SS30-1 Final Exam Review 1 PDF

Social Studies 30-1 Study Guide 2024-2025  2 To what extent should we embrace an ideology? Issue I: To what extent should ideology be the foundation of i...

Social Studies 30-1 Study Guide 2024-2025  2 To what extent should we embrace an ideology? Issue I: To what extent should ideology be the foundation of identity? Identity: A person’s idea of whom or what one is. A person’s national identity and personal identity is made up of how they perceive themselves or how other people view them. Beliefs and values are important aspects of identity. Personal identity is the idea that you think of yourself as a unique individual. Collective identity is one that you share with other people of a larger social group such as a faith or an ethnic group. (pg. 23) “Only you can be yourself, no one else is qualified for the job.” Ideology: A set of beliefs and values. There is an ideological difference between those who value individualism and those who value collectivism. For example, individualists believe in benefitting themselves and value self-reliance. Collectivists believe in economic equality and placing the goals of society before themselves. However, there are some people who believe in a mixture of the two. Ideology can also influence a person’s identity. (pg. 24) Progressivism: A term associated with some ideologies that advocate moderate political and social reform through government intervention. Progressive ideologies generally support social justice and support the rights of workers. A) Factors that may influence identity and ideology: (pg. 32-46) Family influence: Gender: Religion and Spirituality: Environment: Relationship to the Land: Language: Media: Government:  3 B) Historic and contemporary expressions of individualism & collectivism. Individualism: Individualism is a characterized by freedom of the individual. There is a lack of restraint by the government on the freedom of the individual. Government, most of the time, is not to interfere with the way that individuals choose to conduct their lives. Thus, individualism is closely linked to the idea of a liberal ideology. Individualism is a key value of liberalism because personal freedoms and rights are protected. Individualism is also characterized by economic freedom and private property. Most individualistic ideologies stress the importance of personal autonomy and self-reliance. There are many ideologies based on individualism. (pg. 65) Collectivism: Collective societies limit the freedom of individuals for the good of society. Where individualism tends to be associated with liberalism, collectivism has encompassed wide range of ideologies such as communism, fascism, socialism, cooperatives, and some religious communities. The central idea of collectivism is that people work together and cooperate to achieve a common goal and to protect the common good. This communal sharing leads to economic equality. A collective economy eliminates the inequality of individualistic economies. (pg. 66) C) Characteristics of ideology. Personal identity is shaped by ideologies: Interpretations of History: Interpretations of history, or the past, is another characteristic of ideology, because the events in our pasts tend to influence the beliefs and values that we hold. Their views of the past will affect their identity and the way that they interpret the world. (pg. 50) Visions of the Future: All ideologies, or the founders of ideologies, have a vision of what the world should look like in the future. These future visions all involve making life better. This vision of the future will help guide the actions of people who embrace the ideology. (pg. 50) Structure of Society: Social structures are what bind us together as a society and help the society to function in an orderly fashion. There are political, economic, and social structures within society. Social structures can be formal like minimum wage laws to keep people earning and they can be informal like respecting the elderly. The ideology of a nation will determine what kind of social structures are in place in that society. (pg. 49) Examples of Social Structures: _____________________________________________________________ Examples of Economic Structures: _____________________________________________________________ Examples of Political Structures: _____________________________________________________________ Beliefs of Human Nature: Beliefs about human nature, about whether people are good or bad, are fundamental to any ideology. How you view others could determine what ideology you believe in. Individuals such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau  4 (pg. 16-18) have all attempted to explain human nature and have helped to develop different ideologies. (pg. 49) - Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): Security over freedom. Hobbes believed that humans were not evil, but that they were selfish by nature. Thus, in the absence of a governing body, this selfishness would result in chaos and lead to harm for all. He wrote that all people should give up their freedoms and liberties and give power to a protecting ruler called the Leviathan. This was to ensure that everyone would be secure. Hobbes did not think that it was possible to have both freedom and security. Hobbes swathe social contract as the state assuring the security of the citizens by the citizens surrendering their freedoms to the authority of the state. (pg. 109) - John Locke (1632-1704): Locke opposed the absolute authority and authoritarianism and totalitarianism of the state and the church as he felt that the individual should rely on themselves to make important decisions, rather than having decisions imposed on them. Locke, in his Two Treatises of Government, outlined a social contract whereby people give up some of their natural rights to a government to receive social order and security for themselves and their private property. In this way, citizens can retain sovereignty over themselves. Locke further believed that the government should be directly responsible and accountable to the people. Locke believed in Representative Democracy. (pg. 109) - Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): Rousseau was a Swiss philosopher who was very interested in the common good. He believed that people are born good but were corrupted by society and that humans should be free and equal. He believed that private property would lead to jealousy. While Locke believed in Representative Democracy, Rousseau believed in Direct Democracy where the citizens make decisions directly. D) Explore themes of ideologies: Nation: Involves being linked to a specific country, like Canada eh, or a group of people with the same culture, history and traditions. People care deeply about their nation and this is an important factor when a person adopts an ideology. Class: The division of a society into different classes of people, usually based on income or wealth. Examples include the middle and upper class. Class is important for ideologies because ideologies such as communism try to solve the class struggle by working towards economic equality. Relationship to the Land & Environmentalism: Involves the relationship between the humans and the earth. A belief that the environment is a global concern that must be addressed is an ideology that has created movements to solve environmental problems. The creation of the Green Party and the NGO Greenpeace are examples of people with such an ideology taking action to try to influence government policies to protect our resources and the earth.  5 E) Individualism as a foundation of Ideology. Liberalism: A collection of ideologies all committed to the principle and of the freedom of the individual. Liberalism has faith in human progress and tends to favour decentralized power. There are two types of liberalism, Classical Liberalism and Modern Liberalism. Liberal societies ensure the rights and freedoms of their citizens. In Canada these rights are guaranteed by the Charter of Rights & Freedoms (1982) including the right to vote and freedom of religion. The concept of self-interest is central to liberal economies. Also, liberal economies function without government intervention except when necessary to protect individuals from harm. Citizens in liberal economies are encouraged to own private property. (pg. 73) “The reason why men enter in politics is in the preservation of their property.” Rule of Law: In a liberal society every individual is equal before the law and no one, not even our elected officials, is above the law. The Magna Carta, signed in 1215 by King John, limited the powers of the monarchy and ensured they also must follow written law. (pg. 72) Economic Freedom: The ability for individuals to choose what they want to buy (consumerism), what to sell, and where to looks after their own self-interest. Markets with limited government intervention are called free markets that include reduced barriers to trade (Free trade). (pg. 78) - Free trade: Nations that trade with each other without tariffs or taxes. Sometimes free trade may hurt domestic or local businesses so a tax is levied on some goods to protect these domestic businesses (Protectionism). - Protectionism: The opposite of free trade. Where nation-states use tariffs (taxes) or restrictive quotas on imported goods to ensure there is a fair balance between goods imported and goods produces domestically. “Eliminating barriers to trade creates new export markets for producers and suppliers and more choices for our consumers.” Where is Canada ranked in the world when it pertains to economic freedom and why? Economic Freedom Index... http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking Self-Interest & Competition: These are two concepts that are closely related to the ideas of economic freedom. The classical liberal Adam Smith believed that competition would ensure both efficiency and that only the best producers would survive. Smith also believed that self-interest would eventually contribute to the common good of everyone. (pg. 78) Think… P.R.I.C.E.S Private Property, Rule of Law, Individual Rights and Freedoms, Competition, Economic Freedom, Self-Interest  6 F) Collectivism as a foundation of ideology. Collectivism: There is an emphasis on economic equality and the welfare of all the people. Equality is achieved through heavy governmental intervention and sometimes referred to as the welfare state. The ideologies of communism and socialism are based on the principles of collectivism. Over time, most liberal ideologies have adopted some aspects of collectivism into their political, economic and social systems. (pg. 80) Economic equality: Karl Marx envisioned that all workers would share the means of production and this would create equality and equity (fairness) among the people. However, in liberal democracies economic equality refers to government tax policies and redistribution of wealth. In Canada the government attempts of created economic equality through the policy of progressive taxation where the government taxes individuals based on the amount of income they bring home, higher income means higher income taxes. (pg. 80) Cooperation: The means through which common goals are achieved. Everyone works together to achieve these goals. Although cooperation is a principle of communism even in liberal democracies there are aspects of working together such as cooperatives. (pg. 81) Public property: Anything that is not privately owned. Public