SSC Resource Book - Claim, Evidence, and Reason (CER) PDF

Skill: Claim, Evidence, and Reason (CER) Claim, Evidence, and Reason (CER) can be used to explore historical events, people, and places in social studies. This skill helps us understand not just what happened, but why it happened and its impact on the world. What is a Claim, Evidence and Reason?...

Skill: Claim, Evidence, and Reason (CER) Claim, Evidence, and Reason (CER) can be used to explore historical events, people, and places in social studies. This skill helps us understand not just what happened, but why it happened and its impact on the world. What is a Claim, Evidence and Reason? Claim: This is your starting point. It's like saying, "I believe this is true because...". A claim is like stating your opinion or what you believe about a topic. Imagine you're saying, "I think..." or "I believe..." about something you've learned or read. Evidence: These are your clues. Evidence is the proof or facts that support your claim. It's like showing your work in math or providing examples in a story. Reason: This ties your evidence back to your claim. It's explaining how your clues (evidence) prove what you believe (claim). The reason explains why your evidence supports your claim. It connects your claim and your evidence. It answers the "Why?" Example A: Claim: "The invention of the printing press transformed European society." Evidence: "It significantly lowered the cost of books, making them accessible to more people." Reason: "By making books more accessible, the printing press spread knowledge, leading to greater literacy rates and the spread of new ideas." Example B: Claim: "Recycling is important because it helps our planet." Evidence: “Recycling reduces waste in landfills and saves energy." Reason: "By reducing waste, recycling helps prevent pollution and conserve resources, which is good for the Earth." Example C: Claim: "Eating fruits and vegetables makes us healthier." Evidence: "Studies show that people who eat more fruits and vegetables have a lower risk of certain diseases." Reason: "Because fruits and vegetables contain vitamins and nutrients that our bodies need to fight off diseases, eating them helps keep us healthy." 5 Putting It All Together: When you make a claim, you're telling people what you think. With evidence, you're showing them why you think that by giving them facts or examples. And with your reason, you're explaining how your evidence makes your claim true. By learning to use claim, evidence, and reason, you'll be better at explaining your ideas, making arguments, and understanding how others make their arguments too. This is a useful skill in school and everyday life! Here is a Social Science Example: Connecting Government in Society with CER Claim: "Local governments play a crucial role in our daily lives." Evidence: 1. Local governments provide essential services: They ensure we have clean water, our trash is picked up, and public areas like parks and streets are maintained. 2. They oversee educational facilities: Local governments run schools and libraries, contributing to community education. 3. They ensure public safety: Through managing police and fire services, local governments keep us safe. Reason: These examples demonstrate how local governments directly impact our daily routines, health, safety, and education, proving their critical role in maintaining the quality of life in our communities. Applying CER skills: Understand the Role of Government: Identify the Claim: Start with a statement about the government's role in our lives. OR Government Services-Choose a government service that you think is important (like libraries, schools, or parks). Write your claim here- State why this service is vital for the community. 6 Collect Evidence: Gather facts or examples that support this claim. List your evidence here- Look for specific examples of how this service benefits the community. Explain the Reason: Connect the evidence back to the claim. Write your reason here- Explain how your evidence supports your claim. Link the benefits of the service to its importance in the community. Skill: Main Ideas and Details What is the main idea? The MAIN IDEA is a statement that sums up the most important point of a paragraph, a passage, an article, or a speech. Determining the main idea will increase your understanding as you read about historic events, people, and places. The main ideas are supported by details and examples. 7 Understanding the Skill Read this passage: A Pioneering Leader: Rani Lakshmibai Rani Lakshmibai: The Warrior Queen of Jhansi Rani Lakshmibai was a fearless leader and warrior queen who lived during the 19th century in India. Her bravery and leadership were pivotal during the First War of Indian Independence in 1857. Unlike the common perception of women's roles during that era, Rani Lakshmibai shattered stereotypes by leading her army against British rule. STRATEGY: IDENTIFY THE TOPIC. To find the main idea of a passage, first identify the topic. Then, as you read, define the central idea about the topic that the many details explain or support. The following passage contains information about a historical leader. The diagram organizes the information to help you determine the main idea. Based On The Reading: 1. Identify the topic by first looking at the title or subtitle. This title suggests a quick way to identify the topic. 2. Look at the beginning and ending sentences of each paragraph for possible clues to the main idea. 3. Read the entire passage. Look for details about the topic. What central idea do they explain or support? Applying the Skill STRATEGY: MAKE A DIAGRAM. State the topic and list the supporting details in a chart. Use the information you record to help you state the main idea. Think about how each detail supports the main idea from the passage given. 8 Check for Understanding of the Skill: Identifying the Topic: The topic of this passage would be - “Rani Lakshmibai, the Warrior Queen of Jhansi.” Look for Main Idea Clues: The Main Idea could be written like this based on the opening and closing sentences- “Rani Lakshmibai was a significant figure in India's fight for independence, known for her bravery and leadership.” Read the entire passage: Collect details about Rani Lakshmibai and list them out as Supporting Details: ○ Rani Lakshmibai led her army in the First War of Indian Independence. ○ She defied the traditional roles expected of women at the time. ○ Lakshmibai's leadership and bravery made her a symbol of resistance against British rule. Think About How Details Support the Main Idea: Reflect on how each fact, like her military leadership and political savvy, underlines the main idea. It would look like this. - The main idea of this passage is that Rani Lakshmibai was an extraordinary leader and warrior who played a crucial role in India's fight for independence, challenging the norms of her time and leaving a lasting legacy of courage. 9  Check for application of skill: Skill: Summarizing: Summarizing means condensing what you read into fewer words. You state only the main ideas and the most important details. In your own words, reduce the paragraph or section into a brief report of its general ideas. Sample Text: The Invention of Zero The concept of zero is one of the greatest contributions to the world of mathematics and science, and it originated in ancient India. Before the invention of zero, people struggled with mathematics, especially when it came to calculations involving large numbers or nothingness. The idea of zero was developed in India around the 5th century by a mathematician named Aryabhata. His work introduced the concept of zero as a number with its own value and as a placeholder in the decimal number system, which allowed for the writing of numbers like 10, 100, and 1000 more efficiently. The introduction of zero revolutionized mathematics. It made addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of large numbers much easier. It also laid the foundation for algebra and calculus, which are vital in the fields of engineering, physics, and computer science today. The concept of zero spread from India to other parts of the world through trade routes. It was adopted by Arab mathematicians in the 7th century, who called it "sifr," and later introduced to Europe in the 12th century, where it became known as "zero." 10 Understanding the Skill: Summarising the Invention of Zero Strategy 1: Understand and Condense the Text: The passage provided tells us about the invention of zero, a major mathematical achievement that originated in ancient India. This concept revolutionized mathematics by introducing the idea of zero both as a number with its own value and as a placeholder, which made calculations with large numbers more manageable. Strategy 2: Find and Restate the Main Idea: The main idea of the text is that the invention of zero by the Indian mathematician Aryabhata significantly impacted mathematics, making complex calculations possible and paving the way for future advancements in various scientific fields. Strategy 3: Write a Summary The summary should capture the essence of Zero's invention, its origin, the mathematician behind it, its contributions to mathematics, and its global spread and influence. Applying the Skill: Clarify and Write Your Own Summary Summarize: When summarizing, identify key points. Remember, the first sentence or two in each paragraph often contains the main idea. When summarizing, identify key points like who invented zero (Aryabhata), when (around the 5th century), and the significance of this invention. Clarify: Clarify any unfamiliar aspects that you may need to know about. If there are any terms or concepts you're unfamiliar with, such as "decimal number system" or "placeholder," take a moment to understand them. This might involve asking a teacher, looking them up, or thinking about how they fit into what you already know about numbers. 