Sport psychology samenvatting exam1.docx

Sport psychology Hoofdstuk 1 The passage introduces the field of sport and exercise psychology, highlighting the challenges and practical concerns faced by individuals in various roles, such as coaches, fitness directors, health care providers, and sport psychologists. It emphasizes the scientific...

Sport psychology Hoofdstuk 1 The passage introduces the field of sport and exercise psychology, highlighting the challenges and practical concerns faced by individuals in various roles, such as coaches, fitness directors, health care providers, and sport psychologists. It emphasizes the scientific study of people's behaviors in sport and exercise contexts and the application of that knowledge. Sport and exercise psychologists focus on the affect, behavior, and cognitions of individuals within dynamic environments. The passage outlines two primary objectives of studying sport and exercise psychology: understanding how psychological factors influence physical performance and how participation in sport and exercise affects psychological development, health, and well-being. It presents example questions related to these objectives. Furthermore, the passage discusses how sport psychology applies to a broad range of populations, including elite athletes, children, individuals with disabilities, seniors, and recreational participants. It also acknowledges the evolving focus on exercise and health-related aspects within the field. Lastly, the passage describes the roles of contemporary sport psychologists, which include conducting research to advance the field's knowledge, teaching courses related to sport and exercise psychology, and consulting with individuals or teams to enhance their performance and well-being. In summary, sport and exercise psychology is a multidisciplinary field that examines the interplay between psychological factors and physical performance, with applications ranging from elite sports to health promotion and rehabilitation. This passage provides insight into the roles and specializations within the field of sport and exercise psychology, distinguishing between clinical sport psychology and educational sport psychology. 1. **Consulting Role:** Sport and exercise psychologists often serve as consultants, working with athletes and teams to develop psychological skills that enhance performance and training. They may be employed by Olympic committees, universities, the military, or sports teams to improve cohesion, mental skills, and performance. Some also work in the fitness industry to design exercise programs that promote well-being. 2. **Distinguishing Between Specialties:** There are two primary specialties within contemporary sport and exercise psychology: - **Clinical Sport Psychology:** These specialists have extensive training in psychology and can diagnose and treat individuals with emotional disorders. They may address issues such as severe depression, eating disorders, or substance abuse within the sport and exercise context. They are licensed to practice psychology. - **Educational Sport Psychology:** These specialists have training in sport and exercise science and psychology but are not licensed psychologists. They educate athletes and exercisers on psychological skills development, including areas like anxiety management and confidence-building. Both clinical and educational sport and exercise psychology specialists require comprehensive knowledge of psychology and exercise science. Certification programs and examinations are often in place to ensure qualified professionals. 3. **History of Sport and Exercise Psychology:** The passage briefly mentions that sport psychology has a long history dating back to the 1880s, with references to psychology in ancient Olympic Games. However, it does not delve into the historical development in detail. In summary, this passage highlights the various roles and specializations within sport and exercise psychology, emphasizing the importance of well-trained professionals to enhance the mental and physical well-being of athletes and exercisers. This passage provides an overview of the history of sport psychology, highlighting six distinct periods and key individuals or events in each period. 1. **Period 1: Early Years (1893–1920):** This period marked the beginnings of sport psychology in North America. Norman Triplett conducted experiments to understand why cyclists performed better in groups, while E.W. Scripture conducted laboratory studies on athletes' reaction and movement times. Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympic Games, wrote extensively on the psychological aspects of sport. During this period, individuals from various fields, including psychology and physical education, started exploring the psychological aspects of sport and motor skill learning, but no one specialized in the field. 