property is owned by the state or the community, and managed in the collective interests of the community. In a communist state all industries are public property and controlled by the state such as Stalin’s policy of collectivization and the Five Year Plans. In Marx’s The Communist Manifesto (1848) he wrote, “the theory of the communists can be summed up in a single sentence: Abolition of private property.” Karl’s motto was, “to each according to his need...” The concept of public property is also present to a lesser extent in liberal democracies such as Canada. Besides Crown Corporations, parks and schools are all examples of property that the government manages in the interest of all society. These properties are maintained with public money generated through taxation. (pg. 82) Collective Interest: Refers to interests that members of a larger group have in common. People that have collective interests may form groups and try to influence others to accept or adopt their beliefs and ideologies. These groups include lobby groups (also known as lobbyists or pressure groups) and NGO’s. Collective interest is the foundation for the organization of labour movements (unions) which began as a result of the unfair working conditions of the Industrial Revolution. As members of organized trade unions, workers were able to fight for better working conditions and better pay. (pg. 83) Collective Responsibility: An idea that holds the whole group responsible for the actions of individuals within the group. Lobby groups such as MADD and tobacco coalitions use the idea of collective responsibility to create awareness about the dangers of drunk driving and smoking. Sometimes collective responsibility may occur in totalitarian states (state where complete authority rests with the state and controls all aspects of private and public life) such as Hitler’s Nazi Germany where it was encouraged to inform the government about dissident behaviour of  7 neighbours and even family members. This is also true in communist China and North Korea. (pg. 85) Adherence to Collective Norms: The following of normal behaviour relating to conduct, values, and behaviour. Dressing appropriately for church and school is adhering to the collective norm. Sometimes to achieve this norm the government must censor some information or programming as not to offend members or our society. (pg. 86) In authoritarian states adherence to norms is strictly enforced and maintained through fear and terror. These societies usually have secret police to maintain norms and thus control. Think… P.E.A & 3Cs Public Property, Economic Equality, Adherence to Public Norms, Cooperation, Common Good, Collective Responsibility G) The dynamic between individualism and the common good in contemporary societies. Individualism and the Common Good: Modern societies incorporate elements of both individualism and collectivism. In Canada, which is a liberal democracy, individual liberties are provided for while protecting the common good. Our freedoms are protected by the Constitution and we may own private property and vote for whomever we choose. At the same time, Canada has government programs designed to assist those who need social assistance. The goal is to find a balance between individualism and collectivism that will provide the most benefit for the most people. This is the common good. People are free to pursue their own interests, but they also have obligations to their communities to achieve the common good. The Jeff Skoll foundation and the Bill and Melinda Gates foundation are examples of successful individuals contributing to the common good. (pg. 87) Questions for Issue #1 1. Describe the Israeli communities known as Kibbutzim. What is their purpose? (pg. 94) 2. Who is Dr. Muhammad Yunus and how has he combined the ideologies of individualism and collectivism? (pg. 91) 3. What is supply and demand? When will the price of a good/service decrease? (pg.79)  8 4. Who is John Kenneth Galbraith? What did he mean by the following quote, “under communism, man exploits man, under capitalism, it’s the opposite”? (pg. 79) 5. Read “Tommy Douglas” on page 53 and describe his beliefs and ideology. Is he an individualist or a collectivist? What are some of his contributions to both Saskatchewan and Canada? 6. Who is Milton Friedman and which world leaders did his free market policies influence? (pg. 54) 7. Identify six principles of individualism? (pg. 71) 8. What are intellectual property rights? ( pg. 76-77) -------------------------READY FOR TEST #1------------------------- Issue #2: To what extent is resistance to liberalism justified? A) Aboriginal contributions to the development of Liberalism The Haudenosaunee Confederacy (1400s-1600s): Involved membership of six Aboriginal nations (Mohawks, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora). Each nation of the confederacy had their own chief and council, these representatives would address the internal affairs of each nation. The leaders of these six nations worked together to promote peace and harmony. During this time the idea of individuals being given power to control aspects of society was contrary to European society where only the nobility, Church, and royalty have the right to run and obtain power. The Great Law of Peace: Known as the constitution of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, outlined the path to harmony and unity among the warring nations, divided power between  9 different levels of government, and established equal participation of people. It also guaranteed rights of speech, rights to religion, and rights to the individual Fur Trade: The Aboriginal fur trade promoted business between aboriginals and the European settlers. Both groups benefitted from this mutual trade and is an example of early trading relationships between buyers and sellers. The Indian Act (1876): Originally meant to assimilate (absorb) aboriginal people into white English-Canadian culture. Aboriginals were to change their lifestyle and traditions to fit into the Canadian culture. This may be similar to the issue of Residential schools. Even though the Indian Act took away the individual rights and freedoms of Aboriginals it would eventually lead to an increase in awareness for protection of aboriginal culture. This lead to the Aboriginals right to vote in 1960 without losing their identity. The Red Paper (1970): Also known as Citizens Plus, the Red Paper is the Aboriginal response to the Canadian government’s policy of assimilation started in the White Paper of 1969. The National Indian Brotherhood (now the AFN) wrote the response called the Red Paper wanting for a return to traditional land ownership and treaties. Métis, First-Nation, and Inuit Self-Determination: After receiving rights and freedoms from the government, aboriginal groups are currently working to attain the ability to make their own laws and decision making and to become self-determined. B) The relationship between the principles of liberalism and the origins of classical-liberal beliefs. The Origins of Classical Liberalism: Classical liberalism finds its roots in the Age of Enlightenment, which followed the Renaissance (rebirth). The arts were flourishing, nations were growing very wealthy, and a new spirit of scientific discovery was growing among European intellectuals. Authority, and influence, of the Catholic Church was being challenged by the Protestant Reformation and a group known as philosophers began to wonder about the role of the individual in society. (pg. 70) Classical Liberalism: An ideology that embraces the principles of individualism. It values both political and economic freedoms that operate with limited government intervention. (pg. 107) The beliefs of classical liberalism began in Europe during a period where people began to challenge the old thinking during a period called the Age of Reason. Classical liberalism challenged the status quo and advocated individual rights. Classical liberalism typically considers encouraging the following principles: The protection of rights and freedoms and individuals self-interest Humans are rationale and reasonable that benefits themselves and society  10 Economic freedom and private property. Protection of civil liberties ▪ Freedom of Assembly, Freedom of Dissent, Freedom of Religion Constitutional limitations on government power (Checks and Balances) Equality of Opportunity “There can be no freedom of the press if the instruments of printing are under government control, no freedom of assembly if the needed rooms are so controlled, no freedom of movement if the means of transport are a government monopoly.” The Origins of Laissez-Faire Economics: In the middle of the 1700’s events in Great Britain changed the world. The introduction of new ideas and new technology resulted in a historical event known as the Industrial Revolution. The industrial Revolution describes the transition of Britain from one of agriculture and mercantilism society to a modern industrial one. Britain’s Traditional economy, which was based on agriculture, shifted to factory work in urban centers and created a phenomenon known as urbanization. This resulted in the factory system, the mechanization of labour, mass production, and the introduction of free enterprise, all helped shape the industrialized world. Capitalism (Laissez-Faire Economics): An economic system based on free markets, fair competition, consumerism, and profit-motivated producers. Also characterized by minimum government intervention. Its greatest theorist is Adam Smith who wrote that the economy should follow natural laws. Smith believed in the idea of Equality of Opportunity, where everyone had a chance to be successful. He believed that if people worked first for themselves (self-interest), everyone would be better off. He called this the trickle-down theory or the invisible hand that states that individual self-interest in a free market would lead to a stronger economy and therefore benefit more people. Smith disagreed with the existing mercantilist system at the time due to the idea of protectionist policies enforced by the government regarding trade. Furthermore, Smith believed that the government’s role should be limited to maintaining rule of law. Other proponents were Milton Friedman and Frederich Von Hayek. Capitalists also believe that corporations and businesses should receive tax breaks/incentives/concessions to motivate businesses to work harder and therefore to be even more successful. Capitalists disagree with providing subsidies to failing businesses or industries. (pg. 112) - Sherman Anti-Trust Law: United States law passed in 1890, prohibited business activities that are deemed anti-competitive. This included the prevention of monopolies or cartels as well as investigating coercion or collusion that prevents fair trade. This act ensured the government would investigate these claims to protect the ‘market’ (consumers and other businesses). This act was used to prevent organized labour activities (unions) however the Clayton Act (1914) was passed to ensure that labour union movements (boycott, strike, etc…) were legal as long as it was peaceful.  