11 Summarize with Details: Include important details that support the main idea. Include important details that support the main idea, such as how zero's introduction made arithmetic with large numbers easier and its role in the development of algebra and calculus. Mention how zero reached other parts of the world and influenced mathematics globally. Clarify and Understand: As you write your summary, ask yourself questions to ensure you've captured the essence of the text accurately. As you write your summary, ask yourself questions to ensure you've captured the essence of the text accurately. For example, ask, "Why was zero so revolutionary?" or "How did zero change mathematics?" Answering these questions in your summary will help clarify the text's main points 12 Your Task: Write Your Summary: Now, using the strategies above, write a summary of the passage about the invention of zero. Start by stating the main idea, then add key details and facts and make sure to clarify any complex concepts. Your summary should concisely capture the historical significance of Zero's invention and its lasting impact on the world. Check these samples out and compare summaries: Sample Summary 1: A long time ago in India, a smart person named Aryabhata came up with the idea of zero. This was a big deal because it helped people do math more easily, like adding and subtracting big numbers. Zero helped create a lot of the math we use today, and it travelled from India to many other places in the world, changing how people everywhere do math. Sample Summary 2: Zero was invented by Aryabhata in India about 1,500 years ago. It was a really important idea because it made doing math much simpler. Before zero, it was hard to show that nothing was in place when counting. Thanks to zero, we can do all sorts of math problems now. This idea of zero went from India to other countries, making math better for everyone. Sample Summary 3: In ancient India, a mathematician named Aryabhata thought of using zero in math. This made it a lot easier to work with big numbers and do all kinds of math problems. Zero was such a smart idea that it spread from India to other parts of the world, and now we use it in math every day. It shows how one good idea can change the world. 13 In conclusion, learning to summarize is like putting together a puzzle. It helps us pick out the most important pieces of information and put them together to see the whole picture. By practising summarizing, as we did with the story of Zero's invention, we become better at understanding and remembering what we read. This skill is not just useful for school but for sharing stories and ideas with others too. So, next time you learn something new, try to summarize it in your own words, and you'll see just how much you've understood and learned! Skill: Reading Maps Defining the Skill Maps are representations of features on the earth’s surface. Some maps show political features, such as national borders. Other maps show physical features, such as mountains and bodies of water. By learning to use map elements and math skills, you can better understand how to read maps. Understanding the Skill: How to Read a Map: ❖ Strategy 1: Read the title. This identifies the main idea of the map. ❖ Strategy 2: Look for the grid of lines that form a pattern of squares over the map. These numbered lines are the lines of latitude (horizontal) and longitude (vertical). They indicate the location of the area on the earth. ❖ Strategy 3: Read the map key. It is usually in a box. This will give you the information you need to interpret the symbols or colours on the map. ❖ Strategy 4: Use the scale and the pointer, or compass rose, to determine distance and direction. Example: Reading a Map of India's Major Rivers Maps are like treasure maps that show us where things are in the world. Some maps tell us about countries and their cities, while others show us natural features like mountains and rivers. By learning to read these maps, we can find out lots of interesting things about different places. Applying the Skill: The Major Rivers of India ❖ Strategy 1: Read the Title - The title "The Major Rivers of India" tells us that the map will show us where the big rivers in India are located. 14  ❖ Strategy 2: Look for the Grid of Lines -On the map, you might see lines running across and down, creating a big grid. These lines help us find exact spots on the map. They are called lines of latitude (the ones that go side to side) and longitude (the ones that go up and down). ❖ Strategy 3: Read the Map Key- The map key is a little box that explains what the symbols and colours on the map mean. For rivers, you might see blue lines. The key will tell you that these lines represent rivers. It might also use different symbols to show cities or mountains. ❖ Strategy 4: Use the Scale and the Compass Rose-The scale is a small ruler at the bottom of the map. It tells us how far apart things are in real life. For example, it can show how far one city is from a river. The compass rose is a symbol that looks like a star and shows directions: North, East, South, and West. It helps us understand which way the map is facing. Activity: Identify and Learn About India's Rivers 1. Find the Rivers: Use your map to locate major rivers like the Ganges, Yamuna, Brahmaputra, and Godavari. Mark them with a blue pen or pencil. 2. Learn and Share: Pick one river and find out two interesting facts about it. Maybe you'll discover where it starts, where it ends, or why it's important to people living nearby. 3. Present Your Findings: Draw a simple map of the chosen river in your notebook and share your facts with the class. Explain where your river is on the map of India and why it's an important river. 15 Forms of Government A government is the system by which a state or community is governed. Sometimes, it can also refer to the body of leaders who control a state. In either sense, a government directly influences the lives of the people under its control. The government determines the rights of the people, the laws by which they must live their lives, and the penalties for breaking those laws. Purpose of Governments- Why do human societies have governments? It's important to remember that not all societies in history have had governments. Many did just fine without them until they reached a certain size. After societies become large enough, it is very difficult to remain unified without something to organize people and resources. This is where the government comes in. The government collects resources, from money to food, organizes people into areas where they are needed, and passes laws to maintain order and stability. Laws are especially important to governments because they define social order. People who break the laws are seen as a threat to overall order and peace and are arrested. Governments kept society organized, but also kept them safe, especially in ancient times. You see, for a government to exist, people often have to give up individual freedoms. Rather than doing what they want, the government tells them what to do. Many people throughout history accepted this because the government was able to protect them. By collecting taxes in the form of grain, governments in ancient Egypt had extra food in case there was a drought and could give grain to people whose farms failed to grow enough. By collecting taxes as money, governments in medieval Asia could pay for armies that protected their people from invaders. Modern governments have many purposes like- 1. Providing for the security of the country. 2. Keeping law and order. 3. Establishing a system of justice. 4. Providing welfare services to those in need. 5. Managing disasters. 6. Establishing health and education systems. 7. Regulating the economy, and much more. 17 Forms of Government - Monarchy, Democracy, Oligarchy and More We know India is a democracy, not just a democracy but the biggest democracy in the world. But what other forms of government exist around the world and throughout history? Someone’s Got To Be In Charge If you compared all the governments in the world, you would find one thing in common: Someone is in charge. The question is, who? There are many different forms of government. Some have one leader who has all the control. Others give power to the people. Here are some forms of government that exist (or have existed) in the world: Me, Myself, and I An autocracy is a government in which one person has all the power. There are two main types of autocracy: a monarchy and a dictatorship. In a monarchy, a king or queen rules the country. The king or queen is known as a monarch. Monarchs usually come to power through their family line: The current king or queen's oldest child becomes the next king or queen. In some monarchies, especially those in historical times, the monarch held all the power and had the final say over the government. In modern times, monarchs usually share power with other parts of government. Often they are also subject to the country's constitution. In picture: King Harald V of Norway with his wife, Queen Sonja. Norway is a constitutional monarchy. The king is the head of state and has a mainly ceremonial role. The actual government is a democracy. A dictatorship is a form of government where one leader has absolute control over citizens’ lives. If there is a constitution, the dictator has control over that too so it doesn't mean much. Although other parts of the government may exist, such as courts or a lawmaking body, these branches always do what the dictator wants them to do. They do not represent citizens. Power to the People! In a democracy, citizens hold political power. There are two fundamental types of democracies: In a representative democracy, citizens elect leaders to represent their rights and interests in government. The elected leaders, or representatives, do the day-to-day work of governing the 18 country: They consider the issues, work to find solutions, pass laws, and do all of the other things necessary to keep a country going. Citizens hold the ultimate power, though, because if they don't like what their representatives are doing, they can vote for new ones! In a direct democracy, there are no representatives. Citizens are directly involved in the day-to-day work of governing the country. Citizens might be required to participate in lawmaking or act as judges, for example. The best example of this was in the ancient Greek city-state called Athens. Most modern countries are too large for a direct democracy to work We, Ourselves, and... um... Us In an oligarchy (OH-lih-gar-kee), a small group of people has all the power. Oligarchy is a Greek word that means "rule by a few". Sometimes this means that only a certain group has political rights, such as members of one political party, one social class, or one race. For example, in some societies, only noble families who owned land could participate in politics. An oligarchy can also mean that a few people control the country. For example, a junta is a small group of people, usually military officers--who rule a country after taking it over by force. A junta often operates much like a dictatorship, except that several people share power. Religious Rule A theocracy is a government that