2. **Period 2: The Development of Laboratories and Psychological Testing (1921–1938):** This era saw the establishment of sport psychology laboratories in Germany, Japan, Russia, and the United States. Coleman Griffith, regarded as the father of American sport psychology, developed the first laboratory in sport psychology at the University of Illinois. He conducted research on the Chicago Cubs baseball team and wrote influential books on coaching and athletics psychology. Psychologists also began testing athletes for factors like reaction times, concentration, personality, and aggression. Babe Ruth was among the athletes tested during this period. The passage provides a historical context for the evolution of sport psychology, emphasizing the early pioneers and the development of laboratories and testing methods to better understand the psychological aspects of sports performance. Summary: This passage covers Periods 3, 4, and 5 in the history of sport psychology, highlighting key individuals, events, and developments during each period: **Period 3: Preparation for the Future (1939–1965):** - Franklin Henry at the University of California, Berkeley, played a significant role in advancing the scientific development of the field. - Other researchers like Warren Johnson and Arthur Slatter-Hammel contributed to the groundwork for sport psychology and exercise and sport science. - Dorothy Hazeltine Yates, one of the first women in the U.S. to practice sport psychology, conducted applied work with boxers. - David Tracy worked with the St. Louis Browns baseball team, bringing attention to sport psychology. - John Lawther emphasized the importance of linking research and practice, made contributions to graduate education, and helped develop sport psychology organizations. **Period 4: Establishment of Academic Sport Psychology (1966–1977):** - Sport psychology became a separate component within the academic discipline of physical education (now kinesiology or exercise and sport science). - Bruce Ogilvie, often called the father of North American applied sport psychology, began consulting with athletes and teams. - John Lawther continued to influence the field with a research-to-practice orientation. - The first sport psychology societies were established in North America. **Period 5: Multidisciplinary Science and Practice in Sport and Exercise Psychology (1978–1999):** - This period saw significant growth in sport and exercise psychology both in North America and internationally. - Applied issues gained prominence, and exercise psychology emerged as a specialty area. - Sport and exercise psychology became recognized as a distinct subdiscipline, separate from motor learning and control. - Research in the field expanded and garnered increased respect. - Qualitative and interpretive research approaches gained acceptance. - Specialty journals and conferences in sport and exercise psychology were developed. These periods illustrate the evolving nature of sport psychology, with increasing research, applied work, and specialization contributing to its growth and acceptance in the academic and practical realms. This passage covers Period 6 in the history of sport and exercise psychology and provides a glimpse into contemporary developments and challenges in the field: **Highlights of Period 6:** - The journal "Psychology of Sport and Exercise" is developed and published in Europe in 2000. - In 2003, APA Division 47 focuses on sport psychology as a specialized proficiency area. - In 2017, the International Society of Sport Psychology Conference in Seville, Spain, attracts more than 1,000 participants from 70 countries. - Concerns emerge about the best ways to prepare and educate students in sport and exercise psychology. - Exercise psychology flourishes, particularly in university environments, driven by external funding possibilities and its role in promoting wellness and reducing healthcare costs. - Strong, diverse, and sustained research programs are evident worldwide. - Interest in applied sport psychology continues to increase, with sport psychology specialists working in more than 70 countries. The passage also addresses the historical absence of women in the field of sport and exercise psychology, highlighting the contributions of pioneering female figures who overcame obstacles and made significant impacts. Women from around the world, such as Natalia Stambulova, Dorothea Alfermann, Gloria Balague, and Ema Geron, have played important roles in the field's development and continue to contribute to its advancement. The passage emphasizes the valuable contributions of women in sport and exercise psychology and their role in driving major advances in the field. SUMMARY 1. Describe what sport and exercise psychology is. Sport and exercise psychology is the scientific study of the behavior of people engaged in sport and exercise activities and the application of the knowledge gained. Researchers in the field have two major objectives: (1) to understand how psychological factors affect a person’s motor performance and (2) to understand how participating in physical activity affects a person’s psychological development. Despite enormous growth in recent years, sport psychology dates back to the early 1900s and is best understood within the framework of its six distinct historical periods. 2. Understand what sport and exercise psychology specialists do. Contemporary sport and exercise psychologists engage in different roles, including conducting research, teaching, and consulting with athletes and exercisers. 3. Know what training is required of a sport and exercise psychologist. Not all sport and exercise psychology specialists are trained in the same way. Clinical sport and exercise psychologists are trained specifically in psychology to treat athletes and exercisers with severe emotional disorders, such as substance abuse or anorexia. Educational sport psychology specialists receive training in exercise and sport science and related fields; they serve as mental coaches, educating athletes and exercisers about psychological skills and their development. They are not trained to assist people with severe emotional disorders. 