11 “Lowering taxes rewards hard work and encourages risk taking which will result in creating new jobs.” Libertarianism: All schools of libertarianism support strong personal rights to life and liberty. The most commonly known formulation of libertarianism supports free market capitalism by advocating a right to private property, including property in the means of production, minimal government regulation of that property, minimal taxation, and rejection of the welfare state, all within the context of the rule of law. The Libertarian Party of Canada believes that Canadians should be free to run their own lives with minimal government interference. (http://www.libertarian.ca/) Social Contract Theory: An idea that there is a contract between individual and the state. Philosophers such as Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau believed in a social contract, whereby people give up some of their rights to government in order to receive order for themselves and for their property. Although each of these thinkers believed in a social contract, their ideas of what the social contract should be differed. Desire for Change Spectrum: All political and economic thinkers can be placed along the following spectrum which looks at societal change. Radical Liberal Moderate Conservative Reactionary Radical – wants a great degree of change, may support the use of violence Liberal – wants some change, interested in improvement Moderate – are open to changes if necessary Conservative – wants to keep the status quo, the way it is now Reactionary – would like a change back to the way it was, may support the use of violence Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755): Charles de Secondat, Baron of Montesquieu, was a French Aristocrat and a political satirist who opposed the absolute monarchy in France. He believed that people should be treated equally and that the government should be accountable to its citizens (will of the people). This would be achieved by establishing a democracy, where citizens participate in the decision making process. Montesquieu’s most important contribution to liberalism was the idea of the separation of powers of the government into the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. In his book The Spirit of the Laws he sets up his ideas on a separation of powers. This separation of powers creates a check and balance and prevents any of the other branches from becoming too powerful. (pg. 110) Canada’s Separation of Powers  12 Executive Branch Legislative Branch Judicial Branch In Canada, the Executive and Legislative Branches are linked and work closely together as a result of our representative democracy. USA’s Separation Of Powers Executive Branch Legislative Branch Judicial Branch In the United States, there is a clear separation of all three branches of government. All three act independently. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873): Another classical liberal thinker who believed that the role of the government is to protect individual freedom and the role of the individual in decision making. His works include On Liberty he writes that the only time there should be limits on our freedoms is to protect the liberties of others. Although a classical liberal his ideas are the foundation of modern liberal thought. An individual should be free but cannot impose on the freedoms or rights of others. Mill was a strong advocate of free speech and freedom of the press. “If all of mankind minus one were of one opinion, and only one person were of the contrary opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person, than he, if he had the power, would be justified in silencing all mankind.” - Modern Liberalism: Allows for the government intervention with the economy and society to help promote more freedom and justice for the common good of citizens. This style of liberalism focuses on the rights of minorities and attempts to make sure all people can have a decent standard of living through social welfare programs (Economic Modern Liberalism). It also promotes more freedom to make personal choices like abortion, same-sex marriage, feminism etc… Furthermore, this form of liberalism has concerns for the environment, humanitarian efforts, and political correctness. Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527): An Italian philosopher made famous by his work The Prince which tells the story of rising to power using cunning and deceitful tactics. The concept of Machiavellianism is used to describe how a ruler must deal with reality of maintaining power by doing what is absolutely necessary. This may mean that at times a ruler may use generosity and compassion, but at other times must use violence and brutality. Voltaire (1694-1778): A French Enlightenment writer, essayist, and philosopher known for his wit and his defense of civil liberties, including both freedom of religion and free trade. He was  13 an outspoken supporter of social reform, despite strict censorship laws and harsh penalties for those who broke them. “I may not agree with what you say but I will defend to the death your right to say it.” Social Darwinism: An idea that only the strongest will survive and that the weak will be eliminated from evolution. In economic terms it refers to the idea that only the hardest working will survive and will succeed by relying on yourself (laissez-faire) and not on government assistance. Great Man Theory: An idea theorized by Thomas Carlyle that history can be explained by the significant contributions from great leaders, or “heroes,” due to the manner in which they used their charisma, intelligence, wisdom, or political skill to make a historical impact. This theory was countered by Herbert Spencer who suggested these individuals are products of their society, and without the societal conditions built before them, their actions would be impossible without these conditions. -------------------------READY FOR TEST #2------------------------- C) The impacts of classical liberal thought on 19th century society. Conditions of Classical Liberalism: The Industrial Revolution produced extremes of wealth and poverty (disparity), child labour, worker abuse, and the destruction of the environment. Individuals were free to take risks by investing in business, building factories, purchasing machines and supplies to hiring workers. While some individuals were rewarded for their ‘risk’ with large profits others worked long hours in unsafe and rough conditions simply to provide for their families. Workers were often cruelly and inhumanely treated and problems associated with pollution and the creation of city slums were attributed to this movement. Many felt the entrepreneurs were ‘robber barons’ because they made great profit and never gave to their workers. Furthermore, as skilled workers began to be replaced by machines, unemployment rose and people began to protest. A group of angry workers began to break into factories and smash equipment. These workers called themselves the Army of the Redressers, but were commonly known as Luddites. Luddites are considered reactionary as they use violence to return to way “things used to be.” (pg. 132) Labour Movements: As a result of the conditions of classical liberalism, labour movements and unions were formed to protect the workers. The workers wanted an equal voice that spoke directly for their own interests both at home and within the workplace. People began to believe that the ideas of liberalism equalled opportunity for all members of society. Although took some  14 time, unions began to prevail and in 1919 the International Labour Organization was formed. (pg. 155) “...under these circumstances the most vital task which confronts the working class is the establishment of a united front to resist the aggressions of the capitalist class.” - Chartism: Another group that resisted the effects of classical-liberalism were the Chartists. This was a massive labour movement (1838-1857) where the workers wanted a greater voice in government and fought for political and social reform. They created a Charter to Parliament, called the People’s Charter of 1838, where they demanded suffrage for all men over 21, secret ballot, electoral districts of equal size, no prior requirements to become an MP, and annual elections. The movement was resisted by British Parliament and did not gain any of their desired reforms until after the movement itself had ended with subsequent Reform Acts (acts that focused on electoral reform in the UK). (pg. 132). Factory Acts: A series of laws passed in the late 1800s and early 1900s to make better and fairer working conditions for workers especially women and children. Examples of laws include the cleaning of the workplace and how long a child could work for in one day. The laws promoted liberalism by protecting the rights of all workers. Labour Unions: Created to secure good wages for workers, protect against child labour, and prevent human rights violations. Unions often use strikes or work stoppages to bring about changes. Many view unions as an interference to the economy. Unions force employers to pay worker higher wages and therefore increasing the price of goods to cover the extra cost Feminism: The belief that men and women are to be treated equally in all respects. It was during the Industrial Revolution that women began working side by side with the men but were still regarded as inferior. A group of women known as suffragists began to lobby for increased rights for women including the right to vote. Women’s suffrage is still not universal today as women continue to fight for equality. Voting rights: The concept of every adult individual receiving the right to vote, called universal suffrage. Liberalism believes that all citizens (men, women, minorities, etc…) have the right to an equal vote in political decisions. In Canada, women were given the right to vote in 1918 and Aboriginals received the right to vote in 1960. D) Analyze the ideologies that developed in response to classical liberalism. Classical Conservatism: The development of classical conservatism was a reaction to classical liberalism. It is an ideology that states that the government should protect the past as well as the well-being of the present, and that the government should be formed by the educated and elite of  15 society. It also believes that the government should only be chosen by a limited electorate and not by universal suffrage. (pg.140) Edmund Burke (1729-1797): Burke did not agree with the ideals of Adam Smith and classical liberalism. He did not believe in the extremes of the French Revolution, particularly the radical left and the reactionary right. Burke did not accept the values of equality or freedom and was in favour of protecting the traditions of the past. “We own an implicit reverence to all the institutions of our ancestors.” Edmund Burke believed in preserving the status quo and did not favour change. According to Burke, not all individuals were equally capable of participation in the affairs of the country and felt that uninformed people should not have a say in the government. Government should only be left to those with wisdom and experience, hence he is an elitist. (pg. 140) “In a democracy, the majority of the citizens are capable of exercising the most cruel oppressions upon the minority.” Socialism: Believe that, rather than giving their labour to wealthy capitalists, the workers should collectively own the means of production and resources. Wealth should be distributed equitably among the workers for the benefit for all of society by redistribution of wealth. Although socialists saw industrialization as beneficial they thought that a fair distribution of wealth was lacking. Socialists rejected the lack of equality and humanitarianism of classical liberalism. Today socialism