recognizes God or a divine being as the ultimate authority. ("Theo" is a Greek word that means god.) In a theocracy, religious law is used to settle disputes and rule the people. A theocracy can also be a democracy, dictatorship, monarchy, or just about any other kind of government. For example, the Republic of Iran recognizes Islamic law, but Iran's citizens vote to elect their leaders. Modern theocracies are usually found in countries where the population is strongly religious. Rule by None In anarchy, nobody is in control--or everyone is, depending on how you look at it. Sometimes the word anarchy is used to refer to an out-of-control mob. When it comes to government, anarchy 19 would be one way to describe the human state of existence before any governments developed. It would be similar to the way animals live in the wild, with everyone looking out for themselves. Today, people who call themselves anarchists usually believe that people should be allowed to freely associate together without being subject to any nation or government. There are no countries that have anarchy as their form of government. Democracy Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people. Democracy falls into two basic categories, direct and representative. In a direct democracy, people directly are involved in decision-making whereas representative democracy is a system of government where the government is appointed through elections and people vote to elect their representatives. A citizen of a representative democracy like India needs to vote. 1. Voting ensures citizens have a say in the government set-up. 2. Representative democracies can work only if citizens make the effort to elect their representatives. 3. Voting helps get the right leaders in power and also helps remove leaders not liked by citizens. 4. If people don’t vote, power can go into the wrong hands and may be misused. 5. All Indian citizens above 18 years of age can vote in India. 6. This right is universally granted; one person has one vote and all votes are equal. 20  Here is a story! Mona, who is a student of class X in a school in Shillong, asked her teacher a question that had been bothering her for a long time. She said, “Sir! In newspapers and the television news, I find references to the President of the United States of America (USA) quite often, but the Prime Minister of the USA is never mentioned. Why is it so?” The teacher replied, “You have rightly noticed the differences. It is so because the government of the USA is based on its own Constitution, whereas our governmental system is based on our Constitution. It is the Constitution of a country that makes provisions according to which various institutions and offices are created and are made to function. The Constitution defines all aspects of the political system that a country has and more important than anything else, the Constitution reflects certain values that form the core of that political system. These values guide not only the government but also the citizens and the society at large.” Just like Mona, you may also have questions related to the Indian Constitution and its political system such as, what are the democratic values reflected in the Constitution? What is a Constitution? You may have come across the term constitution quite often. It is used in various contexts such as the Constitution of a State or a Nation, the Constitution of an Association or Union, Constitution of a Sports Club. As used commonly, the constitution is a set of rules, generally written, which defines and regulates the structure and functioning of an organisation. But when it is used in the context of a Nation, the Constitution means a set of fundamental principles and basic rules. A Constitution may be written or unwritten, but it contains fundamental laws of the land. It is the supreme and ultimate authority. Any decision which is not in accordance with it will be unconstitutional and unlawful. The Indian Constitution Have you seen the document of the Indian Constitution? Do you recognize the cover page shown in the illustration? If you have seen or if you get a chance to see it, you will agree that it is a very lengthy document. The Indian Constitution is the longest of all the written constitutions. The Constitution of India defines all aspects of the Indian political system. 21  Do you know? Unlike the Constitutions of most of the democratic countries, the British Constitution is known as an unwritten constitution, because it is largely unwritten and modified. It was not framed as a complete statement like the Constitution of the USA or the Indian Constitution. The Constitution of the USA and the Indian Constitution are written constitutions. The Core Constitutional Values The Constitution of any country serves several purposes. It lays down certain ideals that form the basis of the kind of country that we as citizens aspire to live in. A country is usually made up of different communities of people who share certain beliefs, but may not necessarily agree on all issues. A Constitution helps serve as a set of principles and rules to which everyone agrees. These form the basis according to which the people want the country to be governed and the society to move on. This includes not only an agreement on the type of government but also on certain ideals that the country should uphold. The Indian Constitution has certain core constitutional values that constitute its spirit. Do you know the meaning of the word, ‘value’? You may immediately say that truth, non-violence, peace, cooperation, honesty, respect and kindness are values, and you may continue to count many such values. Values are very essential for the existence of human society. The Indian Constitution contains all such values, the values that are universal, human and democratic. It defines India as a sovereign, democratic, socialist and secular republic. Do you think that the topmost value impacts your attitude and behaviour? For example, a person who strongly believes in the value of non-violence always tries to be non-violent in her/his actions. 22 Constitutional Values and the Preamble of the Constitution The constitutional values are reflected in the entire Constitution of India, but its Preamble embodies ‘the fundamental values and the philosophy on which the Constitution is based’. The Preamble to any Constitution is a brief introductory statement that conveys the guiding principles of the document. The values expressed in the Preamble are objectives of the Constitution. Let us discuss these constitutional values: Sovereignty: The Preamble declares India “a sovereign socialist secular democratic republic”. Being sovereign means having complete political freedom and being the supreme authority. It implies that India is internally all-powerful and externally free from any external interference. Socialism: Inequalities have been inherent in Indians from a very long time ago. This is why, socialism has been made a constitutional value aimed at promoting social change and transformation to end all forms of inequalities. Secularism: We all are pleased when anyone says that India is home to almost all major religions in the world. In the context of this plurality ( more than one or two; many), secularism is seen as a great constitutional value. Secularism implies that our country is not guided by any one religion or any religious considerations. However, the Indian state is not against religion. It allows all its citizens to practise any religion. Democracy: The Preamble reflects democracy as a value. As a form of government, it derives its authority from the will of the people. The people elect the rulers of the country and the elected representatives remain accountable to the people. Democracy contributes to stability and continuous progress in society. Republic: India is not only a democratic nation but it is also a republic. The most important symbol of being a republic is the office of the Head of the State, i.e. the President who is elected and who is not selected based on heredity, as is found in a system with monarchy. This value strengthens democracy where every citizen of India is equally eligible to be elected as the Head of the State. Justice: Justice must be availed to every citizen. This idea of a just and equal society remains one of the foremost values of the Indian Constitution. 23 Liberty: The Preamble allows liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship as one of the core values. Equality: The Constitution ensures equality of status and opportunity to every citizen for the development of the best in him/her. Fraternity: The Preamble promotes the value of fraternity that stands for common brotherhood among all the people of India. Dignity of the It is essential to secure the dignity of every individual without which individual : democracy can not function. It ensures equal participation of every individual in all the processes of democratic governance. Unity and integrity of Our Constitution expects all the citizens of India to uphold and protect the Nation: the unity and integrity of India as a duty. Think and Write: If you had to pick the top five values that you think are most important for this country today what would they be? 24 Greek Civilization Geography of Greece The ancient civilization of Greece was located in southeastern Europe along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. It is a peninsular and predominantly mountainous country located in Southern-Eastern Europe. It is entirely composed of islands and peninsulas and surrounded by the Ionian, Adriatic and Aegean Seas. A peninsula is an area of land bounded on three sides by water. In ancient times, the peninsula of Attica extended like a pointed finger from the mainland, with its famous city of Athens at its tip. Halfway down Attica, the Isthmus of Corinth connects the rest of Greece with its largest peninsula, the Peloponnese, originally home to ancient cities like Olympia and Sparta. An isthmus is a slim strip bordered on two sides by water that connects two areas of land. Off the coast of mainland Greece are a number of islands. Among the largest are Crete and Rhodes, but dozens of smaller islands can also be found in the Aegean Sea. With water separating many settlements, and mountains blocking most land routes, it comes as no surprise that the ancient Greek nation was very decentralized and developed into a number of city-states, rather than a single political entity. 