4. Understand major developments in the history of sport and exercise psychology. Sport and exercise psychology has a long and rich history dating back more than 100 years. Its history falls into six periods. The first period, the early years (1893– 1920), is characterized by isolated studies. During the second period (1921–1938), sport psychology laboratories and psychological testing took place at a number of locations around the world. In the United States, Coleman Griffith became the first American to specialize in the area. The third period, preparation for the future (1939–1965), is characterized by the field’s scientific development attributable to the educational efforts of Franklin Henry. During the establishment of the academic discipline (1966–1977), sport and exercise psychology became a valued component of the academic discipline of physical education. The fifth period, multidisciplinary science and practice (1978–1999), is characterized by tremendous growth as the field became more accepted and respected by the public. Interest in applied issues and the growth and development of exercise psychology were evident. Training in the field took a more multidisciplinary perspective, and the field wrestled with a variety of professional practice issues. The final period of contemporary sport and exercise psychology (2000–present) has been distinguished by continued growth worldwide, considerable diverse research, and interest in application and consulting. Exercise psychology flourishes. KEY TERMS sport and exercise psychology clinical sport psychologists educational sport psychology specialists hoofdstuk 2 This passage discusses the importance of scientific methods and understanding science in the field of sport and exercise psychology. It emphasizes the need for professionals in this field to have a strong grasp of scientific principles to accurately interpret research findings, debunk myths, and make informed decisions in practice. Key points highlighted in the passage include: 1. **Scientific Research and Its Impact**: The passage acknowledges the frequent appearance of news stories reporting scientific studies in various aspects of sport and exercise psychology, such as nutrition, weight loss, brain injuries, and mental health. It stresses the importance of understanding the scientific basis of these studies to distinguish reliable information from contradictory or unsupported claims. 2. **The Role of Science in Sport and Exercise Psychology**: Science is presented as the foundation of sport and exercise psychology. It is essential for understanding how scientifically derived knowledge is generated, the scientific method, control of conditions, empirical evidence, and critical evaluation of research. 3. **Theory Building**: The passage explains the significance of theory in scientific research. It highlights how theories, such as social facilitation theory, help organize and explain facts, providing a systematic view of phenomena to describe, explain, and predict future occurrences. 4. Studies Versus Experiments: The passage distinguishes between studies and experiments in scientific research. Studies involve observing or assessing factors without changing the environment, while experiments involve manipulating variables to understand cause-and-effect relationships. Overall, the passage emphasizes the importance of science as the basis for understanding and advancing the field of sport and exercise psychology, whether as a practitioner or a researcher. It encourages the integration of scientific knowledge with practical professional experience, following evidence-based practice principles. This passage discusses the differences between scientifically derived knowledge and professional practice knowledge in the field of sport and exercise psychology. It highlights the strengths and limitations of both types of knowledge and emphasizes the importance of integrating them for effective practice. : 1. **Scientific Knowledge**: Scientifically derived knowledge is characterized by its systematic and controlled methodology, objectivity, and reliability. It involves the use of the scientific method to establish causal relationships between variables, which can be achieved through experiments. 2. **Professional Practice Knowledge**: Professional practice knowledge is gained through practical experience and includes methods such as systematic observation, case studies, shared public experience, introspection, and intuition. It tends to be holistic, absorbing novel practices quickly, but it can be less precise and more subjective compared to scientific knowledge. 3. **Integration of Knowledge**: Bridging the gap between scientific and professional practice knowledge is crucial for effective applied practice in sport and exercise psychology. It allows practitioners to use evidence-based principles while considering the holistic and practical aspects of their work. 4. **Challenges in Knowledge Transfer**: Historically, there has been a gap between research findings and their application in the field. Models like the RE-AIM model have been developed to help researchers measure the impact of their studies on factors such as reach, efficacy, adoption, implementation, and maintenance. 