controlling power, especially a personal God or Varieties of men and women produced by gods. different societies, their capacities and problems; A "unified system of beliefs and practices relative to and sacred things" (Durkheim, 1915). Religion is not empirical (it may not be proved or Contemporary Sociological Theories disproved by science), but it is evaluative (allows Specific social phenomena, processes, social the exercise of subjectivity). problems, actions, and behavior. Example: It is utterly foolish to ask a highly CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF A religious person for proof of his God's existence SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY (Ritzer) given that religion, to begin with, does not operate A theory must have: on the laws of science (proving or disproving A wide range of application through the use of facts or evidence). Deals with centrally important issues Have withstood the test of time LOGICS It is the systematic study of valid rules of Products of empirical research and its inference, i.e., the relations that lead to the consequent development of concepts and acceptance of one proposition (the conclusion) explanations. based on a set of other propositions (premises). It is not empirical (it is philosophical), and it is not IV. CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIOLOGICAL evaluative (it exercises objectivity). THEORIES CLASSICAL, CONTEMPORARY, POST- Example: In negation, putting the word "not" or MODERN "~" in a statement changes its meaning to the Theories are differentiated by the periods by which opposite: they were developed. P: President Duterte is reasonable. 1.1 CLASSICAL (19th Century) ~P: President Duterte is NOT reasonable. Early Industrial and Modern Society (Bureaucratized Society) NOTE: There is an objective answer in logic, but it Theorists: Durkheim, Marx, Weber does not require the application of empiricism to derive the answer, it only necessitates "common 1.2 CONTEMPORARY (20th Century) sense." Industrial and Modern Society (Contemporary Modern Society) SCIENCE Theories: Structural Functionalism, Conflict It is a systematic enterprise that builds and Theory, Symbolic Interactionism, Phenomenology, organizes knowledge in the form of testable Rational Choice Theory, Feminism explanations and predictions about the universe.  CONSERVATIVES 1.3 POST-STRUCTURALISM AND POST- The goal is to return to the OLD-WORLD ORDER MODERNISM (Late 20th to 21st Century) and they do not want to have a change Post-Industrial, Post-Modern Society Against wars, democracy, and industrialism Modernity Theorists: Giddens, Ritzer, Beck Post-Structural and Post-Modern Theorists: De LIBERALS Saussure, Derrida, Barthes, Foucault, McLuhan, Pro-democracy and Industrialism (Comte) and Baudrillard this are between the conservative and radical who do not want to have a change or want a change MACROSOCIOLOGICAL AND MICROSOCIOLOGICAL RADICALS Ritzer's level of Social Analysis Pro-democracy, but it must be practiced in all aspects of life 2.1 MACRO-OBJECTIVE Pre-industrialism, but against capitalism (pro- Involves large-scale material realities. socialism) and they want a change 2.2 MICRO-OBJECTIVE RADICALS (Enlightenment Thinkers) Involves small-scale objective entities. Influenced by Newton’s scientific method Application of Scientific Method in studying man 2.3 MACRO-SUBJECTIVE and society Encompasses large-scale nonmaterial phenomena. The “social science” mind uses empirical observation and reason in studying man and 2.4 MICRO-SUBJECTIVE society. Concerned with small-scale mental processes. 3.2 19TH CENTURY 3.2.1 EARLY SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS Comte Martineau NODAL POINTS IN THE HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES 3.1 BEFORE THE 19TH CENTURY 3.1.1 Development from Philosophy to Social Science Ancient Greeks; Middle Ages; Renaissance 3.1.2 Enlightenment French Revolution; Industrial Revolution NOTE: These historical events paved the way for the development and later creation of Sociology 3.1.3 Radical and Conservative Origins of Sociology Enlightenment Radical Philosophers: Rousseau, Montesquieu, and other French Revolutionaries Religious Conservatives: De Bonald, de Maistre, and other Religious Conservatives  Lecture 3: Review on Stages of Development PART 1. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF move their plantings from place to place. Unlike SOCIETIES: farmers, horticulturalists do not irrigate their fields, HUNTING AND GATHERING nor do they fertilize them. The only type of society until about 12,000 years Most horticultural societies use sticks and hoes. No ago concept of plows, mechanized tractors, or even Primitive weapons carts pulled by animals. 25-40 people in a group Nomadic (Someone who lives by traveling from Example: Yanomami of the Amazon Rainforest place to place, tribes follow the animals they hunt and carrying tents with them. The Yanomami men are horticulturists. They Family-centered employ shifting cultivation to avoid overused areas. Specialized limited to age and sex; little to none The Yanomami women grow plantains, and social inequality cassava as main crops along with sweet potato, sugar cane, corn and mangoes in garden plots for as Examples: Bushmen of Southwestern Africa, long as the lands remain fertile. Aborigines of Australia, Sentinelese of India HORTICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PASTORAL From about 12,000 years ago, with decreasing A nomadic group of people who travel with a herd numbers after about 3000 BCE of domesticated animals, which they rely on for Horticultural societies use hand tools for food. cultivating plants Desert areas or northern climates where it's Pastoral societies are based on the domestication of difficult to grow crops; Since they couldn't grow animals crops to help them survive, they relied on the meat and dairy from their herds. Horticulturalists from small permanent settlements while pastoralists started as nomadic The types of livestock used in pastoral societies are all herding herbivores, such as sheep, buffalo, Family-centered; religious system begins to camels, reindeer, goats, or cattle. develop Moderate specialization Example: Maasai of East Africa Increased social inequality Examples: Middle Eastern Societies about 5000 BCE, Yanomamo in South America (Horticulturalist), Igorot of Benguet [Ibaloi (also Ibaloy