26 Climate The climate in Ancient Greece generally featured hot summers and mild winters. Because it was so hot, most people wore lightweight clothing throughout most of the year. They would put on a cloak or wrap during the colder days of the winter months. The geographical landscape that characterises Ancient Greece includes: ❖ Peninsular mainland ❖ Mountains ❖ Islands ❖ Seas Peninsular Mainland The Greek mainland is a peninsula—a body of land with water on three sides - this peninsula sticks out into the Mediterranean Sea - the southern tip is a second peninsula called the Peloponnesus. Mountains The land of Greece is full of mountains. Around 80% of the Greek mainland is mountainous. This made it difficult to make long journeys by land. The mountains also formed natural barriers between the major city-states. Mountains played a huge role in leading to independent city-states rather than a single empire. The rugged landscape and lack of large rivers made transportation hard - made it difficult to unite Greece under a single government. The tallest mountain in Greece is Mount Olympus. The Ancient Greeks believed that their gods (the Twelve Olympians) lived at the top of Mount Olympus. (Picture below) The Twelve Olympians Mount Olympus 27 Seas: Aegean Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Ionian Sea The region of the Mediterranean where the Greeks first settled is called the Aegean Sea. Greek city-states formed all along the Aegean coastline and on the many islands in the Aegean Sea. The people of Greece used the Aegean to travel from city to city. The Aegean also provided fish for the people to eat. The Aegean Sea is to the east of Greece. The Mediterranean Sea branched into the Ionian Sea to the west, Aegean Sea to east-seas linked most parts of Greece, and became transportation routes. Greeks were skilled sailors - built rowing warships, sailing trade ships. Small ships could sail around the edges of the Ionian, and Aegean seas. Greece did not have any large rivers but they used the seas to their advantage by engaging in trade with different parts of the world. Islands The Aegean Sea is home to over 1000 islands. Major groupings of the Greek islands include the Cyclades Islands, the Dodecanese, and the Northern Aegean Islands. Regions of Ancient Greece Mountains and seas of Ancient Greece formed several natural regions: ❖ Peloponnese - The Peloponnese is a large peninsula located at the southern tip of the Greek mainland. It is almost an island and only connected to the mainland by a small strip of land called the Isthmus of Corinth. The Peloponnese was home to several major Greek city-states including Sparta, Corinth, and Argos ❖ Central Greece - Just north of the Peloponnese is Central Greece. Central Greece was home to the famous region of Attica and the city-state of Athens. ❖ Northern Greece - Northern Greece is to the north and Mount Olympus is located in Northern Greece. ❖ Islands - Major groupings of the Greek islands include the Cyclades Islands, the Dodecanese, and the Northern Aegean Islands. 28 The geography of the region helped to shape the government and culture of the Ancient Greeks. Geographical formations including mountains, seas, and islands formed natural barriers between the Greek city-states and forced the Greeks to settle along the coast. Agriculture In other parts of the ancient world, civilizations had wide-ranging plains upon which to plant their crops. No such plains presented themselves in Greece. In the eastern part of Greece, sloping hills created ideal growing conditions for the grapes and olives used in oil and wine. In Western Greece, the terrain was too mountainous to permit much in the way of agriculture. Needless to say, grapes and olives goods found their way into Greek cuisine as well as folklore - olive trees in particular played a major role in the founding of Athens. However, terrestrial concerns were secondary to the Greeks, as many of them earned their living from the sea, with fish and seafood making significant contributions to ancient Greek cuisine. ❖ Rocky land: Only 20 to 30 percent good for farming; mostly in valleys - but over half of Greeks were farmers, and herders. The land is not very fertile, either, but farmers herd goats and sheep on the rugged hillsides. Landowners could buy equipment, and serve in the army; viewed as upper class. To get more farmland, Greeks founded colonies in places like Anatolia. ❖ Fish were a big part of the diet; they were traded fresh or dried 29 Trade helped Greeks prosper Just as rivers influenced other ancient cultures, the sea influenced Greece. Greece has a long coastline, and most places in Greece are less than 100 miles from the coast. In fact, many cities were built directly on harbors. The Greeks became skilled sailors and shipbuilders. They built rowing ships for fighting and sailing ships for trading. Some warships had two or three levels of oars on each side. Most sailing ships had a single mast and square sail. Greek city-states bought and sold surplus goods from each other. In addition, Greeks traded these items to other regions around the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, including Egypt and Italy. ❖ Not much grain was produced, but surplus olive oil, wine, wool, and pottery ❖ Greek city-states traded goods with each other - also traded around the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, to Egypt, Italy ❖ Bought grain, timber, animal hides, and slaves from other regions - also nuts, figs, cheese, flax for linen. Resources The lack of farmland was not the only problem. Greece also lacked natural resources such as precious metals. The Greeks had to find those resources somewhere else. One resource that Greece did have was stone for building. Greece also had plenty of good sites for harbors. Major Cities The Ancient Greeks spoke the same language and had similar cultures. They were not one large empire, however, but were divided into a number of powerful city-states such as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes. Greek Settlements The Greeks set up colonies throughout the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. This included settlements in modern-day Italy, France, Spain, Turkey, and parts of North Africa. These colonies helped to spread Greek culture throughout the region. Review Concepts 1. How did the geography of the Greek peninsula affect the political organization of the region? 2. How did the seas affect Greek trade patterns? 3. Explain the importance of a. peninsula b. Peloponnesus c. isthmus 4. Map work (To be done in class 30 History of Greek Civilization History of Greek Civilization: A Quick Snapshot! The term “Ancient Greece” usually refers to the time period from the Dark Ages, around 1100 BCE, to the Roman conquest, about 146 BCE. This period of Greek history is considered foundational to modern Western civilization. All of ancient Greek history is divided into three main periods: the Stone Age, from prehistory until 4000 BCE, the Bronze Age, from 3000 to 1100 BCE, and the Iron Age, from 1100 BCE until 30 BCE. The Iron Age is the period of history with the most lasting achievements and accomplishments of the Ancient Greeks. The ages got described with the tools/technology that were prevalent and used in those centuries. (Think how we are part of the Digital age since currently we use digital technology). In this sub-unit, students will: 1. Learn the broad timeline of Greek Civilization. 2. Explore the history of Greece in the Bronze Age by exploring Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. Stone Age (The Greek Stone Age): Time period: Prehistory to 4000 BCE In the Stone Age, humans inhabited Greece relatively later than the rest of Europe, according to most scientists. Settlements reveal that Stone Age people of Greece had reached a high level of development by 4000 BCE with advanced economies and complex social structures. Villages were small during this time, and the social structure was relatively egalitarian, with farmers depending on neighbours and social ties in the event of a crop failure. Bronze Age: Time period: 3000 to 1100 BCE The period from 3000 BCE to 1100 BCE is referred to as the Bronze Age. It is so named because of the development of and improvements in metal working during this time. This age was very important to European societies.The Bronze Age of Greece was characterised by increased exploitation of natural resources, involvement in overseas exchange, and alternating periods of geographic expansion and contraction. This time was full of strife; many wars helped to spur the formation of city-states to provide protection. Iron Age: Time period: 1100 to 31 BCE The period dating from 1100 BCE to 30 BCE is called the Iron Age of Greece. It includes the Greek Dark Ages, the Classic Period, the Hellenistic Period, and includes the time when Greece was ruled by the Roman and Byzantine Empires. The first Olympic Games were held in 776 BCE, which is often considered the starting point of the most significant period of Ancient Greece. Few written records exist for the period known as the Dark Ages. This era is thought to 32 represent a lull in Greece’s growth. Throughout the Iron Age, the governments evolved from monarchy to oligarchy, and then to tyranny, where a wellborn Greek would seize power. In the sixth and fifth centuries BCE, democracy was established in nearly all of the Greek city-states. Athens and Sparta were the two most influential and powerful city-states. Athens was the first city-state to evolve into a democracy, emerging as an aristocratic government, meaning it was ruled by officials (archons), who were elected by nobles. Exploring the Bronze Age through Minoan and Mycenaean Civilizations Learning about ancient Greece is great fun since there are a lot of stories from the Greek Civilization that we still refer to. Archaeologists tell us that the first people of Greece lived about 57,000 years ago. South of mainland Greece in the Mediterranean Sea, lies the narrow island of Crete. Two civilizations flourished in ancient Greece - the Minoan civilization of Crete ( 3000 BCE-1400 BCE) and the Mycenaean civilization (1600 - 1200 BCE) with its centre on mainland Greece. The Geography of Greece Greece is a small country located in southern Europe, Greece is made up of the mainland and hundreds of small islands spread throughout the Ionian, Aegean, and Mediterranean Seas. Life for these people was not at all easy. The land was stony and water was scarce. The mountains, seas and islands formed natural barriers between the Greek city-states and forced the Greeks to settle along the coast —The mountains and the sea played especially significant roles in the development of Greek history. The Minoans and Mycenaeans of ancient Greece used their geography to their advantage. Much of Greece consists of small plains and river valleys surrounded by high mountain ranges. The mountains in Greece did not have fertile soil good for growing crops, but the mild climate allowed for some farming. The sea also influenced the evolution of Greek society. Greece has a long seacoast dotted by bays that provide many harbours. The Greeks lived on a number of islands.They sailed out into the Aegean Sea, the Mediterranean, and the Black Sea, making contact with the outside world. As a peninsula, the people of Greece took advantage of living by the sea. The Minoans and the Mycenaeans were two of the early civilizations that developed in Greece. The Minoans lived on the Greek islands and built a huge palace on the island of Crete. The Mycenaeans lived mostly in mainland Greece and were the first people to speak the Greek language. 