5. **Shared Responsibility**: Both researchers and practitioners have a role to play in bridging the research-to-practice gap. Researchers should aim to make their findings relevant and applicable to real-world situations, while practitioners should actively seek to integrate scientific knowledge into their practice. Overall, the passage underscores the importance of an active approach to sport and exercise psychology, where professionals strive to blend scientific rigor with practical expertise to enhance the field's effectiveness. This passage discusses various orientations within the field of sport and exercise psychology and highlights the importance of understanding current and future trends in the discipline. The key points covered include: 1. **Differences from Physical Sciences**: Psychology, particularly in the context of sport and exercise, deals with the dynamic and ever-changing nature of human behavior, making it distinct from physical sciences where inanimate objects are studied. Human behavior in sports involves thinking and interaction with the environment, making it more challenging to predict. 2. **Individualized Coaching and Practice**: The passage emphasizes the need to recognize individuality in coaching and practice. Coaches and sport psychologists use general principles based on the science of coaching but must also apply an artful approach to individualize these principles to specific situations and athletes. 3. **Psychological Orientations**: Sport and exercise psychologists can adopt various orientations, three of which are discussed: - **Psychophysiological Orientation**: Psychologists in this orientation study behavior by examining the physiological processes of the brain and their impact on physical activity. They may use measures like heart rate, brain wave activity, and muscle potentials to understand these relationships. - **Social–Psychological Orientation**: This perspective considers behavior as the result of complex interactions between an individual's personal makeup and their social environment. Researchers examine how the environment influences behavior and vice versa. - **Cognitive–Behavioral Orientation**: This orientation emphasizes an individual's thoughts and behaviors as central to determining their actions. Cognitive–behavioral sport psychologists assess factors like self-confidence, anxiety, goal orientations, imagery, and motivation and explore how these relate to behavior. 4. **Present and Future Trends**: The passage notes the growth in consulting and service opportunities in sport and exercise psychology. Sport psychologists are increasingly helping athletes and coaches achieve their goals, and exercise psychology offers opportunities to assist individuals in benefiting from physical activity. Additionally, performance psychology, which applies sport psychology principles to other high-performance areas, has emerged as a growing field of interest. Overall, understanding the various psychological orientations and keeping up with trends in the field is essential for sport and exercise psychologists to provide effective guidance and support to athletes, exercisers, and individuals in various high-performance contexts. This passage focuses on various aspects related to consulting and service opportunities in sport and exercise psychology, ethical standards for practitioners, training in counseling and clinical psychology, competence issues, specialization, tensions between academic and applied sport psychology, qualitative research methods, limited full-time positions for applied sport psychologists, and the recognition of sport and exercise psychology as a valued sport science. Here are the key points: 1. **Consulting and Service Opportunities**: Sport psychologists are increasingly helping athletes, coaches, and individuals in exercise programs achieve their goals. The field of exercise psychology has also created new service opportunities for promoting physical activity and its benefits. 2. **Performance Psychology**: Performance psychology, which applies sport psychology principles to various high-performance areas such as business, performing arts, medicine, and the military, has gained prominence. 3. **Ethical Standards**: Sport psychology organizations have developed ethical guidelines based on general ethical standards. These guidelines emphasize respecting individuals' dignity and rights, prioritizing clients' welfare, and maintaining competence and integrity. 4. **Six Ethical Principles**: The ethical guidelines cover six principles: competence, integrity, professional and scientific responsibility, respect for people's rights and dignity, concern for the welfare of others, and social responsibility. 5. **Counseling and Clinical Training**: Education in sport psychology now includes counseling and clinical training to equip practitioners with the skills needed for psychological interventions. 6. **Ethics and Competence Issues**: With the growth of sport and exercise consulting, issues related to ethics and competence have emerged. Certification programs and ethical standards have been established to address these concerns. 7. **Specialization**: The field of sport psychology has seen specialization in areas such as exercise psychology, youth life skills development through sport, and the psychology of performance excellence. 8. **Tension Between Academic and Applied Sport Psychology**: Tension exists between academic and applied sport psychology practitioners, with each group valuing its contributions differently. The field must work to bridge this gap. 9. **Qualitative Research Methods**: Qualitative research methods, involving nonnumeric data collection through observation and interviews, are gaining acceptance in the field. 