Introduction to Social Sciences PDF

10/4/2024 Introduction to Social Sciences 1  2 / 117 Definition of Science Possession of knowledge as distinguished from ignorance or misunderstanding; Knowledge attaine...

10/4/2024 Introduction to Social Sciences 1  2 / 117 Definition of Science Possession of knowledge as distinguished from ignorance or misunderstanding; Knowledge attained through study or practice; A department of systematized knowledge as an object of study (e.g. a department of theology); Something, as an activity or technique that may be studied or learned like systematized knowledge; Power / War Potential of a Nation  3 / 117 Definition of Natural Sciences Natural Science is defined as: Such knowledge concerned with the physical world and its observable fact; a system or method based or claiming to be based on scientific principles; any of the sciences (as physics, chemistry, or biology) that deal with matter, energy, and their interrelations and transformations or with objectively measurable phenomena. Analysis of Elements of National Measurement of War Potential National Security Concepts Conclusion Power Power Power / War Potential of a Nation  4 / 117 Definition of Social Science Social Science as: (a) A branch of science that deals with the institutions and functioning of human society and with the interpersonal relationships of individuals as members of society; (b) social science is the field of human knowledge that deals with all aspects of the group life of human beings; (c) a science, (as economics or political science) dealing with a particular phase or aspect of human society; (d) any discipline or branch of science that deals with the social and cultural aspects of human behaviour; it is sometime called Analysis of Power Elements of National Power Measurement of War Potential National Security Concepts Conclusion behavioural science. Power / War Potential of a Nation  5 / 117 Difference between Natural and Social Sciences Natural sciences are the field of knowledge of nature that deals with all aspects of natural life of this universe, Social sciences are the field of knowledge of humans that deals with all aspects of group or collective life of the human beings. Natural sciences deal with the natural environment in which the human beings exist. It includes sciences such as physics and chemistry, which deal with laws of matter, motion, space, mass, energy and biological sciences, Social sciences deal with the social environment in which the human beings exist. It includes sciences such as theology, sociology, economics and politics which deal with ethical and cultural norms, human instincts, basic human Analysis of Elements of National wants, laws of human Power Power rights and obligations, justice, governments and Measurement of War Potential National Security Concepts Conclusion Power / War Potential of a Nation their rise and fall.  6 / 117 Difference between Natural and Social Sciences Analysis of Elements of National Measurement of War Potential National Security Concepts Conclusion Power Power Power / War Potential of a Nation  7 / 117 Components of Social Sciences Major Social Sciences 1. History 2. Anthropology 3. Sociology 4. Political Science 5. Economics 6. Psychology Analysis of Elements of National Measurement of War Potential National Security Concepts Conclusion 7. Law/Demography/Geography Power Power / War Potential of a Nation Power  8 / 117 Pangaea Power / War Potential of a Nation  9 / 117 Power / War Potential of a Nation  10 / 117 Define Pangaea… The word Pangaea comes from Greek words “pan” and “gaia” “pan” meaning “entire” “gaia” meaning “earth” Therefore Pangaea literally means “Entire Earth.” Which seems fitting because it was composed of every land mass on the entire Earth! Power / War Potential of a Nation  11 / 117 Since all the continents were joined in one land mass (Pangaea), the remaining area of our earth was covered in ocean! This ocean is referred to as, Panthalassa. Power / War Potential of a Nation State and society  Meaning of society-: Society is a comprehensive association of peaceful and willed relations of men who join together for the fulfillment of their common objectives. for the fulfillment of his various needs an individual forms various associations, institutions and communities and all these are the component of society  Etymology of Society:-  Latin. Socius or societas……..Companionship  French. Societe’……Society  Distinction between state and society  Society is older than state  The scope of society is much wider than the scope of state  State is sovereign , society is not  Fixed territory is essential for the state not for the society  Organization is essential for state not for society  State is concerned with external actions whereas society is concerned with both internal and external actions  State is part of society  State has coercive power, society has persuasive power  14 / 117 ORIGIN OF SOCIETY Historical Evolution Conceptual or Theoretical Evolution Philosophical Evolution History evaluates into 5 phases – Hunting and Gathering – Horticultural and Pastoral – Agrarian – Industrial – Post- Industrial Conceptual/Philosophical Evolution. Social Stratification / Conflict, Socialization, Social Interaction, Social Identity, Diversity, Patriarchy/ Matriarchy , Polis/ Urbanization Power / War Potential of a Nation 14  15 / 117 ORIGIN OF SOCIETY Historical Evolution –Hunter & Gathering –Horticultural and Pastoral –Agrarian –Industrial –Post- Industrial Power / War Potential of a Nation 15  16 / 117 Power / War Potential of a Nation  17 / 117 Society and Its Making Social Stratification / Conflict Socialization Social Interaction Social Identity, Diversity Patriarchy/ Matriarchy Power / War Potential of a Nation Polis/ Urbanization  18 / 117 Social Stratification / Conflict Max Weber. Society formed classification in ranks/categories of people in a hierarchy due to Maximilian Carl Emil Weber was a