33 Introduction to Minoan Civilization and the Minoans The Minoans have an important place in world history, as building the first civilization to appear on European soil. Minoan civilization emerged around 2000 BCE and lasted until 1400 BCE. It was located on the island of Crete, which is now a part of Greece. The Minoans were famous for the magnificent palaces they built, above all at Knossos. There was, in fact, never a people who called themselves the “Minoans”. The civilization of Ancient Crete was given this name by the 19th-century British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans, who, when he began excavating at Knossos in 1900, thought he had discovered the palace of the legendary king Minos, who appears in several Greek myths. The Rise of a Bronze Age Civilization Stone Age farming villages began to appear in Crete sometime in 7000 BCE. With the arrival of the Bronze Age, trade routes spread out from the Middle East in search of copper, tin and other resources. Given that water transport was, until the coming of the railways, much more efficient than land transport over distances of more than a few miles – one of those often-ignored factors which had such an impact on world history – it was natural that the Mediterranean would from ancient times be a major conduit of trade. Several regional cultures emerged in the 34 4th millennium BCE in and around the Aegean Sea, which pioneered seaborne commerce. One of these evolved into the Minoan civilization. As an island in the eastern Mediterranean, Crete enjoyed a strategic location between the centres of civilization in the Middle East and the sources of much-needed minerals in the Balkans, Italy, and as far west as Spain. The rulers of Crete were therefore able to make their land into a centre for international maritime trade. Discovering the Minoan Civilization In A.D. 1900 a famous British archaeologist named Arthur Evans discovered a large palace at Knossos in north-central Crete. This palace belonged to a civilization that Evans called the Minoan civilization, named after the legendary King Minos of the Labyrinth. This civilization flourished on Crete between 2000 and 1450 B.C.. (See map) The Minoan civilization consisted of several palaces, the largest of which is located at Knossos. The palace had several purposes. It served as the residence of the king, who was the supreme ruler, along with his family and attendants. It was also a place where attendants and higher officials carried out the daily business of the palace and the area it controlled. Finally, food and trade items were stored there and redistributed to the common people of the countryside. The Minoan people lived in towns and villages. Some cultivated primarily olives and grapes. Others were craftsmen and artisans. They manufactured luxury items, such as finely painted pottery, elaborately carved stone vessels, and jewellery. These items were traded as far away as Egypt and the Near East. Trade was an important part of Minoan life. This civilization was prosperous and technologically advanced. The palaces had an advanced drainage system complete with baths. Frescoes, or wall paintings, decorated the walls of the palaces with scenes of animals, games, and religious festivals. This indicates that the Minoans were a peaceful and fun-loving people. The Minoans loved games, such as boxing and bull-leaping. Bull-leaping involved jumping onto a bull by grabbing its horns, doing a somersault, and landing back on the ground. Practice a Skill: Make a Claim, cite evidence and give reason for the claim from the text about the Discovery of the Minoan Civilization. You can refer to the Skills Unit for this! Bronze Age Centres of Power The long-distance trade networks of the Bronze Age were largely dominated by the rulers of well-placed chiefdoms and city-states which straddled the trade routes. They were able to tax the flow of trade, and their seats of power became centres of industrial activity, where goods were manufactured – especially elite items such as bronze weapons, armour and jewellery. Bronze Age cultures outside the main river valley civilizations therefore tended to consist of largely Neolithic farming populations ruled over by a small but wealthy ruling class, who lived in comparatively luxurious – and often fortified – centres. Minoan civilization is a spectacular example of this. 35 Palaces, Towns and Villas Palace complexes dotted ancient Crete. These began to be built around 2000 BCE, with phases of palace construction and enlargement interspersed with periods of decline and retrenchment. The long-term trend was for a few of the palaces to get larger, while others declined in size, or disappeared altogether. In the final phase, Knossos emerged as by far the largest and most sophisticated palace, a multi-storied complex of stone buildings impressive by any standards. It was clearly the seat of the most powerful ruler on the island. Minoan palaces were usually situated in or near towns and cities. Here lived the bronze workers, wall painters, potters and other craftsmen who worked in the palace workshops, as well as the traders and crews who manned the Minoan ships. The city of Knossos, adjacent to the great royal palace, was one of the largest urban centres anywhere in the ancient world. Between the main palaces were situated much smaller groups of buildings which scholars interpret as rural “villas” for members of the palace elite. They often exhibit the same artistic and architectural motifs as the palaces, though on a less magnificent scale. High Culture The remains of Minoan palaces, especially Knossos, show an astonishing level of material culture for the time. The larger ones would have housed hundreds of inhabitants and were serviced by elaborate water supply and sewage systems. Our knowledge of the lives of the people who lived in these palaces is limited by the fact that, although writing was practised (in the form of a script called Linear A, which was a pictographic script like Egyptian hieroglyphics and Sumerian cuneiform), it has not yet been deciphered by modern scholars. Lively and colourful wall frescoes, however, have survived, as well as some statuettes and painted pottery. These give us a vivid glimpse of some aspects of Minoan life. They depict a religious life dominated by priestesses. Their ceremonial dress was almost Victorian in its shape and decoration, with its wide skirts and tight bodices; but there was one glaring difference – the Minoan priestly dresses were bare-breasted. This is likely linked to a fertility cult, prevalent in ancient religions. 36  Cypro Minoan Tablet from Enkomi in the Louvre A fresco found at the Minoan site indicates a sport or ritual of “bull leaping” Another remarkable feature shown in the paintings is bull jumping – a sport undertaken by both men and women. This too was almost certainly connected to religious ceremonies, as was most public sport in the pre-modern world. It is tempting to see here the origins of bullfighting, which became prevalent in southern Europe hundreds of years later. Far-flung influence The influence of Minoan civilization spread to many places on the Mediterranean coast – on the Greek mainland, where it had a major impact on the emerging Mycenaean civilization; on the coast of Asia Minor; as far west as the coasts of Italy and Sicily; and in the east, on the Canaanite culture. Minoan pottery has also been found in Egypt. Minoan traders and sailors journeyed far and wide in search of trade items, and, judging by the power and wealth apparent at Knossos, the Minoans came to dominate maritime trade in the eastern and central Mediterranean. Decline and Fall In about 1400 BCE, the archaeological evidence shows a sudden break in the historical record – the palace of Knossos collapsed, and its inhabitants dispersed. Palace-building returned after a little while, but on a smaller scale; and the script has changed – it is now one which scholars call Linear B. This script has, unlike Linear A, been deciphered, with most of the documents relating to routine trade and administration. Linear B was also used on the Greek mainland at this time, and this suggests that the centres of power in Crete had been taken over by conquerors from Greece. These held sway for some two centuries before vanishing. 37 Decline of Minoan Civilization There are multiple theories for Minoan decline and in all likelihood, it is a combination of a series of unfortunate incidents that led to its decline. Social scientists (historians, archaeologists, geologists, etc) have all theorised and continue to theorise the factors that led to the decline of Minoan civilization. So far evidence has shown that the decline can be attributed to multiple factors. 1. Volcanic explosion of Thera/ Santorini Volcano: The island of Santorini, 70 miles north of Crete, was home to the wealthy Minoan seaport of Akrotiri, a place where the wall paintings discovered portray their landscape with happy animals and farmers harvesting saffron. But the Minoans had built their prosperous city on one of the most dangerous islands on earth, next to the volcano Thera. Around 1600, B.C., Akrotiri was shaken by a violent earthquake. Some time later, an eruption occurred. The Theran eruption was one of the largest in human history — blasting more than 10 million tons of ash, gas, and rock 25 miles into the atmosphere. Incredibly, despite Crete’s proximity to the volcano, the debris from Thera largely missed the major Minoan towns. 