SSPE-111 Lessons 1-2 on Gender and Sexuality PDF

Lesson I – INTRODUCTION A. Gender and Sexuality as a Social Reality [Reference: Peralta, E. (2019). A course module for Gender and society : A human ecological approach. Rex Book Store.] Introduction What does it mean to be male or female, to be feminine or masculine, or to be a man or...

Lesson I – INTRODUCTION A. Gender and Sexuality as a Social Reality [Reference: Peralta, E. (2019). A course module for Gender and society : A human ecological approach. Rex Book Store.] Introduction What does it mean to be male or female, to be feminine or masculine, or to be a man or a woman? The human mind and body are so complex that, to answer this question, we must trace our journey from the moment we were born and revisit the journey humans have across the lifespan. The first thing you need to understand is the complexities of defining and differentiating sex, gender, and sexuality. Having a clear grasp of these concepts is crucial since we will be using these terms repeatedly in succeeding discussions. Likewise, there are nuances in the meanings of these terms, which have implications for the context in which we can appropriately use them. Moreover, as we start our discussion of gender and sexuality as social realities, we also want to understand how a person's gender is expressed from birth to adulthood. Our ultimate goal is to foster understanding of the diversity of how humans experience and express their sexuality. SEX Sex is the biological dimension of your gender and sexuality. Also referred to as biological sex or physical sex, the term generally pertains to your identity depending on your sexual anatomy and physiology—the parts of your body that are relevant to reproduction and the function of these parts. Sex is typically determined by examining your genitals—these are external organs associated with reproduction—the process or the ability to create offspring. Among humans, sex is often assigned at birth. If, at birth, a child is observed to have a penis and testicles, the child is categorized as male. If, on the other hand, a child is observed to have a vagina, the child is categorized as female. However, there are cases when the baby's genitals appear to be a conglomerate of male and female organs, such that it may be difficult to classify the baby's sex without further examination. In the past, this condition was referred to as hermaphroditism (from Hermes, a male Greek god, and Aphrodite, a female Greek goddess). In modern times, the term intersexuality is used to refer to this phenomenon. Hermaphroditism or intersexuality is a naturally occurring variation in humans and animals (1 in 1,500 births) according to the American Psychological Association (APA) (2006). Since it may be difficult to distinguish biological sex by merely examining the genitals, other biological markers are used. For instance, your chromosomes—protein 1 structures that contain your genetic materials—are also used to determine sex. There are specific chromosomes referred to as sex chromosomes, which mark a person's biological sex. An individual with a set of XY sex chromosomes is said to be male, while an individual with a set of XX sex chromosomes is said to be female. The level of some hormones—chemicals in our body responsible for sustaining bodily processes—are also used as markers. For example, human males tend to have higher levels of testosterone, which is associated with sex drive and aggression. On the other hand, human females tend to have higher levels of estrogen and progesterone, which are associated with lactation, menstruation, and other female reproductive functions. GENDER Humans are meaning-making organisms. Our ability for higher-order thinking and our tendency to create social norms allow us to attach social and cultural meanings to things, including our sex. For example, males are typically expected to be masculine, and females are expected to be feminine. Once parents are aware of their child's sex (male or female) during birth or through prenatal procedures such as ultrasound, they automatically attach social and cultural meanings to their child's sex. In doing so, they already set expectations regarding how their child should behave and how they should treat their child. This social dimension of one's sexuality is referred to as gender. There are many ways through which gender is manifested. As soon as a new baby arrives in the family, adults surrounding the baby manifest their social interpretation of the baby's sex by the colors assigned to the baby. For example, it is common for families to buy blue apparel and toys when the baby is male, as the color blue is associated with boyhood. Conversely, female babies are often assigned the color pink, so families buy clothes and toys that are pink because the color is associated with girlhood. Remarkably, the moment a baby is born, the name, toys, and apparel are picked by parents and relatives based on their interpretation of the baby's sex. Throughout childhood and adolescence, this assignment becomes more complex as the expectations go beyond the kind of clothes worn, but also in terms of how the person must or must not behave. There is a set of behaviors that all female individuals must follow, and the same applies to male individuals. All are expected to stick to these behaviors that are aligned with their biological sex. This phenomenon of determining the normality of a behavior based on whether it conforms or not to the expectations relative to one's biological sex is referred to as heteronormativity. In Filipino culture, girls are expected to have certain characteristics of being gentle, caring, and loving, while boys are encouraged to be strong, rough, and assertive. These expectations also extend to how men and women are expected to behave, the college courses they take, and the jobs they apply to. However, there are people who do not follow culturally accepted standards of masculinity