is associated with democratic socialism which allows for some private ownership but is characterized by heavy governmental intervention to achieve the common good to create the welfare state. This is accomplished by more government influence and the creation of safety nets which is funded by higher taxes. Many democratic socialist governments adopt the policy of cradle to grave economics where the government will provide for their citizens from the moment they are born to the moment that they die. - Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF): Developed in Calgary during the Great Depression, the CCF was a political party that called for shelters for the homeless, job creation programs, pension (retirement) programs for those who could not afford to be cared for, and health care programs that were paid for by the government. In 1944, the party gained power in Saskatchewan. Utopian Socialists: The Utopians were humanitarians who advocated an end to the corruption of the worker in the industrial nations. They believed that universal education and improved working conditions would lead to an ideal socialist society where everyone would live happily. (pg. 134)  16 Robert Owen (1771-1858): Believed that the brutal and harsh life under laissez-faire capitalism corrupted human nature. Owens main goal was to improve working conditions and believed in free education and free medical care. He established a business in New Lanark and put his beliefs into practice where workers and management worked together. At New Lanark people worked and lived together and cooperated as a community. Although still a capitalist, Owen modified classical-liberalism to create a system where everyone benefitted from the changes of the Industrial Revolution. (pg. 134) Karl Marx (1818-1883) Marxism: Marxism is a radical form of socialism, often called scientific socialism or communism. Marx, who witnessed the abuses of capitalism in the Industrial Revolution, saw the struggle between the classes of the proletariat (working class) and the bourgeoisie (owners). He theorized that the workers must rise up violently in revolution before a classless society could be achieved. Marx, together with Friedrich Engels, wrote the Communist Manifesto. In this work, and Das Kapital, Marx wrote that the economy was the foundation of a society and that it must be controlled or commanded by the workers. This would be achieved by abolishing private property and the centralization, regulation, and nationalization of the means of production (factories). Through these principles of collectivism the common good would be achieved. Command Economy: In a free-market economy, the principles of supply and demand and competition determine what goods should be made and what prices they should be sold at to the consumer. In command economies, government planners make these decisions for the people. Nations such as Cuba, the former USSR (Gosplan) and North Korea are all examples of command or centrally planned economies. (pg.137) Values of Socialism and Liberalism Collectivism Individualism Liberalism Socialism  17 Statists: Desire the government to have a great deal of power over the economy and individual behaviour. They frequently doubt whether economic liberty and individual freedom are practical options in today's world. Statists tend to distrust the free market, support high taxes and centralized planning of the economy, and question the importance of civil liberties. A statist likes Big Government. Welfare Capitalism: As socialists and communists began to critique classical liberalism the capitalists began to realize that some changes needed to occur in the pure free system. As a result, capitalists and industrialists began to recognize workers rights and protection in market economies. This became known as welfare capitalism as a classical liberal system was combined with government legislation to protect workers with limited working hours and minimum wages. It also provided social safety nets such as pensions. At the time, these business owners were interested in keeping the workers happy so they would avoid forming unions. (pg. 143) Welfare capitalism and the laws that were passed to protect workers in unfettered markets would eventually form the modern welfare state and the move towards modern liberalism. - Treaty of Detroit: Passed in 1950, was five year agreement between the auto workers and auto companies (Ford, Chrysler, GM) that protected against strikes in return for health care benefits, unemployment insurance, pension plans, vacation benefits, and cost-of-living increases. -------------------------READY FOR TEST #3------------------------- E) The evolution of modern liberalism as a response to classical liberalism. Mixed Economy: Refers to those economies which have elements of both the command and free market types of economies. An economic system where Crown Corporations co-exist with privately owned businesses. The mixed economy was first proposed by British economist John Stuart Mill. He saw the abuses of free enterprise in the Industrial Revolution and thought that the government should take an active role in the economy. Although he believed in economic equality, he liked the productivity of classical liberalism and capitalism. Mixed economies have social safety nets and welfare systems and attempt to redistribute wealth. A specific type of a mixed economy is Democratic Socialism. Modern Liberal Economics: The movement from welfare capitalism to the welfare state was driven by the Great Depression. As businesses and banks began to fail the efficiency of classical liberalism was questioned. The Great Depression was the beginning of a social and economic change and began the move to modern liberalism. (pg. 145)  18 Business cycle: The term business cycle (or economic cycle) refers to economy-wide fluctuations in production or economic activity over several months or years. These fluctuations occur around a long-term growth trend, and typically involve shifts over time between periods of relatively rapid economic growth (expansion or “boom”), and periods of relative stagnation or decline (“bust” or recession). Keynesian Economics/Demand-Side Economics: As the 1930s progressed, the depression worsened and a British Economist, John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946), developed a new economic theory. He did not agree with the unregulated market and the theory that the market would correct itself. Keynes thought that during a “boom or bust” period, the government must intervene and stimulate the economy by encouraging the consumer to “demand” goods and services. - Keynesian Economics states that in order to correct a recession the government should… 1. Lower Interest Rates (Monetary Policy) 2. Lower personal taxes 3. Increase government spending (expenditures) These actions increase the amount of money into the economy and encourage the consumer to demand and spend which should stimulate the economy. This is known as Expansionary Monetary Policy. - Keynesian Economics states that in order to correct inflation the government should… 1. Raise Interest Rates (Monetary Policy) 2. Raise personal taxes 3. Lower government spending (expenditures) These actions reduce the amount money into the economy and discourage the consumer to demand and spend which should cool down the hot or inflated economy. This is known as Contractionary Monetary Policy.  19 This economic practice is sometimes referred to as “priming the pump” and is used in nations such as Canada. One problem with Keynesian economics is that if inflation is overcorrected it could cause a recession and vice-versa. (pg. 147) Keynes is credited with the origins of the Welfare State in which the economy of a nation is capitalist, but the government intervenes and uses policies to ensure economic recovery and stability. This is also the foundation of modern liberalism. The Great Depression: The term used to describe the term for the massive economic collapse in the 1930’s. Beginning with the famous stock market crash on October 24th, 1929 (known as ‘Black Thursday’), the Great Depression was characterized by high unemployment and reduced consumer spending. This economic crisis could not be solved by the economic principles of capitalism. The Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II in 1939. Herbert Hoover: President of the United States from 1929-1933, who believed in a laissez-faire economic system founded upon little government intervention. He is criticized for allowing the Great Depression to worsen in American society due to his “Stay the Course” approach to economic recovery, as opposed to government intervention. He feared that individuals would rely on government intervention to succeed as opposed to self-reliance and individual incentive. - Hooverville: Creation of “shanty-towns”, consisting of tents and shacks made from any supplies available, by individuals who were unemployed and homeless as a result of the Great Depression. Richard Bennett: Prime Minister of Canada from 1930-1935, who was blamed, as a result of the Conservative Party stance in favour of laissez-faire economics, for the poor economic situation in Canada during the Great Depression. - Bennett Buggy: Were vehicles have had the engine and windows removed being pulled by horses. This is a result of an inability of individuals to afford to pay for gasoline and to run their vehicles. New Deal: Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first to use these new ideas of government intervention to stimulate the economy. When Roosevelt was elected in 1933 he promised a “New Deal” for the people by implementing public works programs to provide employment. These programs became known as the Alphabet Programs as the government helped put people back to work. One such program was called the TVA, Tennessee Valley Authority, which built dams to generate electricity. Other alphabet programs included the CCC, or the Civilian Conservation Corp, where men were hired to work on roads and build national parks. Roosevelt’s interventions during the depression also reformed the banking industry and regulated the stock market with the securities’ and exchange commission. Roosevelt’s New Deal was a series of programs that focused on Relief, Recovery, and Reform. Relief to the unemployed, recovery from the depression, and reform to the economy.  