German sociologist, historian, jurist, and political economist who was one of following reasons:- the central figures in the development of sociology and the social sciences more generally. His ideas continue to influence social theory Caste system, Class system, Status and research. consistency. Born: April 21, 1864, Erfurt, Germany Died: June 14, 1920 (age 56 years), Munich, Germany Reasons:-Inequality, Influenced Economic by: Karl Marx, Georg Simmel, Immanuel Kant,disparity, MORE Power Education: Humboldt University of Berlin (1892), MORE (political Maxor Power / War Potential of a Nation Parents: Helene Fallenstein, social), Weber Sr. Hierarchy  19 / 117 Social Karl Marx Stratification / Conflict (German: [maʁks]; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German-born philosopher, political theorist, Karleconomist, Marx. Society historian,is sociologist, formed due to economic journalist, and exploitation in ranks/categories revolutionary socialist. His best-known worksof arepeople the 1848 in pamphlet The Communist Manifesto (with Friedrich Core,Engels) Periphery and Semi-periphery to following and his three-volume Das Kapital (1867–1894); the latter employs his reasons:- critical approach of historical materialism in an analysis of capitalism, in the culmination Capitalism(class conflict- Elite vs proletariats) of his intellectual endeavours. Marx's ideas and their slumcollectively subsequent development, areas. known as Marxism, have had enormous influence on modern intellectual, Reasons:- Economic Power / War Potential of a Nationdisparity economic and political history. and exploitation  20 / 117 Social Stratification / Conflict Davis Moore Thesis. Society formed in classification of people due to following reasons:- Jobs, Efficiency, Dependence, Urbanization, Education. Reasons:- social benefits Power / War Potential of a Nation  21 / 117 Society and Its Making Socialization. The life long social experience by which individuals develop their human potential and learn culture. Unlike other species , humans develop personality Agents of Socialization. Family, School, Peer Group, Mass Media Royal Mail Service Titanic Apr 1914 Power / War Potential of a Nation  22 / 117 Society and Its Making Social Interaction. Process by which people act and react in relation to others. Social structure of a society determines its future or everyday discourse. This structure is based on Status, Morality, Power & Education system. Status is further subdivided in Ascribed(by birth), Achieved( acquired by E/P/R), Master(society gives like Olympic champion, Bhutto/Shareef family etc) Power / War Potential of a Nation  23 / 117 Society and Its Making Social Identity, Diversity, Patriarchy/ Matriarchy. It is the process of society making that lays in Race, Class & Gender influence which transforms society into:- 1. Centripetal large groups(nation, civil society, German /Japanese etc) 2. Centrifugal heterogeneous groups (BLA, Sindhi/Hindi, Punjabi/E, Pashtun/ Afghan) 3. Social equality on strong roots 4. Physical boundaries creating social boundaries( these also tend to have dividing effects like mosques, hostels, separate mess etc) Power / War Potential of a Nation  24 / 117 Society and Its Making Polis/ Urbanization. Way of life 1. Ferdinand Tonnis concept. Gemeinschaft(community). Social org of people based on traditions, norms, culture & kinship. Gessellschaft(association) based on individual interests(business ties, mechanical links) etc. 2. Emile Durkheim concept. Mechanical solidarity & Organic solidarity. Power / War Potential of a Nation  25 / 117 Society and Its Making Polis/ Urbanization. Way of life, in the theory of the French social scientist Émile Durkheim (1858– 1917), the social cohesiveness of small, undifferentiated societies (mechanical) and of societies differentiated by a relatively complex division of labour (organic). 1. Mechanical solidarity is the social integration of members of a society who have common values and beliefs. These common values and beliefs constitute a “collective conscience” that works internally in individual members to cause them to cooperate. Because, in Durkheim’s view, the forces causing members of society to cooperate were much like the internal energies causing the molecules to cohere in a solid, he drew upon the terminology of physical science in coining the term mechanical solidarity. 2. In contrast to mechanical solidarity, organic solidarity is social integration that arises out of the need of individuals for one another’s services. In a society characterized by organic solidarity, there is relatively greater division of labour, with individuals functioning much like the interdependent but differentiated organs of a living body. Society relies less on imposing uniform rules on everyone and more on regulating the relations between different groups and persons, often through the greater use of contracts and laws. Power / War Potential of a Nation  26 / 117 Society and Culture Culture. It is from Latin ‘Cultura’ means growing, cultivation or tend to cultivate the soil. Culture is a process of society lying in values, belief(s), behaviours, & material objects that transforms way of life. That includes:- 1. What we think, how we act and what we own. 2. Culture has two types including Material (tangible objects from armament to zippers created by society) and Non-material culture(in-tangible world of ideas created by members of society like Altruism (piety) to Zen(choice of actions by intuition) 3. Culture is subjected to constant change & development. This development is called Social Change due to Hyper Good, as result of cause & effect to good-self. 4. Cultural shock is resistance to traditional culture called Entropy Resistance Culture with three stages of mild, normal or heavy. Like Yamamamo tribes in Arizona, Bahutus Power / War in Central Africa etc. Potential of a Nation  27 / 117 Society and Culture Culture. It has two forms Ideal and Real Cultures. Ideal rests in contract marriages(official 25% men, 10% women in reality), Real modernity in Seduction or Prostitution as a business. Religions prohibit seduction as a cause. The components or agents of culture are Symbols, language, values/beliefs, Norms & Material culture:- 1. Symbols are human’s senses, instincts, that give world meaning like thumbs up. 2. Language is basic of culture that flourished due to Lexicography. It is not only communication means but a but transfer of cultures. heritage, folk and traditions cont speech & oral cultural traditions. Technology, holly/bolly wood etc 3. Values/ beliefs and norms dwell in Culture that is subjected to Carpathianism. These involve heroic standards for Hyper Good or true/false. Norms are expectations. 