and femininity, like girls not wanting to wear dresses and boys not wanting to play rough sports. This is a natural variation of human gender expression. Social and cultural practices change over time. Just 60 years ago, women could not 2 wear pants without social disapproval, and now wearing pants is already an accepted fashion trend among people of different genders. How we express our gender is largely based on our social and cultural setting. Most are comfortable with their sex and gender; men who are masculine and women who are feminine. Each culture also has different standards on how to be a man and a woman and how they should present themselves according to their sex and gender. GENDER IDENTITY One important aspect of our gender is our sense of who we are: Do we see and experience ourselves as a man, a woman, or neither? This refers to our gender identity. Typically, males are comfortable identifying as men, and females are comfortable identifying as women. However, there are cases where a person's biological sex does not align with their gender identity. People with this experience are referred to as transgender, such as a male who does not feel comfortable identifying as a man (transgender woman) or a female who is not comfortable identifying as a woman (transgender man). Transgender people may undergo gender reassignment surgery to align their physical characteristics with their gender identity. However, due to many factors such as belief systems, culture, and economics, some do not opt for surgery. SEXUAL ORIENTATION Another aspect of our gender pertains to our emotional and sexual attraction to a person. This aspect refers to our sexual orientation. According to the Psychological Association of the Philippines, typically at ages 6 or 8, we experience or develop attraction to other people. By adolescence, we already know who we are attracted to and would experiment through dating and relationships. Everyone's sexuality is different and deeply personal. Our capacity for emotional and sexual attraction is diverse and complex, but there are a few common terms or labels we use: - People who are attracted to the opposite sex are called "heterosexuals" or "straight." - People who are attracted to people of the same sex are called "homosexual," "gay," or "lesbian." - "Bisexual" or "bi" people are attracted to both sexes, male or female. LGBT refers to the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender community. APPRECIATING DIVERSITY According to the American Psychological Association (APA), nature and nurture play a complex role in shaping our sexual orientation. Homosexuality and heterosexuality are part of human sexuality and are a large part of the human experience. 3  Identifying as heterosexual, lesbian, bi, gay, or transgender is a deeply personal process, so it may be more difficult for others to "come out" or for them to become comfortable enough with their sexuality that they feel safe to share it with other people. For some, it comes early in adolescence, while for others, it may take time to understand and discover themselves. According to the Psychological Association of the Philippines, "we can only truly tell if a person is gay, lesbian, or bisexual if the person shares with us his or her experiences and feelings of attraction towards others." That is why it is important for everyone to feel safe as they share their sexuality since it is a personal and sensitive topic. We can do that in an environment where we do not feel judged or discriminated against. People who experience prejudice and discrimination suffer negative psychological effects (APA), so we must work towards an inclusive environment where everyone feels safe. Summary The complexities of human sexuality can be overwhelming. We need to look at our own experiences on our journey of discovering our sense of being a man or a woman to understand others. We also need to engage in conversations with others to appreciate the many different faces of human sexuality. A baby is born and is given an assigned sex based on its genitals. In toddler years, they are raised to be a "man" or a "woman" based on accepted social and cultural standards. We know that these standards change over time; what is not acceptable now may be acceptable in the future. Adolescence is when we discover our emotional and sexual attraction towards other people. For most, it is easy to identify who they are attracted to, but for others, it can be a long and difficult process. Fostering an inclusive environment where everyone feels safe is very important at this stage. B. Gender and Sexuality Across Time Introduction Society has progressed so much in a way that information and knowledge are available to everyone. This gives us an opportunity to examine our social and political conditions in more detail than when information was scarce and limited to only a few individuals. Historical accounts show that across time, humans' conception of gender and sexuality has also changed. Archaeological artifacts reveal that in the distant past, during the dawn of civilizations, human societies had a high regard for women. The concept of the divine feminine (the sacredness of the woman due to her ability to conceive children) prevailed, and thus, women were treated equally with men. This made societies egalitarian (men and women had equitable power and roles). 