20 Quebec’s Welfare State: After the Second World War, the Quebec government created many public work projects (highways, schools, hospitals) to provide employment for its citizens. These socialist ideas continued into the 1960s with the creation of a welfare state (Quiet Revolution) where there was great access to health care and education as well as governments providing more money to support families. “Our greatest primary task is to put people back to work. There is no unsolvable problem if we face it wisely and courageously. It can be accomplished in part by direct recruiting by the government itself.” Principles of Modern Liberalism Crown Corporations: Are government owned and operated businesses that creates employment and provides a service that may not be available with the private sector. Crown Corporations may also create competition with other private businesses. Crown corporations are examples of regulation and nationalization of the government. When a Crown Corporation is sold off it is referred to as privatization. Subsidies: An interventionist idea that suggests that failing businesses receive funding by the government to “stay alive.” Keeping these businesses operating secures competition and also preserves employment. These are also known as bailouts. Classical liberals such as Adam Smith and Milton Friedman dismiss the ideas of subsidies as they argue that businesses must survive on their own in the marketplace (Social Darwinism). Canadian Social Welfare System: Spending on various social welfare programs in Canada such as the CPP, Employment Insurance, Health Care, and the Child Tax Credit. These are also known as social safety nets. - Government Revenue: Money generated by the government to fund government programs and initiatives. The largest source of revenue for the Canadian government is through progressive taxation on personal income tax. Universal Health Care: The belief that all members of society, regardless of wealth, all have equal access to the same system of medical care. Universal health care is funded by government revenue which is created through progressive taxation. This is Canada’s largest social safety net. Transfer Payments and Equalization Grants: The federal government transfers money, in an attempt to reduce disparity, from “Have” provinces such as Alberta, to “Have Not” provinces. Fiscal Policy: Refers to the use of the government’s budget (taxes and expenditures) to stabilize the economy by fighting recessions (high unemployment) or by fighting inflation. This also involves monetary policies of a government.  21 Monetary Policies: A term used to describe the governments control over interest rates. Through this policy the government attempts to influence our demand or spending by either raising or lowering the interest rates through the Bank of Canada. When interest rates are low people will borrow money and spend more, thus stimulating the economy. When interest rates are high, it should discourage the borrowing of money and demand or spending will also decrease. This is a Keynesian idea called demand-side economics. - Quantitative Easing: Controversial method by which the world’s central bankers (directors from central banks like the Bank of Canada, U.S Federal Reserve, etc…) attempted to solve the global economic crisis of 2008. Consisted of keeping interest rates low and printing money so the government can purchase financial assets (stocks, bonds, etc…) to shore up failing banks and industries, pump money into the economy, and encourage consumer spending. Has resulted in many who have saved money in safe investments, like pension funds for retirement, losing significant value and the richest individual’s assets increasing in value due to government investment. Guarantee of rights and freedoms: In a modern liberal democracy the rights and freedoms of citizens are guaranteed in their constitution. In the USA the Bill of Rights protects citizen’s rights while in Canada the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which is included in the Canada Act of 1982 protects the civil liberties of all individuals including minorities. Centrists: Espouse a "middle ground" regarding government control of the economy and personal behaviour. Depending on the issue, they sometimes favour government intervention and sometimes support individual freedom of choice. Centrists pride themselves on keeping an open mind and tend to oppose "political extremes." They may refer to themselves as moderates. -------------------------READY FOR TEST #4 & #5------------------------- F) Ideological systems that rejected principles of liberalism. Totalitarianism: The two most influential ideologies that rejected liberalism were communism (radical) and fascism (reactionary). Both of these ideologies developed into totalitarian or authoritarian forms of governments. Totalitarian governments have total control over every aspect of the citizen’s lives. (pg. 167) “Everything within the state, nothing outside of the state, nothing against the state.” Radical: Using violence to achieve a change that rejects the political and social traditions of the past. It is a movement towards the far left side of the spectrum to achieve classless society with state ownership of property. It is communism. (pg. 167)  22 Reactionary: Using violence to achieve a change. However, the desired change is a move toward an idealized past and an acceptance of economic inequality. A reactionary believes that some people are naturally better and superior than others. It is fascism. (pg. 167) Lenin and the USSR: The social conditions created by classical liberalism inspired thinkers such as Marx and Engels to reform the capitalist system. Many people in Russia before 1917 were open to these new ideas of social reform and equality. In 1898, the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) was a revolutionary party created to implement within Russian society the principles of Marx and Engels. Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin we all prominent members of the RSDLP. Read pages 168 to 171 and describe the political, economic and social conditions of Russia before 1917 that lead to the rejection of classical liberalism. The communist ideology first emerged in Russia during the First World War. A revolution led by the communist Bolshevik leader Vladimir Ilich Lenin took control of the Russian government in October 1917. The communists based their new government on collectivism and cooperation. Under Lenin, Russia became the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922. Lenin and the Bolsheviks believed that violent and radical revolution was the only way to halt liberalism in Russia. Lenin’s slogan of “Land, Peace, Bread” was appealing to the people of Russia, especially the peasants. o Red Terror: A time period in which Lenin used force and terror to maintain political control within Russia. Lenin established a secret police force, called the Cheka, which were used to police the labour camps (Gulags), torture and execute political opponents, as well as put down rebellions or riots by workers or peasants. These display undemocratic, or illiberal, practices by Lenin and the Bolshevik government. Lenin’s Economic Policies: Early in his reign as leader of the USSR Lenin implemented his first economic policy known as War Communism. The policy of war communism is a command economy or centrally planned economy where the government is in complete control over all aspects of the economy and all private property is abolished. Under this policy both agricultural and industrial production dropped. War communism failed as it led to famine and revolt by the Soviet people.  23 In order to stimulate the economy Lenin implemented his second policy in 1921 called the New Economic Policy (NEP). The NEP introduced limited capitalism and individualism to the USSR. It allowed peasants to own farmland and to decide themselves what to grow or produce. Small private businesses were allowed to sell consumer goods. The NEP did help the USSR recover economically but it also created a rich peasant class called the Kulaks (wealthy landowners) which undermined the principles of the Marxist and communist ideal of a classless society and equality. (pg. 181) “Comrade Lenin Cleanses the Earth of Filth” Stalin’s economic policies: After a four year power struggle with Leon Trotsky for the leadership of the communist party, Stalin became the next leader of the USSR after Lenin died in 1924. The capitalism that Lenin introduced with the NEP was quickly replaced with centralized economic planning. To transform the USSR back to a true communist state, Stalin implemented the first of his Five Year Plans to industrialize the country by 20% each year. The Five Year Plans were characterized by production quotas and heavy industry to produce capital goods. Although the Five Year Plans did industrialize the USSR it led to a lack of basic consumer goods. In order to finance the industry plans the government implemented Stalin’s second economic policy known as collectivization. All land taken from the farmers (Kulaks) and combined into huge, collectively worked farms called kolkhozes that were owned by the government. These farms would eventually fail due to a lack of incentive to work due to starvation and fear and terror of the secret police. Kulak farmers who resented these changes in ownership began to  24 destroy crops and animals to prevent the state from owning them. This would lead to a massive famine in 1932-33 in the Ukraine, the breadbasket of the Soviet Union. The Great Purge: Due to the famine, the push to industrialization, and the strict control over the people, many soviets began to criticize the leadership of Stalin. Even members within the ruling elite of the Communist Party known as the Politburo, began to oppose Stalin. At this time Stalin initiated a period of repression now known as the Great Purge. The purge was characterized by extreme violence and executions carried out by Stalin’s secret police at that time known as the NKVD. Along with collectivization came the persecution of the Kulaks (De-Kulakization). Most of the Kulaks did not willingly give up their private farms that they were given under Lenin’s NEP. Anyone who dissented against the government or did not do as the government ordered, such as the Kulaks, were arrested, executed, or sent to work in labour camps known as Gulags. (pg. 183) Clearly this was not the socialist paradise envisioned by Marx. Direction of Popular Discontent/Scapegoating: Stalin scapegoated or blamed different groups or beliefs for any problems in the Soviet Union. The three most distinct groups that scapegoating was directed at was capitalism or private property, supporters of Leon Trotsky, and the Kulaks. Indoctrination: The Communist Party under Stalin had a strict indoctrination policy to create citizens that would willingly accept the ideals of Marxism. Citizens were subjected to propaganda and were indoctrinated to belief that Stalin and communism was their saviour. The  25 youth were particularly targeted by creating youth programs that would influence young citizens to accept communism and Stalin with total loyalty. These programs in the USSR were called the Young Pioneers. (See appendix I beginning on page 60) -------------------------READY FOR TEST #6------------------------- Fascism: Characterized by the leadership of a dictator with totalitarian powers in a one party state. It primarily existed between WWI and WWII. Although the economy is centrally planned it does allow for private ownership. Business owners are allowed to keep their private status but produce goods that are for the state. It is a controlled free market economy. It is based on the ideas of Benito Mussolini (Duce) and Adolf Hitler (Fuhrer) who wrote, Mien Kampf. The Rise of Fascism: There were many circumstances that made the rejection of liberalism in Germany possible. The first was the Treaty of Versailles which was signed by the new German government following WWI known as the Weimar Republic. The German parliament, called the Reichstag, was now run by the Weimar Republic which was a liberal democratic party. The Treaty of Versailles was so harsh that many Germans began to resent the liberal governments that imposed such unfair terms on them. In the years following WWI the German economy was in ruins. The United States tried to assist Germany with their reparation payments through the Dawes and Young Plans but even that was not enough. In 1923, the German economy experienced hyper-inflation where prices soared and citizens lost life savings. Hitler and the National Socialist Party (NAZIS) took advantage of these conditions and began to promise that if elected, he would restore Germany back to greatness. Hitler promoted nationalism, a strong military and law and order to stabilize the nation. The NAZIS also promised an end to the economic troubles and revenge for the Treaty of Versailles. These NAZI platforms appealed to many Germans and as a result the National Socialist Party, led by Adolf Hitler, was elected into the Reichstag in 1933. (pg. 175) Aryan Race: Nazi ideology included a racial theory that claimed that Germans were a superior race, an Aryan race that was of pure blood. The Nazis would use this idea to justify the cleansing of Germany during the Holocaust. They claimed that Jews and other undesirables such as gypsies and people with disabilities were diluting the purity of the superior German race. (pg. 177) Consolidating Power: Eventually, due to the German people being dissatisfied with the liberal-minded Weimar Republic, the Nazi’s were able to gain control of the Reichstag, Germany’s parliament, and dismantle its liberal-democratic elements.  