and Nabaloi)], and Kalanguya; Maasai of East Africa (Pastoral) HORTICULTURE A type of food production where food is grown using very simple tools. HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES Do not permanently plant or care for a field. Unlike the farmers in my community, who plant the same crop in the same field every year, horticulturalists  AGRARIAN SOCIETIES 6. ESTABLISHMENT OF A RELIGIOUS From about 5,000 years ago, with large but SYSTEM decreasing numbers today A society's leader is often serving as a "god- Animal-drawn plow king" Millions of people "God-King" provided a unifying factor People Settled Permanently Common set of values, a specific style of Family loses significance as distinct religious, worship, temples as the focus of religious political, and economic systems emerge worship- all served to solidify not only the Extensive specialization cultural consciousness of the society and its Increased social inequality traditions, but also the ruler's power and legitimacy. Examples: Early Agrarian: Cradles of Civilization and Late Agrarian: Medieval Europe DYNASTY (until before French revolution) A series of rulers of a country who all belong to the same family. The Seljuk dynasty of Syria was founded in 1094. A dynasty is a period of CIVILIZATION time during which a country is ruled by An advanced state of human society containing members of the same family. highly developed forms of government, culture, industry, and common social norms. CRADLES OF CIVILIZATION Examples: Mesopotamian Civilization, Egyptian Civilization, Ancient China (Huang Ho) Civilization and Indus Valley Civilization CRADLES OF CIVILIZATION: KEY FEATURES 1. CONTROL OVER RIVERS Nile River (Egypt) Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (Mesopotamia - Iraq) Indus River (South Asia - India) Huang Ho and Yangtze Rivers (China) 7. HIGH DIVISION OF LABOR 2. CENTRALIZATION A large, disciplined and technically Development of irrigation and its capacity to knowledgeable labor force was needed to build harness the waters of rivers paved way for an efficient system for controlling flood waters centralization (movement of people to City (water from the river). States). Academics developed Calendars for keeping track of seasonal cycles, especially the 3. HIGH POPULATION occurrence of floods. Centralization created large settlements Traders emerged given the surplus in food because people tend to move from the supplies, and exchange was later standardized outskirts (rural or undeveloped areas) to the through the creation of a monetary system. developed City States. 3.1 EARLY AGRARIAN 4. COORDINATION OF THE POPULATION Unlike many of these other civilizations, the Because of the increasing population, Greek civilization did not develop in a river coordination over the population became valley, but it was surrounded by water. Ancient necessary. Greece had the Mediterranean Sea to the south, Coordination among large populations require the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Aegean Sea to communication and record- keeping, thus the the east. creation of writing and number systems. Persian Empire (first Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great) was the world's first 5. CONTROL OVER THE POPULATION superpower. It united under one government Because of the increasing population, exercise three important sites of early human civilization of control over the population became in the ancient world: Mesopotamia, Egypt's Nile necessary, thus the establishment of a "ruler" Valley and India's Indus Valley. and the creation of formal or written laws.  ENLIGHTENMENT (16TH TO 18TH C.E) 3.2 LATE AGRARIAN Enlightenment emerged out of a European MIDDLE AGES (5TH TO 15TH C.E) intellectual and scholarly movement known as In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Renaissance humanism and was also preceded by Medieval Period or Dark Ages lasted from the 5th the Scientific Revolution. to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the The Enlightenment included a range of ideas Western Roman Empire and merged into the centered on the sovereignty of reason and the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The term evidence of the senses as the primary sources of 'Dark Age' was used by the Italian scholar Petrarch knowledge and advanced ideals such as liberty, in the 1330s to describe the decline in Economy, progress, toleration, fraternity, constitutional Culture, and Demography following the collapse of government and separation of church and state. In the Western Roman Empire. The term employs France, the central doctrines of the Enlightenment traditional light-versus-darkness imagery to philosophers were individual liberty and religious contrast the era's "darkness" (lack of records) with tolerance, in opposition to monarchy and the fixed earlier Greek and Roman Civilizations (may war) dogmas of the Church. The Enlightenment was and later Renaissance and Enlightenment periods marked by an emphasis on the scientific method. of "light" (abundance of records). END OF ENLIGHTENMENT: FRENCH REVOLUTION (1787-1799) Most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment. The French Revolution was a period of time in France when the people overthrew the monarchy and took control of the government, why? First of the general causes was the social structure of the West. The feudal regime had been weakened step-by-step and had already disappeared in parts of Europe. The increasingly numerous and prosperous elite of wealthy commoners’ merchants, manufacturers, and professionals, often called the bourgeoisie aspired to political power in those countries where it did not already possess it. RENAISSANCE (15TH TO 16TH C.E) Renaissance was a period in European history The peasants, many of whom owned land, marking the transition from the Middle Ages to had attained an improved standard of living and Modernity. - The intellectual basis of the education and wanted to get rid of feudalism so Renaissance was its version of humanism, - "Man as to acquire the full rights of landowners and to is the measure of all things." This new thinking be free to increase their holdings. became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science and literature. Renaissance contributed to From about 1730, higher standards of living educational reforms, development of the customs had reduced the mortality rate among adults and conventions of diplomacy, and in science to an considerably -> increase in the population of increased reliance on observation and inductive Europe -> A larger demand for food and reasoning. consumer goods -> Economic crises! To resolve the crises, the monarch imposed more burdensome taxes to the commoners (nobles and the church were tax exempt!) Years later as the situation of the commoners became more and more desperate riots and revolts became frequent.  