4. Material culture is now technology that shaped cultures through fashion industry, TV and social media advertisements. (whitening creams, gels etc). Power / War Potential of a Nation  28 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES The history of social sciences do not precede the 19th century, as separate and recognized disciplines of thought, one has to go back in time for the origins of some of their fundamental ideas and objectives. In the broader sense, the origins of social sciences go all the way back to the ancient Greeks and their rationalist inquiries into the nature of man, state, and morality. The heritage of Greece and Rome is a powerful one in Analysis of Power Elements of National Power Measurement of War Potential National Security Concepts Conclusion the history of social philosophy. Power / War Potential of a Nation  29 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES HISTORY is defined by the scholars of social sciences as: A chronological record of significant events (as affecting a nation or institution) usually including an explanation of their causes; A treatise presenting systematically related natural phenomena; A branch of knowledge that records and explains the past significant events, and it are the events, which form the subject matter of a history; History is the study of past events. It is a social science in the sense that it is a systematic attempt to learn about and verify past events and to relate them to one another and to the present. Every event has a historical context within which we commonly say the event must be studied. The subject matter of history is everything that has already happened. The study of history involves identifying; classifying; arranging; patterning. The fruits of the study of history are responsibility of recording; appreciation of variety; possibilities of prediction; realization of oflimitation. Analysis Power Elements of National Power Measurement of War Potential National Security Concepts Conclusion History is regarded by many as a social science and certain areas of historical study are Power / War Potential of a Nation almost indistinguishable from the work done in the social sciences.  30 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES Most historians, however, still consider history as one of the humanities. It is generally best, in any case, to consider history as marginal to the humanities and social sciences, since its insights and techniques pass through both. If history is one of the social sciences, it is the oldest. No matter how detailed and informative it may be, unless the discipline provides theories, rules, and organization of rules, it is not a social science. Modern historians differ as to how much organization and rules they provide. Some histories belong in the humanities and some in the social sciences. Indeed to develop relationships, we need to know what has happened, and observe and use the empirical evidence around us to induce certain understandings, and then, using logic, deduce a broader Analysis of set Elements of National Power Measurement of War Potential of National Security Concepts implications. Conclusion Power Power / War Potential of a Nation  31 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES In approaching this history, the latest findings in economics, geography, psychology, sociology, and all the social sciences in studying the past and drawing a set of lessons from the past. As they did this, historians became social scientists and made history a social science. History has long had an uneasy relationship with the social sciences. It is the natural tendency of an historian to think first of what has been, rather than what now is. Few historians can ignore the world in which they live, just as few economists or sociologists can ignore the way in which past events have determined the economy and society, which they study; nor would most wish to do so. Yet historians turn first to the past, to seek example or to examine the evolution of ideas and institutions, and they take such an Analysis of Elements of National examination Power as an Power essential Measurement preliminary to National of War Potential serious study, Conclusion Security Concepts whether of anPotential Power / War event of a of the past or the present. Nation  32 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES ANTHROPOLOGY Merriam Webster. 