2. Collapse of trade routes: There is evidence that the trade networks had also collapsed and that Minoan cities might have perished by famine. The Minoans' grain supply is believed to have come from farms on the shore of the Black Sea and the collapse of trade networks may have begun the decline too. 3. Conquests by Mycenaeans (The Mycenaeans took over the Minoans): The Minoan civilization began to weaken around 1450 BC. Archaeologists think this might have been due to a natural disaster such as an earthquake. The Greek-speaking Mycenaeans from the mainland came to dominate Crete, but by 1300 BCE, the town appeared to have been destroyed either by unknown attackers or a natural disaster such as an earthquake or drought. Occupied by the Mycenaeans, Crete became a Greek city-state, and the Minoan civilization that had flourished for more than 1,000 years was at an end. After that, there are no signs of palace building, of writing, or any other kind of high culture, for several centuries. When at last literate civilization returns to the island it is as part of the civilization of Classical Greece, an entirely different one from that of the Minoans. A new chapter in the history of the world has begun. 38 Mycenaeans The Mycenaeans developed on mainland Greece and ruled the region from around 1600 BC to 1100 BC. They are sometimes called the first Greeks because they were the first to speak the Greek language. Their largest city was called Mycenae, which gives the culture its name. Mycenae was a large city that had a population of around 30,000 people at its peak. Other Mycenaean cities grew into major city-states during the height of Ancient Greece such as Thebes and Athens. The Mycenaeans developed trade throughout the Mediterranean. They built large trade ships and travelled to places like Egypt where they traded goods like olive oil and wine for metals and ivory. The Mycenaean civilization sprang to life suddenly in southern and central Greece in about 1600 BCE. This civilization was named after an important palace, Mycenae, located in the Peloponnese on mainland Greece (the southern region of Greece connected to the rest of the country by the Isthmus of Corinth). (See map) It was discovered by a famous German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in A.D. 1876. The Mycenaeans were Greeks who came to the Greek mainland about 2000 B.C. By about 1500 B.C., there emerged a civilization as prosperous and wealthy as that of Minoan Crete. 39 During the height of the Mycenaean reign, palaces extended throughout southern and central Greece. Trade was established in all directions including modern-day Italy, Turkey and Egypt. From bronze weapons and armour found in tombs, as well as from frescos and vase paintings, we know that the Mycenaeans were capable of conducting warfare on a large scale. The invention of the chariot around 1600 BCE, allowed for brutal charges against enemy lines. Similar to stories told in The Iliad, it is believed that military leaders would have fought alongside infantry during the numerous military engagements. Achilles from the Iliad Vase paintings The Mycenaean civilization would reach a peak in 1300 BCE and would most likely have been one of the dominant empires in the Aegean region. It is strange then, that only 100 years later, around 1200 BCE, the civilization began to disappear. The Mycenaean palaces, still functioning and filled with treasure, were abandoned. Villages and towns were burned to the ground and the once-content civilians were scattered across Greece. By the end of the 12th century, the palace system that had constituted the power of the Mycenaean civilization had vanished. The Mycenaeans Conquer the Minoans The Minoan civilization began to weaken around 1450 BC. Archaeologists think this might have been due to a natural disaster such as an earthquake. The Mycenaeans took over the islands of the Minoans and adopted much of the Minoan culture. They adapted the writing of the Minoans to their language. Today this writing is called "Linear B." (as shown below) 40 Collapse of the Mycenaeans The Mycenaean civilization began to collapse around 1250 BC when many of their cities were burnt to the ground. After this, they continued to decline and were not a major power in the region. Archaeologists are unsure of what caused the collapse. It might have been foreign invaders such as the Sea Peoples or the Dorians. It may also have been a natural disaster such as an earthquake or drought. Epics based on The Mycenaean Civilization Homer, the first known Greek poet; who lived about 700 B.C. in his epic Illiad wrote of another civilization that arose after the fall of the Minoan civilization. It was called the Mycenaean civilization. In his epic, the Iliad, Homer described the wealthy palaces where heroic kings, such as Agamemnon of Mycenae, lived. These kings waged war against the people of Troy, a walled city located on the coast of northern Turkey, on the east side of the Aegean. According to the story, the Mycenaeans defeated the Trojans in a battle inside the city walls after hiding inside a large wooden horse (the Trojan Horse), which the Trojans were tricked into bringing inside the city gates. This civilization was named after an important palace, Mycenae, located in the Peloponnese on mainland Greece (the southern region of Greece connected to the rest of the country by the Isthmus of Corinth). (See map) It was discovered by a famous German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in A.D. 1876. The Mycenaeans were Greeks who came to the Greek mainland about 2000 B.C. By about 1500 B.C., there emerged a civilization as prosperous and wealthy as that of Minoan Crete. Archaeological Evidence of Mycenae The archaeological remains in the Peloponnese consist of large palaces that served the same purposes as those found on Crete, Unlike the Minoans, however, the Mycenaeans were a warlike people. The palaces were surrounded by well-built walls for defence. The frescoes on the walls show many scenes of hunting and warfare. Bronze weapons and body armour and helmets made of ivory tusks were also found among the artefacts. For survival in case of siege, the Mycenaeans built underground tunnels leading to a water well outside the palace gates. Like the Minoans, the Mycenaeans cultivated olives and grapes and traded jars of oil and wine, as well as painted pottery, throughout the Mediterranean region. Mycenaeans buried their dead in monumental family tombs. The burial chamber of the tomb was dug into a hillside and was approached by a long tunnel-like entrance (called a dromos). The dead were buried with their belongings (painted pottery, gold jewellery and cups, and weapons) on the floor or in a pit of the Chamber. 41  The End of the Mycenaean Civilization The Mycenaeans had a written language, which was written on rectangular clay tablets. The script is called "Linear B" because its characters consist of lines. The tablets contain lists of food and other products made, stored, and distributed by the palace officials. They contain no historical information that can tell us of any wars or the reason for the end of this civilization. Disaster struck the palaces between about 1200 and 1100 B.C. They were destroyed by fire, and the people abandoned their homes. Many causes could have contributed to the fall of this civilization: drought, civil war, or outside invaders from the north called the Dorians. There is no evidence, however, to tell us exactly what happened. Heinrich Schliemann, discoverer of the Mycenaean Civilization Like the Minoans, the Mycenaeans were a civilization lost to the modern world. No evidence of the Mycenaeans or the city of Troy, also talked about in the Iliad, was to be found. However, in the 1800's, a German amateur archaeologist, by the name of Heinrich Schliemann, was convinced that the Trojans and Achaeans actually existed. He was fascinated by the Iliad; with his copy in hand, along with his wife, Schliemann set out to find ancient Troy. Based on a description in Homer's Iliad, Schliemann found a hill in modern Turkey that fit this description of the location of Troy. Amazingly, as Schliemann dug, ancient Troy was revealed. Feeling he was on a roll, Schliemann then went to Greece, where he uncovered the lost city of Mycenae, high in the mountains. The Mycenaean palaces proved the wealth of the kings who ruled them. The Palaces included a large meeting hall, called a Megaron, and kings were buried in deep shaft graves along with their riches. Later tombs, called tholos, or beehive tombs, were built with massive stones and covered with earth. Since Greece is mountainous, the best form of transportation is by the sea. The Mycenaeans were seafaring people, all of the city-states were close to the sea, but far enough way that, should the city be attacked, the inhabitants would have time to react.The Mycenaeans were bellicose by nature, attacking others, especially by sea, and fighting among themselves. Though they all spoke Greek, and worshipped the same gods, the Mycenaeans were separated into independent city-states, each with its own king. The Mycenaeans made weapons and armour from Bronze, giving this age its name: The Bronze Age. The Mycenaeans often settled battles between city-states by one-on-one combat, with each city-state taxiing their champion to battle by chariot. 42 How the later Greeks felt about the Mycenaeans The later Greeks told stories about the Mycenaeans who preceded them, like the poet Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. In the eyes of the later Greeks, the Mycenaeans were larger than life. One reason for this belief comes from the ruins of the Mycenaean city-states. The walls around these palaces are massive, made from blocks of stone weighing several tons and carried to the mountain-top settlements. The later Greeks called these walls cyclopean walls, named after the one-eyed giant race, because the later Greeks felt only giants could move the stones. A walled mountain or hilltop settlement is called a citadel. Fall of the Mycenaeans The Dorians from the north attack the Mycenaeans with their iron weapons. Around 1200 BC, we have evidence that the Mycenaeans increased the size of the walls around their cities. Something was threatening civilization. Perhaps there was increased fighting among the Mycenaean cities, or perhaps there was a foreign invasion from the north of Greece. Maybe the long war with Troy took its toll on civilization. Whatever the reason, the Mycenaean civilization collapsed around 1100 B.C. There is evidence that the great palace cities were burned by those who replaced the Mycenaeans. After the fall of the Mycenaeans, Greek culture declined. People no longer kept written records. Without such records, historians know little about the period from 1200 to 750 B.C. A Dark Age is a time when there are no historical records (writing) and also a time of fear, uncertainty, and violence. The Greek Dark Age was a period of decline, famine, and lower population throughout the region. This period lasted from around 1100 B.C to 800 B.C. Those who replaced the Mycenaeans are called the Dorians, Greeks from the north who, as the story goes, were the sons of Heracles (whom the Romans called Hercules). These sons of Heracles had been driven out of the Mycenaean world but vowed to return someday. The Dorians used iron weapons, and Mycenaean bronze, though more beautiful and artful, was no match for Dorian iron. Iron replaced bronze during the Dark Age. The Dorians did not need the Mycenaean palaces and burned them down. The Dorians were now the masters of Greece. Surprisingly one Mycenaean city, called Athens, was unaffected by the Dorian invasion. People in Athens carried on many Mycenaean traditions. Meanwhile, in the Middle East, the Phoenicians had developed the world's first alphabet. 