INVENTIONS INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Inventors devised inventions that would speed up The Industrial Revolution marked a period of and improve production of goods. development in the latter half of the 18th century that transformed largely rural, agrarian societies INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES in Europe into industrialized, urban ones. A society driven by the use of technology to enable Massive scale replacement of human power and mass production, supporting a large population animal power with the power of machines. with a high capacity for division of labor From about 1750 to the present CHANGES IN THE PRODUCTION OF GOODS: Advanced sources of energy Handmade goods IDEAS Marxists - those who were inspired by Marx's theories and ideologies. Weber spent his time Weber thought this conclusion was naïve. He battling with the ghost of Marx. opposed Marx by claiming that ideas can be a motivating force to change the material According to Weber, Marxism is a practical conditions. He proved this through his writing example of an IDEAL TYPE CONSTRUCTION and The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. of confusion between spheres of "being" and "should be." (We will discuss Ideal Type IDEAS (Religious Ideas of the Calvinists) Construction later). => MATERIAL CONDITIONS (Capitalism RELIGION AND CAPITALISM MOVEMENT TOWARDS RATIONALITY For Weber, the ethos or "spirit" of capitalism was a According to Weber, there is a movement of society particular orientation toward economic life that from a TRADITIONAL WORLDVIEW to a incorporates a sense of duty or responsibility. RATIONAL WORLDVIEW. The "spirit" urged social actors to work hard, remain frugal, and to make money for its own sake.  Weber argued that the "spirit" was related to the With everyone's fate set before birth, Calvinists spread of Protestantism in Western Europe. In believed that they could do nothing to change their particular, Weber highlighted the importance destiny; thus, some were hopeful of spiritual Martin Luther's idea of "the calling" and John salvation while others feared eternal damnation Calvin's doctrine of "predestination" in developing To assure salvation, Calvinists employed the Protestant work ethic that eventually rationality, discipline, and hard work to their tasks: transformed itself into the animating spirit of capitalism. Wealthy - Accepted by God Industrial capitalism is the legacy of - Splurging/Spending = sinful Calvinism. Poverty DON’T FORGET TO WATCH THIS VIDEOS: - Sign of rejection by God ON PROTESTANTISM: WATCH: The Protestant Reformation: Crash Course Calvinists did not share their wealth w/ others European History #6 because it increases their chances for salvation. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0eO0pPrGi6o Investing and reinvesting their profits = more success = acceptance by God. ON CALVINISM: Calvinist thinking built the foundation of WATCH: Reformation and Consequences: Crash capitalism, using the wealth to create more wealth, Course European History #7 saving money and eagerly accepting new https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PbBDP1Elbbg technology. Later generations of Calvinists were less religious, their success seeking and personal disciplined remained, and their RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF CAPITALISM ETHIC became their WORK ETHIC. NOTE: Luther was against the INDULGENCE and the Capitalism disenchanted religion, with wealth Priests being the BIBLE INTERPRETERS. being valued for its own sake. ON INDULGENCE: Luther was against the Catholic's idea of "Indulgence" money-making scheme of the Church. He Example: Accounting Early Calvinists kept a gained many supporters, especially the poor public because daily record of moral deeds, while later they cannot afford to buy indulgence for their deceased generations of Calvinists account to keep track of relatives. The idea that Luther contradicted indulgence, of money. course, comforted them. DISENCHANTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ON PRIESTS: He called the public to read the bible SOCIETIES themselves - this made a strong impact - it made the public According to Max Weber, the industrial society is literate because the public was compelled to learn how to in the process of disenchantment. read in order to read the bible in order to have a personal direct spiritual connection with God. (Shookedt the hierarchy of the Catholic Church - diminished the relevance DISENCHANTMENT of the catholic priest; it also became dangerous since the The character of modernized, bureaucratic, public began interpreting bible verses for their own benefit: secularized Western society, where scientific e.g. Sola Scriptura - the bible verse of "be fruitful and understanding is more highly valued than belief, multiply" was used by some men to engage in polygamous and where processes are oriented toward rational marriages). goals. As opposed to traditional society where for Weber "the world remains a great enchanted NOTE: Jean Calvin of France - added garden." PREDESTINATION to Protestantism. He did so to regulate the public. RATIONALIZATION OF SOCIETY The historic change from tradition to rationality as the CALVINISM later on became more influential than dominant mode of human thought. LUTHERISM. Modern society has been "disenchanted" as scientific thinking and technology have swept away sentimental CALVINISM ties to the past. A Christian religious movement that arose from The search by the people for the OPTIMUM (most the Protestant Reformation efficient) means to a given end is shaped by rules, Calvinists approached life in a highly disciplined regulations, and larger social structures. Because of this and rational way. search, Bureaucracy and Bureaucratic organizations were created. PREDESTINATION Is Capitalism Rational? Religious doctrine of Calvinists The idea that an all-knowing and all-powerful MARX: Irrational, because it fails to meet the most basic needs God has predestined some people for salvation of most people. and others for damnation. WEBER: Yes, Industrial capitalism is the essence of rationality since capitalists pursue profit in whatever ways they can.  