26 In the November elections of 1932, the Nazi party received about one third of the popular vote and in January of 1933, Hitler was named Chancellor of Germany. Although Hitler was the Chancellor, the leader of Weimar Republic, Paul Von Hindenburg was still the President of Germany. About a month later there was a fire that destroyed the Reichstag building and Hitler used this to scapegoat the communists in Germany. Two laws were passed that year called the Reichstag Fire Decree (1933) and the Enabling Act (1933). These two laws created a dictatorship in Germany. - Enabling Act: An act that allowed Hitler to have control over all the branches of government. The act ended the separation of powers. The Enabling Act ‘enabled’ Hitler to become a dictator. An obstacle to Hitler’s complete control over Germany was the SA, a part of the secret police. When members of the SA began to criticize and dissent against Hitler, he felt that they were a threat to his leadership of the Nazi party. Hitler ordered the elimination of the SA’s leaders on June 30th, 1934 and removed any remaining challenges to his leadership. This purge became known as the “Night of the Long Knives.” Finally, when President Paul Hindenburg died in 1934, Hitler merged the offices of Chancellor and President and declared himself Fuhrer, or leader. (pg. 187) Hitler and the German Economy: Although civil liberties disappeared under the Nazi party, the German economy benefitted. Similar to the programs created by Roosevelt and the New Deal, the Nazi Party also created jobs by building the Autobahn which provided employment. The re-arming of the German military, which was banned by the Treaty of Versailles, also stimulated industry and the economy. Also, Hitler guaranteed that farmers produce would always be purchased. However, the freedom of the workers to strike or form unions was banned. Also, the government has strict control and regulation over what was produced and manufactured. (pg. 188) Direction of Popular Discontent/Scapegoating: Hitler and the National Socialist Party (Nazis) scapegoated or blamed numerous people or ideologies for the problems of Germany. Through the use of propaganda the negative portrayal of such people became widely accepted in Germany. The four main targets for scapegoating are the Jews (and other minorities and religious groups), the Marxist or communists, the Treaty of Versailles and the Weimar Republic. Persecution of the Jews: Due to the ideas of their own racial superiority, the Nazis began to work towards a systematic elimination of the Jews and other members of minority groups. As early as 1933, the Nazis began to pass laws to exclude Jews from German society. One such law was called the Nuremberg Decrees (1935) which outlined that Jews were subhuman, and could  27 no longer vote or hold public office. Another harsh aspect of the decree is that Jews and Germans could no longer marry or be married. This was to maintain the purity of the Aryan race. (pg. 189) On November 9th, 1938, a Nazi official was killed by a young Jew in France. This event set off a series of attacks in Jewish communities all over Germany conducted by the SS (Schutzstaffel-protection squad). After the destruction and death was evaluated the next day an observer commented on the amount of glass in the streets from broken windows and Jewish Synagogues. Henceforth that event became known as Kristallnaught, or “Night of the Broken Glass.” These actions would eventually evolve to the last phase of the Nazi plan to eliminate the Jewish race. The Final Solution was the attempt to place the Jews and other undesirables into work camps and extermination camps. The most notorious of these camps was at Auschwitz in Poland. An estimated 6 million Jews died during the Holocaust. The Nazis justified the Holocaust by claiming that the Jews took up too much room in Germany and that the Aryans needed “living space.” Hitler would call this his policy of Lebensraum in Mien Kampf. Indoctrination: The National Socialist Party under Hitler had a strict indoctrination policy to create citizens that would willingly accept the ideals of the Nazis. Propaganda was seen as so important by the German government that it had a Ministry of Propaganda headed by Joseph Goebbels. Citizens were subjected to propaganda and were indoctrinated to belief that Hitler was their saviour. The youth were particularly targeted by creating youth programs that would influence young citizens to accept Hitler as their leader with total loyalty. These programs in Nazi Germany were called the Hitler Youth. (See appendix II beginning on page 64) -------------------------READY FOR TEST #7------------------------- G) Ideological conflict helped shape international relationships after WWII. Wartime Conferences: After the Second World War, various meetings were necessary to decide the fate of the defeated axis powers (Germany, Japan, etc…) These two major conferences laid the ground work for the eventual Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. - The Yalta Conference - A meeting of Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill (the Big Three) in February of 1945 to discuss post war problems, the setting up of the UN and the Soviet entry into the war against Japan. It specifically involved planning the partition of Germany into four zones of occupation. Even the capital city of Berlin was divided into 4 zones. These would eventually become East and West Germany. Yalta was also instrumental in the establishment of the post war spheres of influence. (pg. 236)  28 - Potsdam - Stalin, Truman, and Clement Atlee (Britain) - the new Big Three, met in July of 1945 to discuss how to deal with post-war Germany and the conduct of the war with Japan ; there was disagreement between Stalin and Truman over the treatment of Germany and Poland and it started the mistrust between the superpowers. (pg. 239) The Cold War - A reference to the poor relations between the USSR (and her allies- Warsaw Pact) and the USA (and her allies-NATO) following WWII. A time when the world was polarized. During the Second World War the superpowers (countries who are superior to others politically, economically, and militarily) cooperated together to defeat a common enemy. After WWII the relationship between the USSR and the USA began to fall apart due to a clash of ideologies. The Cold War existed from 1945 to 1991 when communism in Eastern Europe (the Soviet Bloc) failed. Expansionism: The attempt to enlarge territorial and ideological influence beyond a country’s borders. This is accomplished by trying to create spheres of influence. Both the USSR and the USA would attempt to expand their influence during the Cold War. (pg. 240) USA – Israel (1948), China (1949), Cuba (1959), Grenada (1982), Vietnam, and Afghanistan USSR – the nations or `satellite states` behind the Iron Curtain (Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania) - The Iron Curtain: A term coined by Winston Churchill in 1946 to describe the border between Soviet-dominated countries in Eastern Europe and the nations of Western Europe. It divided American and Soviet spheres of influence. War of Words: Refers to words and images used to attack the ‘enemy.” This included open threats and name-calling between politicians as well as the use of propaganda to promote their ideologies. - McCarthyism & Cold War Hysteria in the United States: During the Cold War people around the world experienced the tension between the superpowers. Propaganda and the threat of nuclear war grew into paranoia, especially in the USA. After WWII, American society experienced a ‘red scare’ or ‘red menace’ as communism seemed to be spreading over the world. A movement began against all things communist led by a Republican senator named Joseph McCarthy. He accused politicians and military leaders of being pro-communist, but without any evidence. The term McCarthyism is still used today to refer to the persecute those who are suspected of communism. Prestige War: Are wars of achievement, not direct fighting. These wars of achievement attempt to portray either the Americans or the Soviets as leaders or the best when it came to non-military competition like the Space Race and the Olympics.  29 Truman Doctrine: In 1947, early in the Cold War, Truman (US President) authorized economic and military support to Greece and Turkey after the British informed them that they could no longer afford the commitment. Truman did this to ensure that the Soviets could not establish a sphere of influence here. It was a reversal of the USA's isolationist policies. It was the beginning of the USA's policy of containment. The Truman Doctrine was the attempt by the USA to extend American influence and to try to halt the spread of communism. Marshall Plan: An example of containment. An American plan (1948-1952) to improve the economic and military strength of Western Europe so it could resist the spread of communism. The USA provided Western European nations with funds to be strong enough to resist Stalinization. It was the economic teeth behind the Truman Doctrine's intent to contain the USSR. The economic aid came with some conditions and in short, the Marshall Plan imposed free market policies in return for aid. (pg. 242) The plan was condemned by the USSR as an attempt to gain influence in Europe and to spread the American liberal ideology. The Soviets responded by not allowing their spheres of influence to receive any aid from the Marshall Plan. - COMECON/the Molotov Plan: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (1949). This was the economic response to the Marshall Plan and the attempt for the USSR to maintain their satellites or spheres of influence. NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization. It is the best example of a Cold War alliance. It is an alliance between democratic nations that states an act of aggression against any members was an attack against them all. It was a containment policy against Soviet expansionism (the spread of communism). In 1949, NATO was created to provide collective security against potential Soviet aggression in Europe. Canada has an active role in NATO. - WARSAW Pact: The communist equivalent to NATO. This is another example of the Cold War alliance. NATO and WARSAW Pact are opposing alliances. Berlin Blockade/Airlift: In 1948, the Soviets attempted to force the West out of Berlin. It followed the merging of the three Western zones of occupation in Germany which were controlled by the USA, France, and Great Britain. Stalin blockaded any supplies from entering West Berlin in the hopes that this would force the West to give up their claim to the city; he feared a strong and unified West Germany supported by the West. The Americans and the British airlifted supplies to the city for eleven months. It proved that the East-West alliance forged during WWII no longer existed. It is another example of containment. (pg. 244) Berlin will become another flash point in the Cold War with the construction of the Berlin Wall in the 1960’s which lead to an event called the Berlin Crisis at Checkpoint Charlie.  