10. **Limited Full-Time Positions**: While there are more consulting opportunities, full-time positions for sport psychologists are still limited. Advanced graduate training is required for specialized positions. 11. **Recognition as a Valued Sport Science**: Sport and exercise psychology is increasingly recognized as a valuable sport science, with universities offering relevant courses and resources becoming more readily available. Overall, the passage highlights the growth and development of sport and exercise psychology, along with the ethical considerations and practical challenges faced by practitioners in the field. This section discusses several key trends and developments in the field of sport and exercise psychology: 1. **Positive Psychology Movement**: There is a growing emphasis on positive psychology, focusing on developing positive attributes like optimism, hope, and happiness in individuals rather than solely addressing deficits such as depression. Sport psychologists have applied these principles not only in sports but also in business and the performing arts. 2. **Globalization of Sport and Exercise Psychology**: Embracing a global perspective is essential as sport and exercise psychology practices and knowledge are rapidly evolving worldwide. Understanding cross-cultural differences and commonalities is crucial. 3. **Multidisciplinary Research**: Researchers are increasingly collaborating across different subdisciplines of kinesiology, as well as with experts from other fields like engineering, social work, and nursing. This multidisciplinary approach is essential for addressing complex societal issues like obesity and youth development. 4. **Advances in Technology**: Sport psychologists are harnessing the power of technology, such as virtual reality, neuroimaging, computer games, and online consulting, to enhance training, understand the brain, promote physical activity, and provide remote consultations. 5. **Cultural Diversity**: The field is placing more emphasis on studying cultural diversity, recognizing the similarities and differences among various groups, and working toward inclusion and diversity in sport and exercise settings. 6. **Professionalization**: Applied sport psychology is becoming more professionalized, with certification standards increasing. Consultants are required to meet rigorous standards, including coursework, supervised hours, and written examinations. Research is also focused on professional development and competence-based training. 7. **Sport Psychology-Business Link**: Sport psychology principles are being applied in the business world, with professionals helping executives and organizations enhance performance, leadership, stress management, confidence, teamwork, and mental toughness by drawing parallels between high-performance athletes and corporate professionals. These trends reflect the dynamic nature of sport and exercise psychology, its increasing relevance in various domains, and the need for practitioners and researchers to adapt to a changing landscape. SUMMARY 1. Distinguish between scientific and professional practice knowledge. Sport and exercise psychology is above all a science. For this reason you need to understand the basic scientific process and how scientific knowledge is developed. Scientific knowledge alone, however, is not enough to guide professional practice. You must also understand how professional practice knowledge develops. 2. Integrate experiential and scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge must be integrated with the knowledge gained from professional practice. Integrating scientific and professional practice knowledge will greatly benefit you as you work in applied sport and exercise settings. 3. Compare and contrast orientations to the field. Several approaches can be taken to sport and exercise psychology, including the psychophysiological, social–psychological, and cognitive–behavioral orientations. Psychophysiological sport psychologists study physiological processes of the brain and their influence on physical activity. Social–psychological sport psychologists focus on how complex interactions between the social environment and personal makeup of the athlete or exerciser influence behavior. Cognitive–behavioral sport psychologists examine how an individual’s thoughts determine behavior. 4. Describe career opportunities and future directions in the field. Although more career opportunities exist today than ever before, only a limited number of full-time consulting positions are available. Sport and exercise psychology is flourishing and has much to offer those interested in working in sport and physical activity settings. Trends point to such future directions as an increased interest in psychological skills training and applied work, more counseling and clinical training for sport psychologists, increased emphasis on ethics and competence, increased specialization, some continuing tension between academic and applied sport psychologists, more qualitative research, and the need to take a global perspective. Scientists have discussed this issue and have identified models to help them better think about how their research can make a bigger difference. For example, Glasgow, Vogt, and Boles (1999) developed the RE-AIM model that outlines five factors that interact to affect knowledge transfer (figure 2.1): Reach—who the program affects, the degree to which the program affects the target audience. Efficacy—positive and negative outcomes of the program Adoption—who uses the completed program. Implementation—assessment of whether the program is