Lecture 14: Max Weber II REVIEW: IMPERSONAL RULES RATIONALIZATION OF SOCIETY Rules and regulations guide bureaucracy's Pertains to the historic change from tradition to operation. Bureaucrats are expected to be rationality as the dominant mode of human impersonal and objective. thought. a) The management of the office follows rules. Modern society has been "disenchanted" as b) The management of the modern office is scientific thinking and technology have swept away based upon written documents. sentimental ties to the past. With the movement towards rationalization of NOTE: Rather than face-to-face talk, bureaucracy society, people began searching for the optimum relies on formal, written memos and reports, (most efficient) means to a given end. Because of which accumulate in vast files and guide the this search, Bureaucracy and Bureaucratic operation of the organization. organizations were created. SALARIES BUREAUCRACY Bureaucrats are paid salaries. An organizational structure that is characterized by many rules, standardized processes, procedures CAREERS and requirements, number of desks, meticulous Full-time and permanent posts. division of labor and responsibility, clear Promotion is based on merits or seniority. hierarchies and professional, almost impersonal interactions between employees. An organizational model rationally designed to SOCIAL DIFFERENCE perform tasks efficiently. Clear difference among members of the bureau based on different tasks and salary grade. CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL BUREAUCRATIC ORGANIZATION PROBLEMS IN ESTABLISHING HIERARCHY BUREAUCRACY Officials with those in higher position have ALIENATION authority over those occupying lower. According to Weber, alienation is caused by the a) Office hierarchy and of levels of graded stifling effect of bureaucracy's countless rules and authority establish a firm ordered system of regulations. Modern society is a vast and growing subordination. system of rules seeking to regulate everything and b) Fixed official jurisdictional areas ordered by thereby crush the human spirit; rationalization rules or laws for administrative regulation. will reduce human beings to robots. c) There is supervision from lower offices by the higher ones. NOTE: VS MARX'S ALIENATION [According d) Office management is based on expert to Marx, alienation is caused by Economic training. Those who are put into office must Inequality (Bourgeoisie vs Proletariat)]. be based on their officially credited skills and knowledge. IRON CAGE Weber determined that people are "born inside a TECHNICAL COMPETENCE cage" - born into a life that is dictated by the Bureaucratic officials and staff have the technical rationalization of a capitalist system. competence to carry out their duties. Recruitment Bureaucracy treats people as a series of cases is based on set criteria and evaluation is rather than unique individuals. impersonal, unlike during ancient times when Working for large organizations demands highly positions are given to relatives. Assignment of specialized and often tedious routines. positions is based on MERIT. Implication: People become more insignificant due to MERITOCRACY large administrative structures. A system in which economic goods and/or political power are vested in individual people on the basis Advantage: People are freed from illogical, traditional of talent, effort, and achievement, rather than restrictions of tradition. wealth or social class. Advancement in such a system is based on performance, as measured through examination or demonstrated achievement. Disadvantage: People are dehumanized as they AUTHORITY AND TYPES OF AUTHORITY become "cogs in a machine." They are trapped inside the AUTHORITY iron cage of rationality established by the capitalist The legitimate power which one person or a group system. Instead of breaking free from the bureaucratic possesses and practices over another. machine people just want to be bigger cogs within the The element of legitimacy is vital to the notion of machine- This is the iron cage of rationality. authority and is the main means by which authority is distinguished from the more general NOTE: WHY "IRON" CAGE? According to Weber, concept of power. akin to a bird in an iron cage, human beings can never get out of bureaucracy - once a bureaucratic system is VS POWER established in society, it can never be removed and Power can be exerted by the use of force or replaced. violence. Authority, by contrast, depends on the acceptance by subordinates of the right of those SOLUTION: above them to give them orders or directives RAY OF HOPE Weber has practically no solution to the problems brought upon by bureaucracy. However, he thought Source of legitimate authority, according to Weber, is that people experiencing problems brought upon by defined by two interrelated elements: bureaucracy may be alleviated by a "Ray of Hope." Ray of Hope pertains to the hope that bureaucrats, Legitimacy - the basis of power or position. It people in the academe, researchers, scientist, etc. is the foundation of the leader's right to will -hopefully- be able to figure out ways to battle command and citizens believe that they have a the iron cage of bureaucracy. duty to obey. Examples: Administrative Apparatus - the society wide Companies with play station, lounge, sleeping authority relationship based on the enforced chambers, required days off, service incentive commands. This it he links between the leader leave, health card, gym card, and other and the masses. benefits given to employees to help them alleviate themselves of the stifling effects of NOTE: Weber identified three types of domination the bureaucratic system to them. Let me each of which have differing basis of legitimacy and a illustrate further... different administrative apparatus. These are ideal Imagine yourself, an employee who wakes up types that are set in place to permit the classification of at 5:00am, arrives to work at around 7:30am, a society based on the resemblance to one of them. works from 8:00am to 5:00pm, arrives at home around 8:00pm, brings some homework, sleeps