1.isThe science defined ofsocial scientists as: The by the science human of Man; beings; especially especially thestudy : the study of man in relation to its of human beings and their ancestors distribution, origin, classification through time and space and in and relationship of races, physical character, environmental and social relations and relation to physical character, culture; environmental and social relations, It teaches about the origin, nature and destiny of man andespecially culture from the perspective of his relation to God; 2 Anthropology is the study of the relationship between : theology dealing biological with qualities andthe origin, Analysis of socially Power Elements of National acquired characteristics. Power Measurement of War Potential National Security Concepts Conclusion Power / War Potential of a Nation nature, and destiny of human beings  33 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES Sometimes called the science of man, anthropology consists of two broad fields: Physical anthropology and Cultural anthropology. Some of the concerns of physical anthropology are: influence of evolution of natural environment on the physical characteristics of man; comparing human behaviour with that on man’s primate relatives, the apes and monkeys. Some of the concerns of cultural anthropology are Archaeology, or the remains of extinct civilizations; organization of primitive societies; special characteristics of groups in today’s industrial societies. Among the topics that interest anthropologists are excavation of formerly inhabited sites, fossils, the genetic material, technology and artifacts, linguistics, values and kinship. Some psychologists have argued that psychology ties sociology and anthropology together. If it does, it looks appropriate to discuss the history of anthropology. In considering the history of anthropology, it is useful to separate physical anthropology Analysis of from Elements cultural anthropology. Physical anthropology had its origins in of National Measurement of War Potential archaeology, Power which Power itself is a National Security partConcepts Conclusion of history. Power / War Potential of a Nation  34 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES Archaeology developed as people discovered the artifacts of history, (usually by digging them up, sometimes by hesitant over them) and grew significantly in importance with the publication, in 1859, of Charles Darwin’s “The Origin of Species”. This book set forth Darwin's theory of evolution, which argued that humans had evolved from earlier life forms. Archaeologists spread out to search for evidence of those earlier life forms. When they found artifacts, they naturally considered the nature of the earlier society that had left such traces. They spent more & more time thinking about how their “finds” had changed views of past societies and of earlier life, and physical anthropology developed from this research. Anthropology was first taught at the University of Vermont in 1886 Analysis of Elements of National by Power professor Power George Measurement of War Potential Pekins National Security Concepts Conclusion Marsh. Power / War Potential of a Nation  35 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES SOCIOLOGY is often defined by the social scientists as: A scientific study of the human social life; The science of society, social institutions, and social relationships; specifically the systematic study of the development, structure, interaction and collective behaviour of organized groups of human beings; The scientific analysis of a social institution as a functioning whole and as it relates to the rest of the society; Sociology is the systematic study of relationships among people. Sociologists assume that behaviour is influenced by their social, political, occupational, and intellectual groupings and by the particular settings in which they Analysis of Power Elements of National Power Measurement of War Potential National Security Concepts Conclusion find themselves one time or another Power / War Potential of a Nation  36 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES Sociology is a branch of the science of human beings that seeks to discover the causes and effects that arise in social relations among persons and in the intercommunication and interaction among persons and groups. It includes the study of the customs, structures, and institutions that emerge from interaction, of the forces that hold together and weaken them, and of the effects that participation in groups and organizations have on the behaviour and character of persons Sociology is also concerned with the basic nature of human society, locally and universally, and with various processes that Analysis of Elements of National preserve continuity Power and produce Power change. Measurement of War Potential National Security Concepts Conclusion Power / War Potential of a Nation  37 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 19th century sociology, influenced by the successes of biology and evolutionary theory, took an interest in resemblances between men and lower animals, like having similar instincts, and also in the parallels between biological and social evolution. These interests have declined, but sociology continues to share with the other sciences some interest in ecology, behavioural genetics, and questions of fertility and mortality as they relate to population studies. There is also a belief among sociologists that contact between physiology & sociology is necessary to avoid errors of ignorance in Analysis of Power both Elements of National Power fields. Measurement of War Potential National Security Concepts Conclusion Power / War Potential of a Nation  38 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES POLITICAL SCIENCE is defined by the social scientists as: A social science concerned chiefly with the description and analysis of political and especially governmental institutions and processes; Political science is, most generally understood to mean the systematic study of government processes by the application of scientific methods of analysis. More narrowly and more traditionally, it has been thought of as the study of the state and of the organs and institutions through which the state functions; Political science is the study of social arrangements to maintain peace and order within a given society. It deals with government. Its interests are politics; laws; administration; theory of the nature and functions of the state; International relations. It has both a philosophical and practical base. It examines the theory of government systems and studies practices by which governmentAnalysis