delivered as specified. Maintenance—sustaining the program over time. Hoofdstuk 4 Motivation in the context of sport and exercise psychology can be defined as the direction and intensity of one's effort. The direction of effort refers to whether an individual seeks out, approaches, or is attracted to certain situations, while intensity of effort pertains to how much effort a person puts forth in a particular situation. There are three primary approaches to understanding motivation: 1. **Trait-Centered View**: This view suggests that motivated behavior is primarily a function of individual characteristics such as personality, needs, and goals. Some individuals are seen as having attributes that predispose them to success and high motivation, while others may lack motivation and personal goals. However, this view does not consider the role of the environment in influencing motivation. 2. **Situation-Centered View**: In contrast to the trait-centered view, this perspective posits that motivation is primarily determined by the situation or context in which an individual finds themselves. It suggests that motivation levels can vary depending on the specific situation. While situations do influence motivation, this view overlooks cases where individuals remain motivated despite challenging environments. 3. **Interactional View**: The most widely endorsed view by sport and exercise psychologists is the interactional view. It takes into account both individual factors (e.g., personality, needs) and situational factors (e.g., coaching style, team performance) and emphasizes how these two sets of factors interact to influence motivation. This view acknowledges that motivation results from the dynamic interplay between person and situation. An example of the interactional view is illustrated by a study of swimmers, where swimmers with different motivational orientations (seeking social approval or fearing social rejection) performed differently when swimming individually or as part of a relay team. This highlights the importance of considering both individual characteristics and the situation when understanding motivation. Ultimately, the interactional view of motivation recognizes that motivation is a complex interplay between personal attributes and the surrounding environment and is the most effective perspective for guiding practice in sport and exercise psychology. The interactional model of motivation, which considers both situational and personal factors, provides valuable guidelines for professionals in various fields, including teachers, coaches, trainers, and program administrators, to effectively motivate individuals. Here are five guidelines derived from this model: **Guideline 1: Consider Both Situations and Traits in Motivating People** - When seeking to enhance motivation, it's essential to consider both situational and personal factors. - Avoid attributing a lack of motivation solely to the individual's personal characteristics or solely to the situation; motivation is often influenced by a combination of both. **Guideline 2: Understand People's Multiple Motives for Involvement** - Effort should be invested in identifying and comprehending the diverse motives that drive individuals to participate in sports, exercise, or educational activities. - Recognize that people typically have multiple motives for participation, and these motives can change over time. **Guideline 3: Recognize Competing Motives for Involvement** - Acknowledge that individuals may have conflicting motives for involvement, such as wanting to exercise but also spend time with family. - Be aware of these competing interests as they can impact participation and motivation. **Guideline 4: Acknowledge Shared and Unique Motives** - While shared motives for participation can be identified, individuals often have unique, individual motives. - Motives can range from commonly shared ones like physical fitness and fun to more individual or idiosyncratic reasons. **Guideline 5: Consider Gender Differences in Motivation** - Gender differences can exist in motivational factors for participation. - For example, boys may emphasize competition and physical fitness more, while girls may focus on social aspects and skill development. - Recognizing and catering to these differences can be crucial in effectively motivating individuals of different genders. Understanding these guidelines and applying them in practice can help professionals create motivational environments that cater to individual needs and enhance engagement in sports, exercise, and educational activities. Motivation to participate in sports and exercise is influenced by various factors, and these motivations can differ among individuals and across cultures. Understanding these motivations is essential for coaches, exercise leaders, and educators. Here are key takeaways: **Cultural Emphasis Affects Motives:** - Cultural differences can significantly impact the motivations of individuals. - For example, U.S. and Korean middle school students showed differences in intrinsic motivation, with U.S. students being more intrinsically motivated. - Coaches and educators should be aware of cultural variations in motivations, especially in diverse societies. **Observe and Monitor Motives:** - People have diverse motives for participating in sports and exercise, and these motives can change over time. - Coaches and educators should observe participants, seek input from others who know them, and periodically ask participants about their reasons for participation. - Recognize