at around 2:00am, wakes THREE TYPES OF AUTHORITY up at 5:00am... repeat. Obsession with TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY efficiency made you live like this. Now, your Legitimate authority from tradition. This is body has taken the toll because you almost justified by the belief that authority is customary always sleep for only two or three hours, you or inherent for directing the state of affairs. became sick, but thank you company for the health card benefit. Essentially, the stifling Legitimacy - custom and loyalty to the bureaucracy is killing you, but the ray of hope leaders. - the health benefit - surely made you thankful Administrative Apparatus - Officials owe to the company. obedience to the leaders issuing commands. NOTE: Weber's BUREAUCRACY is an IDEAL CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY TYPE. Although he was not necessarily an admirer The word "charisma" has a religious origin that of bureaucracy, Weber saw bureaucratization as the meant, "gift of grace". The leader's right to lead is most efficient and rational way of organizing divine by origin. They are the leaders who would human activity. He saw bureaucracy as the key somehow identify themselves with the central process in the ongoing rationalization of Western facts or problems of the people's lives. Usually, society. He also saw bureaucracy as a threat to charismatic leaders emerge in times of social individual freedoms, and the ongoing crisis. bureaucratization as leading to a "polar night of icy darkness", in which increasing rationalization of Legitimacy - Based on the leader's claim to human life traps individuals in a soulless "iron special insight and accomplishment. cage" of bureaucratic, rule-based, rational control. Administrative Apparatus - a band of faithful followers or disciples who serve at their master's immediate personal and political needs. RATIONAL-LEGAL AUTHORITY Action can mean either a basic action (one that has Based on laws that people believe to be the proper a meaning) or an advanced social action, which not manner as it is created and enforced. only has a meaning but is directed at other actors and causes action (or, perhaps, inaction). Legitimation - Based on what Weber calls as rational legal authority. TYPES OF SOCIAL ACTION Administrative Apparatus - Bureaucracy. Four major types of social action are distinguished A rational structure created and enforced by in Weber's sociology. Men may engage in goal rules for the public interest. In Bureaucracy: oriented rational-purposeful action a. People are put in position based on their (zweckrational); their rational action may be experience, and knowledge. value-oriented (wertrational); they may act from b. Obedience is expected because of the emotional or affective motivations, or finally they rules that are uniformly applied to all. may engage in traditional action. c. Personal and Official Affairs are clearly separated. RATIONAL-PURPOSEFUL ACTION d. Tasks are highly specialized This action may be rationally expedient if it is e. Authority and separation of power is very based on logical or scientific grounds. Classical clear. economic theory treats individuals as if they were rationally purposeful. According to this theory, NOTE: This is the ideal leader in bureaucratic individuals will always try to maximize their organizations. utility. NOTE: Example: If we compare two individuals who are According to Weber, what distinguishes authority trying to maximize their income over the course of from coercion, force and power on the one hand, a year, we might find that one person uses far more and leadership, persuasion and influence on the effective means to achieve this goal than the other. other hand, is legitimacy. He might cheat on his tax return, take a second job Weber's three types of authority = IDEAL TYPES! or sell drugs to workmates. We would describe the Weber wrote about "pure" types of authority. He is individuals as more purposively rational than one aware that in empirical reality, mixtures will be who acquires and keeps less money. found in the legitimation of authority". So, many examples of the following types of authority may VALUE-RATIONAL ACTION overlap. This action occurs when individuals use the effective means to achieve goals or ends that are SOCIAL ACTION THEORY defined in terms of subjective meaning (values). According to Weber, when individuals are value rational, they make commitments to certain subjective goals and adopt means that are effective in attaining these ends. Examples: A soldier laying down his life for the country. His action is not directed towards attaining specific material goal like wealth. It is for the sake of certain values like honor and SOCIAL ACTION patriotism. Social Action is an act which takes into account the Someone offered you a snatched iPhone 10 actions and reactions of individuals. for PhP. 2,000.00 only, but you decided not According to Weber, an Action is 'social' if the to buy it because doing so is against your acting individual takes account of the behavior of principles. others and is thereby oriented in its course. The basic concept was primarily developed in the AFFECTIVE ACTION non-positivist theory of Max Weber to observe how Affective action fuses mean and ends together so human behaviors relate to cause and effect in the that action becomes emotional and impulsive. social realm. For Weber, sociology is the study of Such action is the antithesis of rationality because society and behavior and must therefore look at the the actor concerned cannot make calm, heart of interaction. dispassonate assessment of the relationship The theory of social action, more than structural between the ends of action and the means that functionalist positions, accepts and assumes that supposedly exist to serve these ends. Rather the humans vary their actions according to social means themselves are emotionally fulfilling and contexts and how it will affect other people; when become ends in themselves. a potential reaction is not desirable, the action is modified accordingly.  