30 The Berlin Wall: On August 12, 1961, a wall was constructed by the government of Soviet- dominated East Berlin to stop the flow of East Berliners to the freedom and liberty of West Berlin. It was now a physical boundary between ideologies. The East German government justified the wall by claiming that it was built to protect East Germany from Western aggression. The only exit between the cities was at Checkpoint Charlie. - The Berlin Crisis: On October 27-28, 1961, Soviet and American tanks were at a standoff at Checkpoint Charlie due to East German officials not allowing U.S. diplomats to access East Berlin, which was a part of the agreement with Moscow after WWII. This resulted in American diplomats being escorted by the US Army when attempting to cross the checkpoint. Conflict further escalated when American and Soviet tanks were brought forth in a standoff at the checkpoint. The tanks were eventually removed 16 hours later and access of US diplomats to East Berlin was restored. Soviet diplomats often visited West Berlin as well. Domino Theory: An idea of Truman that stated that communism must be contained at all costs. If communism is not stopped the nations if Southeast Asia (Vietnam, Korea, Cambodia) would fall like dominos to communism and will become satellite states of the USSR. Deterrence: The idea that if nations build up military forces and nuclear weapons (Arms Race) an enemy would be prevented from attacking. Nations such as Iran and North Korea are building nuclear programs to deter other nations from attacking them. (pg. 251) During WWII there was no “deterrence” for the USA to drop nuclear bombs on Japan as they did not have nuclear weapons of their own. - Arms Race: The desire of each superpower to build up more military power (nuclear) than the other. Even though the large amount of weapons is threatening, the fact that both nations have the same means (balance of power) acts as a deterrence to war. - Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD): MAD is a term to describe the destruction of both sides of a war due to nuclear attack. When two enemies both use nuclear weapons on each other both nations would be destroyed. It is an idea that leads to the deterrence of using nuclear weapons. MAD can only be achieved when there is a balance of power between nations such as the superpowers during the Cold War. (pg. 251) Brinkmanship: A form of conflict in which one side pushes the other to the "brink" of war with the idea that the other side will back down. The USA did this when they blocked the Soviet shipment of nuclear weapons to Cuba in 1962. Another example is the Berlin Crisis tank standoff in 1961. Cuba: The relationship between Cuba and the Soviet Union began in 1959 when Fidel Castro overthrew the Cuban government. Cuba and the Soviets signed a massive trade agreement and the communists poured millions into the Cuban economy. The USA was very eager to regain  31 Cuba as their sphere of influence and as such tried to overthrow the new Castro government. In 1962 Cuban émigrés, backed and trained by the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), conducted a number of raids on Cuba in an attempt to upset the Castro regime- resulting with the notorious Bay of Pigs disaster. The Bay of Pigs was when Cuban exiles, backed by the CIA, landed on the Bay of Pigs and attempted to overtake the island. The venture was a failure and a deep embarrassment for the new administration of John Kennedy (who preferred diplomacy and pacifism) as this mission was authorized by the government of the USA. This led to the height of the Cold War in 1962 with the Cuban Missile Crisis. (pg. 254) - Cuban Missile Crisis: The USSR, under Khrushchev (1962) tried to install Nuclear Weapons in Cuba - a nation right off of America's coast. Kennedy, the US president, responded by blockading Soviet ships from reaching Cuba, and the Soviet's eventually turned back and removed the missiles. It was the height of brinkmanship and its tension cause détente to ensue. A "Hot line" between Kremlin and Whitehouse installed to prevent a further lack of communication. After the close call of nearly blowing up the entire world because these two superpowers could not get along, Khrushchev and Kennedy decided that peaceful co-existence was a much better option. Détente: The lessening of tensions between superpowers. It is characterized by an era of friendly relations during the Cold War. After the close call of the Cuban Missile Crisis détente occurred. It is characterized by treaties, arms limitations (disarmament), and more open communication such as the Hot Link Phone. Détente was the norm during the presidential terms of Nixon, Carter, and Ford of the USA and the early years of Brezhnev's regime in the USSR. Détente ended when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979. (pg. 257) Some examples of disarmament are: SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) – limit nuclear weapons START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) – reduce ballistic missiles. No progress was made until the mid 1980 INF (Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty) – called for the destruction of 400 American and 1600 Soviet missiles. This showed an era of friendliness between superpowers. Hot Link Phone - direct phone line so communication between the White House in the USA and the Kremlin in the USSR was more assessable Resistance to Soviet dominance & Expansionism: Many of the spheres of influence of the USSR began to revolt and demand their self-determination. The Hungarian and Polish Uprisings of 1956 are examples of satellites trying to gain control over their own affairs. Under Khrushchev, the USSR did not let this happen.  32 - Poland (1956): Labour unrest grew into revolution as people were protesting Soviet domination. Although the USSR nearly rolled tanks to restore Soviet order they decided to give Poland some measure of independence and control over their own affairs. - Hungary (1956): Events in Poland raised hopes for independence in Hungary. Hungarians demanded independence from Soviet control. After three days of conflict with the USSR, Hungary did not receive independence and Soviet order was restored. - Yugoslavia (1961): After WWII, Yugoslavia elected a communist government and aligned itself with Stalin. Josip Tito, the leader of Yugoslavia, rejected absolute loyalty to the USSR and defied Stalin. This would lead them to become a member of the Non-Aligned Movement. Yugoslavia would not become a member of the communist bloc and the Warsaw Pact. o Bandung Conference/Non-Alignment: Some nations during the Cold War were not interested in adopting the ideologies of the USA or the USSR. Many countries did not want to be a superpower sphere of influence and wanted their own autonomy or self-determination. The Bandung Conference, held in Java, Indonesia in 1955, was the result of the ideological conflict between the superpowers. This was the beginning of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). There are some developing nations within the United Nations that did not form an alliance with the superpowers during the Cold War. These nations resisted the hegemony (political control by one country over another) of the USA and the USSR. (pg. 250) - Czechoslovakia (1968): Alexander Dubcek, the leader of Czechoslovakia, brought in “communism with a human face” which brought in the “Prague Spring” that entailed many reforms and individual liberation. However, for Brezhnev, who displaced Khrushchev in 1964 as the Soviet leader, felt that the Prague Spring posed a threat to the Soviet sphere and sent in 250,000 troops, to crush the revolution. This created the Brezhnev Doctrine whereby the Soviets reserved the right to intervene if a sphere of influence was threatened. - Poland (1980): A trade union called Solidarity was created in Poland, the first non-communist trade union in a then-communist country. The Soviet-controlled government tried to stop the anti-communist Solidarity movement however it was too strong. The government had to negotiate with this movement and it led to semi-free elections. -------------------------READY FOR TEST #8-------------------------  33 Liberation Movements: Although the superpowers were never directly involved during the Cold War they did participate in proxy wars. These proxy wars were usually liberation movements where nations under the influence of a stronger country rebel against it. During the Cold War, both superpowers had nations fight for their liberation against them. (pg. 258) There are many examples of liberation movements including the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. These are also examples of the American policy of containment. Proxy Wars: Conflicts that result from two opponents using a third nation as a battleground instead of directly fighting each other. The Cold War had the USSR and USA involved indirectly fighting in Korea, Vietnam, and Afghanistan. - Korean War: After World War II both superpowers had a sphere of influence in Korea. The USA had the south and the USSR had the north. North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950 by crossing the border called the 38th parallel. The USSR thought that USA would stay out of the war but the United Nations became involved with 9 out of 10 soldiers being American. The USA wanted to be involved in this action to stop communism. North Korea eventually pulled out of South Korea and the containment of communism was successful. - Vietnam War: The United States entered the Vietnam War due to the policy of containment and the domino theory. The USA supported democracy and wanted to halt the expansion of communism. Containment failed as South Vietnam fell to communism. The Americans had little success in Vietnam due to the guerilla style of fighting of the Vietnamese which frustrated the American soldiers. There was little support for the war back in the USA as the American people could see the civilian bombings and destruction caused by the war on TV. This resulted in many protesting against the government in hopes of stopping the war. - Afghanistan: The tension between the USA and USSR was low until 1979 when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan. The USSR entered to expand their sphere of influence however the Americans attempted to help stop this expansion by supplying weapons the Afghan soldiers. The terrain and guerrilla tactics of the Afghan soldiers proved very difficult and frustrating for the Soviet troops. Very similar to the Americans in Vietnam who were frustrated with the tactics of the Vietnamese soldiers. End of the Cold War: There are many events that marked the end of the Cold War. The Berlin Wall symbolized the tension of the Cold War. When the wall collapsed in 1989 it also symbolized the collapse of the Cold War in Europe. Other events that marked the end of the Cold War were when Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev announced the elimination of nuclear weapons, and the Soviet withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan. In 1989, the changes in policy by Gorbachev in Soviet policy are most clearly the reasons for the fall of the Iron Curtain.  