that motives can evolve, and effective motivational strategies may need adjustments over time. **Change the Environment to Enhance Motivation:** - Structuring the sports and exercise environment to meet participants' needs is crucial for enhancing motivation. - Provide opportunities for both competition and recreation to cater to different preferences. - Recognize that participants may have multiple needs and design environments accordingly. **Adjust to Individuals in Groups:** - Individualizing coaching and teaching can be challenging but is essential to meet diverse participant needs. - Coaches should recognize that each athlete has unique motives and adapt their coaching style accordingly. - Even in larger groups, instructors can employ creative strategies to address individual motivations. **Influence Motivation:** - Coaches, exercise leaders, and educators play a significant role in influencing participant motivation. - Their actions, attitudes, and instructional approaches can impact motivation positively. - Building a positive and supportive environment is essential for motivating participants effectively. Overall, understanding and responding to the motivations of individuals and groups in sports and exercise settings can lead to more engaging and successful experiences for participants. This section focuses on various aspects related to motivation in sports and exercise, highlighting the following key points: 1. **Influence of Coaches and Instructors:** Coaches, instructors, and trainers play a significant role in influencing the motivation of athletes and participants. Their actions, attitudes, and behavior can have both direct and indirect impacts on the motivational environment. 2. **Incorporating Variety:** Introducing variety into exercise programming and creating optimal competitive conditions can enhance motivation. Providing diverse opportunities and infusing elements of suspense and unpredictability can make physical activities more engaging. 3. **Technology and Motivation:** Technology, such as exergames, mobile GPS-based games, and wearable fitness trackers, can be used to motivate individuals to engage in physical activity. These tools provide feedback and add an interactive element to exercise. 4. **Making Physical Activity a Lifelong Habit:** Early involvement in physical activity, such as through youth sports, can positively influence long-term motivation for physical activity. Using supportive teaching techniques can also foster intrinsic motivation that extends beyond the classroom or training setting. 5. **Behavior Modification:** Behavior modification techniques can be employed to change participants' undesirable motives for involvement. This can be particularly useful when dealing with individuals who have motivations that hinder their progress or participation. 6. **Realistic View of Motivation:** Motivation is an important but not the sole determinant of performance and participation in sports and exercise. Other factors like biomechanics, physiology, sociology, and skill development also play crucial roles. 7. **Understanding Achievement Motivation and Competitiveness:** Achievement motivation, characterized by the drive to master tasks, achieve excellence, and overcome obstacles, is a critical aspect of sports and exercise participation. Competitiveness is a popular term used to describe achievement motivation in sports. In summary, coaches, instructors, and exercise leaders should recognize their influential role in shaping the motivational environment. Employing strategies to enhance motivation, embracing technology, and understanding individual differences in motives are essential for fostering a positive and effective environment for sports and exercise participation. Additionally, cultivating a lifelong habit of physical activity and utilizing behavior modification when needed can contribute to sustained motivation and success. This section explores the concepts of achievement motivation and competitiveness, focusing on how they influence various behaviors, thoughts, and feelings in sports and competitive contexts. The key points covered include: 1. **Competitiveness Defined:** Competitiveness is defined as a disposition to strive for satisfaction when making comparisons with a standard of excellence in the presence of evaluative others. It involves achievement behavior in a competitive context with social evaluation as a critical component. 2. **Achievement Motivation and Competitiveness:** Achievement motivation and competitiveness are closely related but differ in scope. Achievement motivation pertains to the drive for excellence, the pursuit of goals, and pride in accomplishments, while competitiveness specifically relates to socially evaluated competitive situations. 3. **Effects of Motivation:** Achievement motivation and competitiveness influence a wide range of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings, including the choice of activity, effort invested in pursuing goals, intensity of effort, and persistence in the face of failure or adversity. 