Examples: Your inaanak is selling you a box of cookies she made to raise funds for a new phone. You know that she is not good at baking and her cookies taste like sh*t. On top of that, she is selling it to you at Ph.P. 150.00 EACH. However, since you love your inaanak, you will still buy her product. You splurged your tuition fee for a KPOP concert in Singapore because you are truly, madly, deeply in-love with one of the members of the group and you believe that attending his concerts will lead him to notice you and marry you someday! TRADITIONAL ACTION Traditional action occurs when the ends and the means of action are fixed by custom and tradition. This is an action which is guided by customs and long-standing beliefs which become second nature or habit. Example: It has been your family's tradition to prepare a lot of lucky dishes every New Year's Eve. Last December 31, 2020, your family splurged a lot of money to prepare the traditional lucky dishes... although you do not have enough money to splurge given that the pandemic led your family into a financial crisis. NOTE: ECONOMICS VS SOCIOLOGY In economics, the individual is perceived as a HOMO ECONOMICUS - a person who lives in the market. A person who maximizes profit, a person who is shaped by rational choice theory. In sociology, the individual is not removed from the group. The problem with economics is that all its assumptions are based on the individual action - one of the major critiques in economics is the theory of individual rationality. Example: A padre de pamilia who is in the marketplace decides, not only for his needs, but the needs of the family - needs of the wife, the daughter...etc. Therefore, an individual who is no longer thinking of himself is no longer governed by individual rationality (because you consider others in the equation - your commitments to other people).  Lecture 15: Max Weber III VERSTEHENDE SOZIOLOGIE METHODENSTREIT (INTERPRETIVE SOCIOLOGY) Weber's thinking on Sociology was profoundly The verstehen approach was developed by late shaped by a series of intellectual debates called 19th-century sociologists Max Weber and Wilhelm Methodenstreit raging in Germany during his Dilthey, who saw the flaws in trying to research a time. The most important of these was over the culture in the same way natural scientists issue of the relationship between history and researched the natural world. Before Weber and science. Dilthey, sociology had been founded with a At the poles on this debate were those (the positivist perspective. Positivists believed that you positivists) who thought that history was could look at society and identify social facts and composed of general (NOMOTHETIC) laws and specific truths similar to how a biologist observes those (the subjectivists/interpretivists) who the structure of a living being. Much like a biologist reduced history to idiosyncratic (IDIOGRAPHIC) could point to a biological process as being actions and events). predictable and consistent, positivists argued that society and cultures operated with similar laws that NOMOTHETIC VS IDIOGRAPHIC could be uncovered through testing theories. NOMOTHETIC M0ving away from this idea, Weber and his anti- The nomothetic approach involves trying to make positivist colleagues saw another route to take. generalizations about the world and understand They were critical of relying too heavily on large-scale social patterns. quantitative data, as we refer to it today, such as It seeks to establish patterns, commonalities, laws, survey results and statistics. Anti-positivists saw etc. the benefits of qualitative data, including interviews With a nomothetic approach, one conducts careful with individuals and smaller groups and and systemic observation and experimentation to experiencing a subculture directly. They hoped to derive results that can be applied more broadly better understand the meaning within a culture outside the realm of study. rather than assuming that any one set of laws and values could apply to all of human experience. IDIOGRAPHIC Anti-positivists were also concerned that they were The idiographic approach involves trying to at risk of having their own cultural biases affect uncover a great deal of detailed information about their research and so aimed to pay particular a narrower subject of study. attention to this challenge. Even if direct experience It stresses the distinctive and qualitative aspects of with a group of people meant running the risk of a a phenomenon. cultural bias, anti-positivists saw greater value in An idiographic approach is one that is specifically looking at the subject of research with empathy focused on a particular case, place, or rather than viewing it as an object of purely phenomenon. This approach is designed to derive scientific study. meanings particular to the research target, and it Quantitative data could be counted and measured, is not necessarily designed for extrapolating but it did not dig very deeply into the real generalizations. experiences and daily life of actual human beings. Verstehen was attempting to provide an answer to this limitation. NOMOTHETIC VS IDIOGRAPHIC NOTE: The Nomothetic and Idiographic debate stems VERSTEHEN from the thought that history can be studied Verstehen is a German term that means to nomothetically. So, let me give history as an example in understand, perceive, know, and comprehend the applying both concepts. nature and significance of a phenomenon. In Sociology, Verstehen refers to understanding the NOMOTHETIC: Using the nomothetic approach in meaning of action from the actor's point of view. It looking at history, positivists believed that history was is entering into the shoes of the other, and adopting composed of general (nomothetic laws). Hence, by this research stance requires treating the actor as a studying for example the history of how societies came subject, rather than an object of observations. It to be, positivists will examine different societies with also implies that unlike objects in the natural world, the aim of looking at patterns in order to establish laws human actors are not simply the product of the and generalizations on how societies came to be. pulls and pushes of external forces. Individuals are seen to create the world by organizing their own IDIOGRAPHIC: Using the idiographic approach in understanding of it and giving it meaning. To do looking at history, interpretivists will look at a research on actors without considering the particular society - they will focus on examining the meanings they attribute to their actions or actions and events that occurred to that specific society environment is to treat them like objects. in order to understand how that society