4  However, humans' discovery of paternity (fatherhood/role of the father in conception), presumably during the Agricultural era when societies began to establish communities and rear cattle and stocks, also changed how societies viewed women and men thereafter. For the longest time thereafter, societies have privileged men over other genders, mainly because of the preference given to them in the productive sphere (world of public work). Women, who were revered due to their ability to conceive, were viewed as solely capable only of reproductive affairs (world of the home and related tasks such as suckling the young, child-rearing, and home management). The gender disparity was intensified during the Industrial era, where factories were built, and men were preferred because they did not have to bear children for nine months and were perceived as physically stronger. But how did the conceptualization of gender and sexuality really change? This lesson tackles movements in history that show how men, women, and people of other genders have been viewed in human societies. PATRIARCHY A close examination of our society can lead us to see the invisible layers of oppression like patriarchy—a system based on the control and oppression of women, wherein they are perceived to be the weaker sex. It is a structure that upholds male supremacy in the law, at home, in the workplace, and in society. Patriarchy is from the Greek word "Patriarkhes," which means "the rule of the father." It is a social system where men primarily hold power in the political and private spheres. This means that in this social system, society is organized and maintained in a way that men rule over women and their children. In the social, legal, political, and economic spheres, men are expected to lead, while women are expected to obey and are relegated to house chores, bearing children, and child care. A patrilineal society often follows a patriarchal society. This means only men can inherit property and the family name. Women were left with no inheritance and were expected to marry a man who could support her economically. In fact, women were not allowed to go to schools or even vote because they were viewed as the weaker sex and should not concern themselves with learning science or politics. Women had to fight for the right to vote, to go to school, to go to work, and to even participate in politics. Patriarchy is viewed by most sociologists as a social construct and not as a biological phenomenon. This is because history proves that in the prehistoric hunter- gatherer tribes and civilizations, they prioritized equality of all members, male and female. History suggests an egalitarian system rather than a patriarchal system. Men and women contributed to society and enjoyed the same social status. Friedrich Engels, a German philosopher and sociologist, argues that patriarchy came about when people started having private property instead of communal living. The development in agriculture and domestication of animals led to creating product 5 surplus, which allowed people to have private property. As a way to control the excess wealth generated by these advancements, male dominance was asserted over women so only the male heir could inherit family wealth. HISTORICAL VIEWS ON GENDER Greek Aristotle, Plato, and other Greek philosophers viewed women as the inferior sex and as properties of men whose only job was to obey their husbands, bear children, and take care of the household. They were forbidden to learn philosophy, politics, and science. Egypt Herodotus, a Greek historian, observed the Egyptian civilization, citing that Egyptian women enjoyed higher social status than Greek women because they could inherit property and engage in trade and politics. However, Greek influence quickly spread in Egypt through the conquests of Alexander the Great across Asia and Africa. China Confucianism has stringent written rules that dictate how women should conduct themselves. The written documents titled "Three Obediences and Four Virtues" and "Precepts of Women" state that women should obey their father; when married, she is to obey her husband; and when widowed, she is to obey her son. Gendered biases in ancient patriarchal societies were very strict, heavily enforced, and often violent. Imagine not being able to go to school just because you are a woman, not being able to express your opinion on important matters even when it concerns your future, and not being able to say no to any man. Women have come a long way since ancient times through the feminist movement. However, patriarchy has taken on subtle forms of oppression that often go unnoticed, such as: - Sexism - prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination based on sex. - Gender pay gap - men earn more than women. - Underrepresentation in politics, military, executive positions, etc. - Rape of women and the stigma that makes women ashamed to report the crime. - Very conservative expectations of women on how they behave. - Unrealistic depictions of women in fiction, often very sexualized. - Women do more housework and childcare. - Boys are trained to be leaders, while women are trained to do house chores. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT The women's liberation movement, women's movement, or feminism is a continuing series of social movements that aim to challenge the patriarchal society that creates these oppressive political structures, beliefs, and practices against women. 6 It started in different decades in different countries; some are far more advanced in their struggle, while others are still starting a movement. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, first-wave feminism spread across Western countries as women demanded their right to vote or participate in elections and to legally own property. In France, Simone de Beauvoir wrote a book titled "The Second Sex" in 1949. It outlined how the patriarchal society disadvantaged women by slowly raising them into submission and hindering their productivity and happiness by relegating them to housecleaning. This inspired many women to write and speak their truths, such as Betty Friedan (The Feminine Mystique, 1963), Kate Millet (Sexual Politics, 1969), and Germaine Greer (The Female Eunuch, 1970). Beauvoir's book was instrumental in awakening women to their plight as the "wife-servant" to their husbands in her famous quote: "one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman." Le Mouvement de Liberation des Femmes, or the women's liberation movement, was