of taxes, Power prohibits, Elements of National Power regulates, Measurement protects of War Potential andConceptsprovides National Security Conclusion services. Power / War Potential of a Nation  39 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES Hobbes (1558-1679), the father of political science. Rather than rely on tradition and the doctrine of divine right, Hobbes built a rationalist explanation for existing government. Hobbes justified the absolute authority of kings to rule. Were, we not ruled by such authority, there would be chaos and we would all be worse off. John Locke (1632-1704) who specifically looked at the part of Hobbes’ argument for the right of kings to rule. Locke agreed that we would be worse off in chaos, but argued that chaos was not the only alternative. He argued that the rights of individuals took priority over the rights of kings and that the only justification for any political power was “public good. The difference between the two views is the following: Whereas Hobbes’ view allowed no change in the existing order, Locke's view was that any government that violated its trust was itself invalid and thus certain Analysis of individual rights, such as the right to own property, Elements of National were prior Power to thePower rights Measurement of War Potential of government. National Security Concepts Locke's viewConclusion of natural rights, Power / War Potential of awhich Nation was later reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence and the Constitution’s Bill of Rights.  40 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES Political Science shaped in the form of freedom of worship, freedom of thought, and freedom of speech and it is a fundamental part of Western political theory. In the mid 18th century, a third great political philosopher, Jean Jacques Rousseau, carried through the work of Locke and Hobbes. He argued that individuals were basically good and that stable society could exist only when members were emotionally secure and the society itself had a foundation in reality. Analysis of Elements of National Measurement of War Potential National Security Concepts Conclusion Power Power Power / War Potential of a Nation  41 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES ECONOMICS is defined by the social scientists as: A social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services; Economics is the study of the ways in which men and women make a living, the most pressing problem most human beings face. It considers the social organization by means of which people satisfy their wants for scarce goods and services; Economics is the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce valuable commodities and distribute them among different groups. As political philosophy evolved, it became apparent that it had two aspects: politics, which developed into political science; and economics, which developed into political economy, which, in turn, developed into economics. Ancient Greeks who gave the name to this subject, Analysis of lacked the concept of what we now call economics, Elements of National Oeconomicus Power wouldPower be Measurement of War Potential ‘Household National Security Concepts Management’ Conclusion in modern Power / War Potential of a Nation English.  42 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES Adam Smith, who, in 1776, wrote the seminal book, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Smith’s interest was not confined to economics; it was also based in psychology and views about human beings; and, like the social philosophers Hume and Locke, he focused upon people’s ability to make contracts and exchanges. He argued that the ability to make a fair exchange was one of the fundamental differences between human beings and other forms of life and that markets would develop in which people could demonstrate this ability. As those markets developed, individuals’ self-interest would make humankind better off. He wrote, “Give me that which I want, and you shall have this which you want.” Smith argued against another political-economic viewpoint of the time, Analysis of Elements of National called ‘mercantilism’. Power Under mercantilism, Power the National Measurement of War Potential state played the Security Concepts central role Conclusion inPotential of adeciding Power / War Nation who was allowed to do what.  43 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES These are the questions in what is called “microeconomics”, the part of economics that deals with the behaviour of such individuals as consumers, business firms, traders and farmers. The other major branch of economics is “macroeconomics”, in which the focus is on aggregates: the level of income in the whole economy, the volume of total employment, the flow of total investment, and so forth. Analysis of Elements of National Measurement of War Potential National Security Concepts Conclusion Power Power Power / War Potential of a Nation  44 / 117 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES There is also the important field of “development economics”, which examines the attitudes and institutions supporting economic activity as well as the process of development itself. The economist is concerned with factors responsible for self-sustaining economic growth and with the extent to which of these factors can be manipulated by the public policy. Apart from these three major divisions in economics are the specialized fields of public finance, money and banking, international trade, labour economics, agricultural economics, industrial organization, and others. Economists may be asked to assess the effects of governmental measures such as taxes, minimum-wage Analysis of laws, rent controls, Elements of National tariffs, National Measurement of War Potential changes in interest Security Concepts Conclusion rates, Power Power the government budget, and so on. Power / War Potential of a Nation