came to be. Verstehen is now seen as a concept and a method central to a rejection of positivist social science. POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM reality' in very different ways and have their own, Positivism and Interpretivism are the two basic often very different, reasons for acting in the world, approaches to research methods in Sociology. thus scientific methods are not appropriate. Positivist prefer scientific quantitative methods, An Interpretivist approach to social research would while Interpretivists prefer humanistic qualitative be much more qualitative, using methods such as methods. unstructured interviews or participant observation. Positivists believe society shapes the individual and Interpretivists actually criticize 'scientific sociology' use quantitative methods, interpretivists believe (Positivism) because many of the statistics it relies individuals shape society and use qualitative on are themselves socially constructed. methods. Interpretivists argue that in order to understand human action we need to achieve VERSTEHEN or empathetic understanding – we need to see the world through the eyes of the actors doing the acting. In the context of studying history, the positivists thought that history could be studied the way we do with natural sciences. On the other hand, the interpretivists were on the opposite spectrum. For example, a nomothetic thinker would generalize about social revolutions, whereas an idiographic analyst would focus on the specific events leading up to a particular revolution. Weber rejected both extreme views. In Weber's view, history is composed of unique empirical events; there can be no generalizations at the empirical level. Hence, Sociologists should separate the Empirical World from the Conceptual Universe that they construct. Concepts never completely capture the POSITIVISM empirical world, but they can be used as Positivists see society as shaping the individual and heuristic tools for gaining a better believe that 'social facts' shape individual action. understanding of reality. With concepts, Positivists prefer quantitative methods such as Sociologists can develop generalizations, but social surveys, structured questionnaires and these generalizations are not history and must official statistics because these have good reliability not be confused with empirical reality. and representativeness. According to Weber, the responsibility of The positivist tradition stresses the importance of Sociologists is to develop Ideal Types which doing quantitative research such as large-scale shall serve as heuristic tools. surveys in order to get an overview of society as a whole and to uncover social trends, such as the CAUSALITY relationship between educational achievement and The probability that an event will be followed or social class. This type of sociology is more accompanied by another event. interested in trends and patterns rather than According to Weber, it was not enough to look for individuals. historical constants, repetitions, analogies, and Positivists also believe that sociology can and parallels, as many historians are content to do. should use the same methods and approaches to Instead, the researcher has to look at the reason for, study the social world that "natural" sciences such as well as the meanings of, historical changes. as biology and physics use to investigate the NOTE: Weber has always attuned himself to the physical world. By adopting "scientific" techniques interrelationships of economy, society, polity, sociologists should be able, eventually, to uncover organization, social stratification, religion, etc. the laws that govern societies just as scientists have Thus, he operates at a Multicausal Approach. discovered the laws that govern the physical world. In positivist research, sociologists tend to look for Example: The Protestant Ethic was one of the relationships, or 'correlations' between two or more causal factors in the rise of the modern spirit of variables. This is known as the comparative capitalism. However, the idea of capitalism could method. not have risen solely as a result of the Protestant Reformation; other factors could have led to the rise INTERPRETIVISM of capitalism. Interpretivists, or anti-positivists argue that individuals are not just puppets who react to Critical to Weber's thinking on causality is his belief external social forces as Positivists believe. that because we can have a special understanding of According to Interpretivists individuals are social life (verstehen), the causal knowledge of the intricate and complex and different people social sciences is different from the causal experience and understand the same ‘objective knowledge of the natural sciences.  Action is identifiable by reference to valuations and "Democracy" is another example of an ideal meanings. For this reason, our criteria for causal type. In democracy, the supreme power is explanation have a unique kind of satisfaction in vested in the people and is exercised by them the historical explanation of such an entity. Thus, directly or indirectly through a system of the causal knowledge of the social scientist is representation - living in a democratic different from the causal knowledge of the natural country, do you agree with this definition? Is scientist. Hence, Weber took the middle ground the definition the reality in the case of the between the nomothetic vs idiographic debate. He Philippines? calls this as Adequate Causation. The use of the word IDEAL should not be construed ADEQUATE CAUSATION to mean that the concept being described is in any Adequate causation adopts the view that the best we sense the best of all possible worlds. Again, Ideal is can do in sociology is make Probabilistic not equal to #GOALS! Ideal type need not be the Statements about the relationship between social goal. It need not be positive or correct! It can be phenomena - "if X occurs, then it is probable that Y negative or even morally repugnant! will occur." Basically, the goal is to estimate the degree to which a certain effect is favored by certain Example: The IDEAL or UTOPIAN society of the conditions. Germans during Hitler's rule necessitates the absence of the Jews in society - hence, they IDEAL TYPE CONSTRUCTION exterminated the Jews. Although this was Ideal type is a concept constructed by a social Germany's IDEAL society, such was definitely