formed in Europe, and they sought the right to education, the right to work, and the right to vote in the 1940s. Later, they also won women's right to decide on their own bodies and their sexualities. This liberation movement views the intersectionality of economic status or class to patriarchy. Inspired by Beauvoir's book, second-wave feminism in the 1960s through the 1980s drew attention to various social and cultural inequalities, such as domestic violence (especially marital rape), reproductive rights, wage inequality, etc. The 1990s gave birth to the third wave, and 2012 started the fourth wave. These movements only show that there is still much to be done for women's rights. The United Nations reports that women do more work than men because, even when they work at the office, they are still expected to do household tasks. Another report from UN Women states that "women perform 66 percent of the world's work, produce 50 percent of the food, but earn 10 percent of the income and own 1 percent of the property." This is because in agricultural countries, women participate in making the produce, but only the father or the male head of the family controls the income. To put it simply, feminism demands equality. Here are a few salient points that feminism demands: Women's suffrage - Women were not allowed to vote before because they were viewed as irrational and temperamental and therefore not able to make rational decisions. This changed after World War I (1914 to 1918), when women were uprooted from the household. They took on jobs and made significant contributions to their country. Many countries soon started letting women vote since they could no longer argue that women are "irrational and temperamental." Equality in politics and society - For hundreds of years, women's voices were silenced, so society must make an effort to restore their rights. Representation is very important for women so that their genuine concerns are heard in politics 7  and in society. Feminists have always criticized that old, privileged men always make the decisions for women at home and in politics. Reproductive rights mean that a woman is in control of her body, and she can decide for herself what she sees as best for her. Contraception, abortion, and other reproductive options should be available to women because it is their body. Domestic violence - such as marital rape and physical abuse are often dismissed by society as part of a "marriage." Although we have RA 9262 or the Anti- Violence Against Women and Their Children Act, our culture still dismisses such incidents as "away mag-asawa." Sexual harassment and sexual violence - The Center for Women's Resources in the Philippines estimates that one woman or child is raped every hour, mostly by someone they know. Other rights include the right to divorce their husbands, the right to make decisions on pregnancy, equitable wages, and equal employment opportunities. Summary Recognizing patriarchy in the simple things we do is very important for us to identify these instances so we can change them. Even the simplest acts that are seemingly harmless can be analyzed and seen as a way to force women into submission and compliance. That is the power of putting labels on oppressive acts, and you can call it out and stop it. Feminism gained women access to education, the right to vote, the right to work, the right to take control of their reproduction, and the right to say no instead of just obeying. However, there is still much to be done for gender equality. You can help make the world a better place for women by learning to respect and recognizing that women deserve the same rights as men—that women are not to be treated as the weaker sex or the submissive sex, but rather as equals. Also, use gender-neutral language that is not sexist: "humanity" instead of "mankind," the use of "they" instead of "he" to emphasize inclusion. You can also counter gendered metaphors by vocally criticizing their oppressive nature, such as "the aggressive sperm" and "the passive egg," "babae kasi," "lalake kasi," etc. You can also advocate for laws and policies that would empower women. You do not have to be a woman to understand that everyone must be treated with the same respect and that everyone is free and equal in dignity and rights. 8 LESSON II - GENDER EQUALITY, EQUITY, AND SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES GENDER EQUALITY - opposite of gender inequality, not of gender difference - aims to promote the full participation of women and men in society. - accepting and valuing equally the differences between women and men and the diverse roles they play in society. - Accepts and values equally the differences between women and men and the diverse roles they play in society - Ensures that everyone has equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities, regardless of gender - Involves addressing systemic barriers and biases that disadvantage any gender - Supports the idea that all genders should have equal access to resources, opportunities, and protections under the law GENDER EQUITY - fairness of treatment for women and men, according to their respective needs. - This may include equal treatment or treatment that is different but which is considered equivalent in terms of rights, benefits, obligations and opportunities - Aims to achieve equality of outcomes by considering the specific circumstances and challenges faced by different genders - Recognizes that some individuals may need more support or resources to achieve the same level of opportunity as others - Seeks to eliminate gender disparities in access to resources, opportunities, and decision-making processes SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES RELATING TO GENDER 1. Sociobiology - a.k.a. “evolutionary psychology” - differences between men and women result from genetic factors that aim to ensure survival of the fittest - men and women follow distinct reproductive strategy