34 - Economic changes (Glasnost and Perestroika): Glasnost was the policy of openness and political freedom. It eventually led to the downfall of the communist party of the USSR in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Perestroika meant the restructuring of the communist economic system and political system. Economically, Gorbachev allowed for individualism by allowing plant managers to provide input into what should be produced. He encouraged small private business and eliminated factories that were producing unwanted goods. He tried to make the move from a centrally planned economy to a free market economy. The change was difficult for the people of the USSR to adapt to at once. Politically, Gorbachev allowed for the existence of new political parties who eventually gained power through democratic elections. -------------------------READY FOR TEST #9------------------------- H) Perspectives on the imposition of liberalism. Residential School System: Mandatory boarding schools for Aboriginal children that had the primary goal of assimilating them into western cultures and traditions. Enfranchisement: The Gradual Civilization Act is another example of the imposition of liberalism on a society. It was another attempt to assimilate the First Nations. Any First Nations man who gave up his official Indian Status would be considered enfranchised and given land. The Indian Act (1876): See page 10 of Course Package. The Red Paper (1970): See page 10 of Course Package. I) Contemporary events of imposing liberalism. Imposing Liberalism: Nations attempt to impose an ideology such as liberalism on another nation for two reasons. The first is for self-interest, such as to eliminate terrorist threats. The second reason is for humanitarianism, such as to improve living conditions or stop human rights violations. Treaty of Versailles: American president Woodrow Wilson insisted that democracy be an essential component of the Versailles peace treaty. The Weimar Republic, a liberal democracy, signed the Treaty and elections were established in Germany. Afghanistan: The “war on terror,” a military, political, and ideological conflict headed by the USA, was a direct result of terrorist attacks. In order to protect liberal democratic countries from further attacks, some nations, such as Afghanistan and Iraq, have been identified as threats to peace and have therefore been invaded.  35 The USA, Canada and Britain, invaded Afghanistan in 2001 to remove the Taliban from power. The Taliban were known to be supporting al Qaeda, the terrorists responsible for the attacks against the United States. (pg. 320) Iraq: In 2003 the USA invaded Iraq arguing that the country was a threat to the US and the world because Iraq could use WMD to aid terrorist groups. The leader of Iraq, Saddam Hussein, was caught and found guilty crimes against humanity for the mass murders of the ethnic Kurds in Iraq. Unlike the war in Afghanistan, the Iraq conflict did not receive the same support and international approval. The United Nations deemed the war illegal. In fact, France, a member of the Big Five of the Security Council, vetoed the invasion. This put a strain of the relationship between France and the USA. (pg. 321) Impositions of Liberalism for Humanitarian Reasons: A belief that liberal nations must intervene for moral and ethical reasons, when non-liberal nations violate human rights. The USA has maintained an economic embargo against Cuba since 1960. The purpose is to end the communist system (containment) and bring liberalism to Cuba. The invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq was partly based on human rights violations as the Taliban was an oppressive regime where women had no rights and Hussein tortured and murdered his own citizens J) Modern liberalism is challenged by alternative thought. K) Resistance to the principles of liberalism is justified. Aboriginal collective thought: There are several key Aboriginal principles that challenge and enhance modern liberal thought. One of these principles is the collective. While liberalism is founded on the individual, aboriginal societies place more importance on the collective rather than the individual. Egalitarianism is emphasized over individual needs. (pg. 294) Environmentalism: During the 1970’s, organizations such as Greenpeace have pressured governments to pass legislation to protect the environment. The influence of environmentalism has created new principles of modern liberalism to include the intervention of liberal governments to protect our fragile environment. In B.C., the provincial government has established a carbon tax to reduce greenhouse emissions. (pg. 280) Classical liberals, neo-conservatives, and free-market economists all claim that environmental reform will have a negative impact on the consumer and private business. Religious perspectives: Some religious groups, such as the Doukhobors and the Hutterites, believe in communitarianism rather than the classical liberal belief of importance of the  36 individual and owning private property. Some religious groups residing in Canada, such as the Muslims faith, have posed some challenges to modern liberal thought such as observance of the wearing of hijabs. Two fundamental freedoms in Canada that are protected by our Charter of Rights are freedom of religion and equality. (pg. 288) Neo-conservatism: Challenges modern liberal principles and favors a return to classical liberalism. It began in the 1950’s during the Cold War and supporters believe that modern liberal thought went “too far.” Although mainly an economic term, it also refers to political thinking too. During the Cold War, the USSR and the USA attempted to resolve their differences through diplomacy this was the period known as Detente. Neo-conservatives saw this as the government being weak against communism and non-liberal nations. Neo-conservatism grew in popularity under the economic and foreign polices of Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher. Due to the massive spending (expenditures) of governments using the economic principles of Keynesian economics, the 1970’s saw the accumulation of government deficits. Neo-conservatives believe that economic growth can be stimulated by cutting taxes (tax concessions) and that the government should have a minimal role in the market to reduce government debt. Neo-conservatives violate the principles of Keynesian economics and return the ideals of classical liberalism. Milton Friedman and Friedrich Von Hayek are two leading economists who value cutting taxes, privatization, and deregulation to correct the economic problems of inflation, recession, and stagflation (inflation is high combined with slow economic grown and high unemployment). These men believed in neo-conservatism or monetarism, where there is minimal government intervention and the supply of money in the economy is controlled by the consumer and private business. While demand-side economics (Keynesian) is characterized by the government influencing consumer demand, supply-side economics is characterized by cutting taxes and laissez-faire. Monopolies: The exclusive ownership or control of a business, industry or trade. Monopolies destroy the principle of competition and consumerism. As competition is so crucial to the operation of a free market system most governments have anti-monopoly or anti-trust laws to preserve competition. The Sherman Act is an example of such laws. Recently, when Disney bought the rights to Marvel comics, the offer had to go before an anti-monopoly review before permission was granted to Disney. Postmodernism: A rejection of the ideals and principles of modern liberal thought and beliefs. A supporter of postmodernism believes that society has accepted the rules and laws and practices of liberalism and therefore has stopped thinking for themselves. They criticize what they see as the dominance of modern liberal ideology over all aspects of life to the exclusion of other ways of thinking. (pg. 411)  37 Extremism: Refers to a belief system that is outside of mainstream thought. Extremism may advocate actions that are socially and morally unacceptable. “Extremism,” however, depends entirely upon one’s point of view. Terrorist groups, such as al Qaeda or suicide bombers, are considered extremists. How would they defend their extremist actions? Extremism does not have to have religious motivation. The FLQ in Canada and eco-terrorist acts are also considered extreme. The challenge that extremism presents to modern liberalism is that governments may curtail civil liberties in order to maintain security. (pg. 413) Issue III: To what extent are the principles of liberalism viable? A) To what extent should governments reflect the will of the people? To what extent should governments encourage economic equality? B) To what extent should the practices of political and economic systems reflect the principles of liberalism? Political Systems: Refers to how a country is directed by its leaders. There are two types of political systems. They are either a democracy or a dictatorship. Democracy (Rule by the people): A form of government in which power is vested in the people. Democracies are characterized as liberal democracies due to the limitations of power of the government and guarantees of individual rights and freedoms. There are two forms of democracies: Direct democracy and representative democracy. (pg. 335) Democracy is the worst form of government, except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time. Direct democracy: Idea that every voice in society should be heard. A system where all qualified voters vote. This seems only practical with small numbers of people and a small electorate. Some characteristics of direct democracies are used in liberal democracies today such as the referendum or plebiscite. (pg. 337) Representative democracy: Due of the size of most liberal democracies, representative democracy is practiced. In this system, citizens (the electorate) elect governing officials or representatives to make decisions on their behalf. The Member of Parliament (MP) that represents the Foothills constituency is John Barlow. Elected officials represent a “section” of the nation. These sections are called constituencies (electoral districts) or ridings. In Canada there are 338 constituencies (since the October 2015 election) while in the USA there are 435. Each elected official represents approximately the same number of the population in each constituency. This is called Representation by Population.  38 Each constituency elects a single representative to the House of Commons or the House of Representatives. This is called single-member constituency as one rep is selected. It is sometimes referred to as first-past-the-post or plurality. In this electoral system the party that receives the most votes wins the constituency. The problem with this system is that it may not reflect the will of the people. 2011 Federal Election Popular Party Seats Vote 167 39.6% 102 30.6% 34 18.9% 4 4.7% 1 3.9% 2015