43 In Summary: Here is a Timeline of the history of the Greek Civilization 1. Stone Age (Prehistory to 4000 BCE) Humans settle in Greece later than in other parts of Europe. Development of advanced economies and social structures by 4000 BCE. 2. Bronze Age (3000 to 1100 BCE) Introduction and improvement of metalworking. Increased natural resource exploitation and overseas exchange. Formation of city-states for protection during periods of conflict. 3. Iron Age (1100 to 31 BCE) Includes the Greek Dark Ages, Classic Period, and Hellenistic Period. First Olympic Games held in 776 BCE. Evolution of government from monarchy to oligarchy to tyranny and democracy. Athens and Sparta emerge as powerful city-states. Use these points and create a Flow Chart in your notebooks. Write key words and phrases for each stage. 1. Greek Civilization Stages (Write about the different Ages, and key aspects of that age) 2. Minoan and Mycenaean Civilizations (Write about the two civilizations in a single sentence- location/ key aspects of architecture/ what they were known for) 3. Geography's Impact (Talk about the terrain and geography and its influence in points) 4. Decline and Legacy (Talk about ‘why’ in 3 points) 44 The Rise of the Polis or City-States After the Greek dark ages, villages started to band together, in part for protection and in part for more organized trade. They wanted strong trading centers. Groups of villages that banded together were called city-states. There are no city-states left in Greece today. But long ago, there were hundreds of city-states in ancient Greece, some really small ones and some really big ones with large populations. Each ancient Greek city-state had its own form of government and its own army, and even sometimes its own navy. Each city-state certainly has its own way of doing things. Still, the city-states of ancient Greece had many things in common. They all spoke the same language; they all believed in the same gods; they all worshiped in the same way; they all thought of themselves as Greeks. But they were loyal to their city-state. If you asked someone in ancient Greece where they were from, they would not say they were from Greece, because Greece at that time was not a country. It was a collection of city-states, each with its own personality and way of doing things. They would say they were from Athens, or Sparta, or Corinth, or Argos. The Greeks were very proud of their own city-state. The city-states banded together to fight outsiders. They also banded together to fight each other. 46 Five of the most powerful cities were Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Argos and Megara. The territory of Greece is mountainous; as a result, ancient Greece consisted of many smaller regions, each with its own dialect, cultural peculiarities, and identity. Cities tended to be located in valleys between mountains or on coastal plains and dominated the countryside around them. In Summary: Emergence of City-States (Polis): After the Greek Dark Ages, villages united for protection and trade, forming city-states. Each city-state (polis) was an independent entity with its own government and military. Common language, religion, and self-identification as Greeks unified these city-states, despite their loyalty to their own polis. What is a City- State? A city-state is an independent unit made up of one city and the surrounding villages and farmland. There were hundreds of city-states in ancient Greece, some really small ones and some really big ones with large populations. Some city-states were so powerful that they controlled other city-states. Why did Greece develop city-states? One major reason why ancient Greece was dominated by small city-states and independent towns, rather than by one all-powerful king, is its geography. The country's mountainous terrain, many isolated valleys, and numerous offshore islands encouraged the formation of many local centers of power, rather than one all-powerful capital. Another key factor influencing the formation of city-states rather than kingdoms was the Mediterranean. Such a calm and easily navigable sea provided the Greeks with an opportunity to found new colonies in times of crisis and overpopulation. It also appealed to their sense of heroism and adventure. A final reason behind the development of city-states was the Greek aristocracy, who acted to prevent any permanent monarchies from forming. They defended the political independence of their cities vigorously. As a result, any individual who did manage to take over a city could only hope to do so for a short time as a 'tyrant' rather than a king. Without a powerful, centralized state, smaller governing bodies created political order. One such type of governing body was the city-state or polis. Initially, the term polis referred to a fortified area or citadel which offered protection during times of war. Because of the relative safety these structures afforded, people flocked to them and set up communities and commercial centers. Over time, poleis—the plural of polis—became urban centers whose power and influence extended to the surrounding agricultural regions, which provided resources and paid taxes. By around 800 BCE, there were many poleis which functioned independently. In response to their 47 own specific contexts, each city-state created a different form of governance, ranging from monarchies and oligarchies to militaristic societies and proto-democracies. Monarchies were sometimes ruled by a tyrant—a ruler who did not follow any set laws. Oligarchies were small groups of powerful individuals who ran city-state government. Oligarchs and tyrants often competed for power. Democracies were governments that allowed citizens to vote on and participate in making state decisions. Layout of the City: The center of city life was the agora. The agora was an open space where people came for business and public gatherings. Male citizens met there to discuss politics. Festivals and athletic contests were held there. Statues, temples, and other public buildings were found in and around the agora. Many cities had a fortified hilltop called an acropolis. The word means “highest city.” At first, people used the acropolis mainly for military purposes; high places are easier to defend. Later the Greeks built temples and palaces on the flat tops of these hills. Ordinary houses were built along the hill’s base. Geography and Development: Greece's mountainous terrain led to the formation of isolated city-states. The Mediterranean Sea facilitated trade and colonization, influencing city-state development. Aristocratic efforts to prevent monarchies led to diverse forms of government, including tyrannies and oligarchies. City-State Governance: Varied forms of government emerged, from monarchies to democracies. The agora was the center of public life, where citizens discussed politics and commerce. Some city-states, like Athens, experimented with early forms of democracy, where male citizens could participate in decision-making. Observe: Athens from the Air - A modern artist painted this watercolor showing Athens and its surrounding lands. Notice how the Acropolis is much higher than everything else. 48 Athens Athens was the largest city in Greece, and one of the oldest, having been inhabited for at least 7000 years. Presently, the city is also known as the "Cradle of Civilization", due to the fact it was the birthplace of democracy, western philosophy, the Olympic Games, political science, western literature, major mathematical principles and theatre. It has also experimented with every form of governing we know today, such as diplomacy, dictatorship, republic and aristocracy. Athens controlled a region called Attica. The city became extremely wealthy because of the many valuable resources Attica had to offer, such as silver, lead and marble. Athens also had the largest navy in Greece, and was well renowned for its sea warfare. Athens contained a temple, dedicated to Athena the goddess of wisdom, the city-states' protector, called the Parthenon, which was built on Acropolis, a hill in the middle of Athens. A 12- metre high statue of Athena was located inside the temple, made of ivory and gold, drawing people from all over Greece to come and worship and pray at the temple. Many great philosophers have come from Athens, and Greece as a whole, such as Socrates, Aristotle and Plato. They shared their ideas to the public about science, astronomy and the geography of Earth. They also have provided us with an insight into what ancient life was like with their books and transcripts having survived the ages. Athens is considered the Cradle of Civilization with good reason. Western civilization runs on government systems inspired by Athens, and other legacies such as theatre and literature are prominent themes in today’s contemporary society. Athens emerged as the dominant economic power in Greece around the late sixth century BCE, its power and wealth was further bolstered by the discovery of silver in the neighbouring mountains. Athens was at the centre of an efficient trading system with other Greek city states. Trade was incredibly important for Athens, as it did not have the agricultural conditions to cultivate enough grain for its population. Social Structure among Athenian Society Freemen were all male citizens: divided into numerous classes: at the top were aristocrats who had large estates and made up the cavalry or captained triremes; middle ranks were small farmers; lowest class was the thetes (urban craftsmen). Metics - those who came from outside the city; they were not allowed to own land, but could run industries and businesses. 