in an effort to maximize the chance that their genetic lines will continue (Barash, et.al, 2022) 2. Psychodynamic Theory - claims that first relationship we have fundamentally influences how we define our identity, including gender. - This theory asserts that between mother and daughter, there is a fundamental likeness that encourages close identification (Chodorow, 1989). - Theorists suggest that infant boys recognize in a primitive way that they differ from their mothers (Chodorow, 1978, 1999) 9  - A boy must establish his independent identity to distinguish himself from his mother or other female caregiver—he must define himself as distinct from her. 3. Social Learning Theory - developed by Walter Mischel (1966) and Bandura et. al, (2002). It claims that individuals learn to be masculine and feminine by imitating others and getting responses from others to their behaviors. - Children imitate the communication they see on television, online, and in videos as well as the communication of people around them. - Initially, young people like to mimic almost anything. - However, others reward only some of children’s behaviors, and the behaviors that are rewarded tend to be repeated. Thus, it suggests that rewards from others teach boys and girls which behaviors are appropriate for them (Kunkel et. al, 2006). 4. Cognitive Development Theory - This theory assumes that children play active roles in developing their gender identities. They do this by picking models of competent masculine or feminine behavior. - Children notice the ways other label and describe them (Gilligan & Pollack, 1988). 5. Gender Schema Theory - It is related to cognitive development theory; even before reaching the first birthday, an infant distinguishes between male and female voices. By the age of two, gender schema theorists claim that children begin to organize their understandings of gender into coherent wholes. - An internal framework that organizes perceptions and directs behavior related to gender - Children organize clothes, activities, toys, traits, and roles into those appropriate for boys and men and those appropriate for girls and women and so forth 6. Symbolic Interactionism - This theory emphasizes the communication with others is primary way we develop identity, including gender identity. - Communication reflects the values and meanings of society, parents often echo cultural views of gender in the words the use to describe children— big or little, dainty or hardy, strong or demure, and so on. - Cultural views are communicated through play activities with peers, teachers’ interactions with students, etc. - Role: set of expected behaviors and the values associated with them. 10 7. Standpoint Theory - Complements symbolic interactionism by noting that societies are made up of different groups that have different amounts of power and privilege. - It focuses on how membership in groups, such as those designated by gender, race, class, ability, and gender identity, shapes what individuals experience, know, feel, and do as well as how individuals understand social life as a whole (Collins et. al, 1986) - claims that the marginalized standpoints can generate unique insights into how society works. - 3 Significant Claims of ST: o all perspectives on social life are partial o some perspectives are more partial than others o stand point is earned by developing a political awareness of power differences among social groups. - Social location: group to which an individual belongs. - Standpoint: earned through critical reflection on power relations and through engaging in the struggle required to construct a stance that challenges the dominant one in a culture. 8. Queer Theory - Critique of conventional categories of identity and cultural views of the gender binary. - It argues that identities are not fixed, but somewhat fluid (Lorber et.al, 2012). - The theory arose in the context of gay and lesbian studies. The initial focus of this theory was heteronormativity. - This theory challenges the ways that a culture defines and polices what is considered normal and abnormal. 9. Performative Theory - argues that humans generate identities, including gender, through performance or expression - explains that gender comes into being only as it is expressed, or performed. The performance is the thing we call gender. - Gender is not a thing we have but rather something that we do at specific times and in specific circumstances. (Butler,1990 & 2004) - According to performative theorists, all of us perform gender, although we do so in diverse ways (Butler et.al, 1990) such as dominating or deferring in conversations and crossing legs so that one ankle rests on the knee of the other leg - Heteronormativity-assumption that heterosexuality is normal and all other sexual orientations are abnormal. - Queer- refers to anything that departs from what society considers normal (Halperin, 2007). 11 10. Queer Performative Theory - Integrates queer and performative theories. The result is a view of queer performances as means of challenging and destabilizing cultural categories and the values attached to them. 11. Conflict Theory - Society is defined by a struggle for dominance among social groups that compete for scarce resources. - In the context of gender, conflict theory argues that gender is best understood as men attempting to maintain power and privilege to the detriment of women. Therefore, men can be seen as the dominant group and women as the subordinate group. 12. Structural Functionalist Theory - argue that gender roles were established well before the pre-industrial era when men typically took care of responsibilities outside of the home, such as hunting, and women typically took care of the domestic responsibilities in or around the home. - These roles were considered functional because women were often limited by the physical restraints of pregnancy and nursing and were unable to leave the home for long periods of time. 12