scientist, on the basis of his or her theoretical morally repugnant! orientation, to capture the essential features of some social phenomenon. Ideal types are also not developed once and for all. It is a heuristic device, a measuring rod, a yardstick- Since society is constantly changing, it is necessary its function is the comparison with empirical reality to develop new typologies to fit the changing reality. in order to establish its divergences or similarities, to describe them with the most unambiguously Example: Our concept of an ideal family is intelligible concepts, and to understand and explain evolving. Before, our ideal family consists of a them causally. father, a mother, and a child – now, an ideal family can consist of two fathers, two mothers, or even pets Examples: as children. Weber's concept of "bureaucracy" is an ideal type. In answering how good or bad the TWO TYPES OF VERSTEHEN bureaucracy is in PUP is, compare Weber's EMPIRICAL (DIRECT OBSERVATIONAL) conception of bureaucracy (its VERSTEHEN characteristics) to PUP's bureaucracy. Then, This type of verstehen constitutes the use of you will be able to come up with an answer. outward behavior and facial expression to For Weber, Marx's conception of a Socialist understand what is going on with the actor. Society as the ideal society, a utopia, is a Basically, this type of understanding is based on perfect example of an ideal type. what the observer observes. NOTE: Ideal types are not the product of the whim Example: During the conduct of your interview, or fancy of a social scientist. Ideal types are logically you observed that your participant is crying and her constructed concepts. In order to produce ideal hands are shaking while narrating how she was types, researchers had first to immerse themselves molested by an older relative when she was 7 years in historical reality (verstehen) and then derive the old. Based on your participant's facial expression types from that reality. and behavior, you understand that the experience that she is narrating made her shake and cry. Although ideal types are to be derived from the real world, they are not to be mirror images of the world. EXPLANATORY VERSTEHEN Rather, they are one-sided exaggerations of the This type of verstehen aims not only to use what is essence of what goes on in the real world. In directly observable in order to understand, but to Weber's view, the more exaggerated the ideal type, recognize the context in which the action belongs. the more useful it will be for historical research. Example of Explanatory Verstehen: Let's go Examples: back to the crying and shaking participant: During Going back to Weber's concept of the conduct of your interview, you observed that bureaucracy. Although his bureaucracy is an your participant is crying and her hands are shaking ideal type, it definitely is not a “mirror image" while narrating how she was molested by an older of the world. Take for example bureaucracy in relative when she was 7 years old. Based on your the Philippines - many offices hire employees participant's facial expression and behaviour, you based on friendship and blood, not based on understand that the experience that she is narrating credentials or merits. made her shake and cry.  Applying explanatory verstehen, you have to NOTE: Marx would disagree on this view because recognize the context to which the action belongs. he believes that fact and value are intertwined - So, why is your participant crying and shaking? dialectically interrelated. Because she is recalling a painful experience of her being molested when she was a child. VALUES AND RESEARCH According to Weber, the principle of Explanatory verstehen employs hermeneutics. Werturteilsfreiheit must guide social science. This requires that the conclusions of research be HERMENEUTICS restricted to factual ones, excluding practical The interpretation and understanding of evaluations and policy recommendations that go social events through analysis of their beyond the identification of effective means. meanings for the human participants in the Sociologists conducting research should employ the events. regular procedures of scientific investigation, such The central principle of hermeneutics is that it as accurate observation and systematic is only possible to know the meaning of an act comparison. Values should be restricted to the time or statement within the context of the before social research begins - values shape the discourse or world view from which it selection of what we choose to study, but objectivity originates. should govern during the conduct of the research. Context is critical to comprehension; an action or event that carries substantial weight to one person or culture may be viewed as meaningless or entirely different to another. Example: Putting a piece of paper into a box might be considered a meaningless act unless it is put into the context of democratic elections (the act of putting a ballot paper into a box). WERTURTEILSFREIHEIT (VALUE-FREE SOCIOLOGY) Translates to "freedom of judgment" or "value freedom" or "value free." Weber claims that Sociology should be free of biases. While Weber was inspired by Kant who argued that "the methods of the natural sciences give us true knowledge about the external phenomenal world - the world we experience through our senses" Weber also begged to differ from Kant. Weber states that while sociology must be concerned with empirical analysis of society and history, the method of sociology would have to be different from that of the natural sciences. As gleaned from our discussions on Methodenstreit, you can see that Weber took a middle ground stance - he aimed to merge both a positivist and an interpretivist approach. VALUES AND TEACHING Weber was most clear about the need for teachers to control their personal values in the classroom. Weber was opposed to those teachers that preached their evaluations on ultimate questions in the name of science in lecture halls – a crowed watching a public speaker has chosen to be there and can leave at any time, but a student has little to no choice but to listen to their professor's value- laden positions. Weber added that although teachers may be tempted to insert values because they make a course more interesting, teachers should be wary of employing values, because such will weaken the students' taste for sober empirical analysis.