49  Slaves were lowest class, but less harshly treated than in most other Greek cities. Slaves had no rights, and an owner could kill a slave. Slaves varied in status: some were given important roles in Athens, like policemen. Women were rarely seen outside the home and had no rights in the Athenian democracy. Form of Government: Limited Democracy Usually classified as a "direct democracy" (because everyone, not just politicians attended the Assembly), Athens claims to be the "birthplace of democracy". Athens transitioned through different systems of government as its population grew and became wealthier through maritime trade. This wealth became increasingly concentrated in the hands of a few members of the aristocracy, who were also political leaders, leaving other members of society in debt, sometimes to the point of being forced into debt slavery. Further, there was a perceived lack of consistency among the laws of the city. The Assembly was the regular opportunity for all male citizens of Athens to speak their minds and exercise their votes regarding the government of their city. It was the most central and most definitive institution of Athenian Democracy. One of the major legacies of ancient Greece is the idea of citizenship, which the Greeks invented. In today’s world, a citizen is a person who is loyal to a government and who is entitled to protection by that government. To the Greeks, a citizen was a person with the right to take part in ruling the city-state. A citizen had to be born to parents who were free citizens. In much of ancient Greece, people of both upper and lower classes were citizens, but only upper-class citizens had power. Athenian democracy was limited to its male citizens. So to be accurate Ancient Athens did not enjoy direct democracy but limited democracy. Foreigners, enslaved people, and women were excluded from these institutions. Women’s roles were largely confined to the private sphere, where they were responsible for raising children and managing the household, including enslaved people if the household could afford them. While women of the upper classes were often literate, most were not likely to receive an education beyond what was needed for the execution of their domestic duties. They required male chaperones to travel in public. Enslaved people, while not involved in political affairs, were integral to the Athenian economy. They cultivated food, worked large construction projects, and laboured in mines and quarries. Enslaved people were present in most Athenian households, carrying out an array of domestic duties. The first series of laws written to address these inequities was provided by the statesman Draco around 621 BCE, but the laws were considered too severe—the penalty for most infractions was death! This is where we get the term draconian! An aristocrat named Solon was called upon to modify and revise these harsh laws; he created a series of laws which equalised political power. Two of the changes for which Solon was responsible were the cancellation of debts and the 50 abolition of debt slavery. He also created opportunities for some common people to participate in the government of Athens. In doing so, Solon laid the groundwork for democracy in Athens. Other important Athenians included Pericles led Athens between 461 and 429 BCE; he was an incredibly well-liked leader known for encouraging culture, philosophy, and science and for advocating for the common people. Under Pericles, Athens entered its golden age and great thinkers, writers, and artists flourished in the city. Herodotus—the “father of history”—lived and wrote in Athens. Socrates—the “father of philosophy”—taught in the marketplace. Hippocrates—“the father of medicine”—practised there. Emphasis on Democracy, Culture, Education Athens believed in participation in government as a civic responsibility. Athenians believed in their cultural superiority and in their role in an empire and benefiting from trade. They gave a lot of importance to education. Schools taught reading, writing and mathematics, music, poetry, sport and gymnastics. Based upon their birth and the wealth of their parents, the length of education was from the age of 5 to 14, for the wealthier 5 - 18 and sometimes into a student's mid-twenties in an academy where they would also study philosophy, ethics, and rhetoric (the skill of persuasive public speaking). Finally, the citizen boys entered a military training camp for two years, until the age of twenty. Foreign metics and slaves were not expected to attain anything but a basic education in Greece, but were not excluded from it either. Girls: Girls received little formal education (except perhaps in the aristocrats' homes through tutors); they were generally kept at home and had no political power in Athens. The education of a girl involved spinning, weaving, and other domestic art. Role of Women Athenian women and girls were kept at home with no participation in sports or politics. Wives were considered property of their husbands. They were responsible for spinning, weaving and other domestic arts. Some women held high posts in the ritual events and religious life of Athens (where the goddess Athena was the patron). Some became influential such as Aspasia. In Summary: Athens: Known as the "Cradle of Civilization," Athens was influential in democracy, philosophy, and the arts. Governed by a form of direct democracy, Athens emphasized education, culture, and military training. Athenian society was stratified, with distinct roles for citizens, metics, slaves, and women. 51 City State of Sparta Sparta was located on a peninsula called Peloponnesus, south-west of Athens. It rose to power in 650 BC, and remained in prominence long after its final defeat of Athens until a gradual downfall in the early middle ages. This Greek city-state had an extremely military-focused governing system. It was ruled by two kings who were elected by the Spartan upper-class, the Spartiates. These kings would remain in power until they died or were forced out by the 'Council of Elders' for failing to rule properly or major misconduct. Gerousia, as the Council was known, contained thirty 60-year-old Spartiate veterans who were believed to be wise and experienced by their years at war. Due to the amount of them compared to the two kings, Gerousia substantially reduced the kings' power. In the Spartan government there was also an assembly of citizens, but they did not hold the same powers as the citizens in the Athenian democratic system. Spartan Warrior- As this statue shows, Spartans valued military strength. Probably only an officer of high rank could wear the crested helment shown here. During the 5th century BC, Sparta was in what was considered its prime. Spartan society was focused on producing brave and unyielding soldiers, and they recognized the female citizens as a vital part in this process. Spartan women had much more freedom compared to Athenian women, and were encouraged to exercise and speak out, as a strong and fit woman was more likely to produce healthy offspring. All male citizens were part of the army or served those in it, depending on social class. The Spartan army was among the best of its time, renowned for brutality and crushing battle techniques. The Spartan army quickly gained dominance in Greece and remained in control of the vast majority of the country's military, leading the Greek forces in important battles against foreign nations, such as during the Persian wars. 52 Sparta had three classes of citizens. The highest social class was the aristocratic Spartiates. Similar to medieval European knights, the Spartiates were a class of military professionals who lived in a communal barracks until they were 30. Their lands were farmed by slaves, and they rarely saw their wives and children, leaving them free to pursue the career which was expected of them - warfare. The middle class was called the Perioeci. It was made up of farmers and artisans, and those who were the descendants of the cities the Spartans had conquered. The Perioeci paid taxes and could serve in the army, but they had no political rights. The bottom class and the most ill-treated was named the Helots. This was a class of slaves and those who resisted subjugation to Spartan rule. The Spartans also maintained a strict military social order due to the need to keep the Helots subdued. Rebellion in the lower classes was a real threat to Sparta. The Spartans attempted to control them by forming a troop of soldiers that annually murdered any helot suspected of encouraging subversion. They also created an Olympic-styled series of physical events featuring wrestling, swimming, discus and other physical challenges, with the winners promised freedom. In reality, they were taken away and killed, as the Spartans identified the victors to be possible figureheads for rebellion. This treatment of the slave populace, harsh punishments and strictly enforced regulations with its own people, combined with the empowering and unforgiving force of the Spartan military, has given Sparta the reputation we know of today. Colloquial language often unknowingly refers to the ancient Spartans' minimalistic ways when considering something to be 'spartan' in appearance. The Spartan legacy is still in military tactics and training processes, and is still largely studied in historical education departments. 53 In Summary: Sparta: A military-focused city-state known for its rigorous training and social structure. Governed by two kings, a council of elders, and an assembly with limited powers compared to Athens. Spartan society was divided into Spartiates, Perioeci, and Helots, with a focus on military prowess and discipline. Key Differences Between Athens and Sparta: Legacy of City-States: Athens valued democracy, culture, and The concept of citizenship and education, while Sparta prioritized participatory governance from Athens military strength and discipline. influences modern democratic societies. Athenian women had limited roles, Spartan military discipline and strategy whereas Spartan women enjoyed more continue to be studied for their historical freedoms and responsibilities. significance and impact. The Athenian economy was based on The rivalry and cooperation among trade and silver mining; Sparta's city-states shaped the cultural and political economy relied on agriculture and landscape of ancient Greece, leaving a conquest. lasting legacy on Western civilization. 54