4. **Four Theories of Achievement Motivation:** The section introduces four theories that explain what motivates people to act in achievement-related contexts: - **Need Achievement Theory:** This interactional theory considers personality factors (motives), situational factors, resultant tendencies, emotional reactions, and achievement-related behaviors. High achievers tend to have a strong motivation for success and a low motivation to avoid failure, while low achievers have the opposite pattern. Situational factors like the probability of success and incentive value also play a role in determining resultant tendencies. - **Attribution Theory:** Attribution theory explores how individuals attribute success and failure. Attributions can be categorized as either internal or external and stable or unstable, affecting future motivation and behavior. - **Achievement Goal Theory:** This theory focuses on the types of goals individuals pursue in achievement settings. It distinguishes between mastery (task-oriented) goals and performance (ego-oriented) goals and their implications for motivation and behavior. - **Competence Motivation Theory:** Competence motivation theory centers on the individual's need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. It explains how these needs influence motivation and behavior. These theories provide insights into why people are motivated to achieve, how they interpret success and failure, the goals they pursue, and the underlying psychological processes. Understanding these theories can help coaches, instructors, and athletes better navigate the complex landscape of motivation in sports and competitive environments. This section discusses achievement behavior, attribution theory, and the significance of need achievement theory in understanding motivation. Key points covered include: 1. **Achievement Behavior:** Achievement behavior is influenced by various factors, including personality traits, situational factors, resultant tendencies, emotional reactions, and specific behaviors. High achievers are more likely to seek out challenging tasks, prefer intermediate risks, and perform better in evaluative situations, while low achievers tend to avoid challenges, opt for easier or excessively difficult tasks, and perform worse under evaluation. 2. **Significance of Need Achievement Theory:** Need achievement theory provides a framework for understanding the motivation behind achievement-related behaviors. It predicts how individuals with different achievement motives (e.g., high achievers and low achievers) will respond to challenging situations based on factors like the probability of success and incentive value. 3. **Attribution Theory:** Attribution theory focuses on how people explain their successes and failures. It categorizes attributions into basic categories, such as stability (permanent or unstable), locus of causality (internal or external), and locus of control (within or outside one's control). Attributions influence expectations, emotional reactions, and future motivation. 4. **Attributions as Causes of Success and Failure:** Attributions can be made for both success and failure. They involve identifying the perceived causes of an outcome, which can vary from stable factors like ability to unstable factors like luck. The type of attribution made (e.g., attributing success to internal factors like effort or ability) can impact emotional reactions, expectations, and future motivation. Attribution theory is important for understanding how individuals interpret their performance outcomes, and the attributions they make can have significant effects on their motivation and subsequent behavior. It also has implications for areas beyond sports and exercise, such as team dynamics and physical therapy outcomes. This section delves into the Achievement Goal Theory, which focuses on understanding motivation by considering a person's interpretation of what it takes to achieve success. The theory distinguishes between ego-oriented and task-oriented individuals based on their achievement goals: 1. **Ego-Oriented Individuals:** These individuals define success by beating others in competition and are primarily focused on external comparisons. Their self-worth is tied to winning, and they feel good about themselves when they succeed but not when they lose. 2. **Task-Oriented Individuals:** Task-oriented individuals participate in activities to improve and master tasks or skills. They are less concerned with external comparisons and more focused on personal improvement. Their perceived ability remains high, regardless of external outcomes. The choice between ego and task orientations can be influenced by personal disposition and environmental demands, such as coaching or teaching styles. A person may hold both types of goals to varying degrees, but one orientation is typically dominant. The motivational climate, created by coaches or teachers, can also impact an individual's achievement goal orientation. An environment emphasizing winning and competition fosters an ego orientation, while an environment focusing on learning and mastery promotes a task orientation. Research suggests that a task orientation is generally more beneficial for motivation, work ethic, persistence, and optimal performance. Task-oriented individuals are more likely to select realistic challenges, experience higher perceived competence, and handle failure more effectively than ego-oriented individuals. Ego-oriented individuals may struggle to maintain high perceived competence, leading to a maladaptive achievement behavioral pattern. Ultimately, adopting a task orientation, which emphasizes personal improvement and self-referenced standards, is recommended, especially when learning important physical activity skills. This approach promotes motivation, effort, and resilience in the face of challenges. This section discusses various theories of achievement motivation and their implications for understanding human behavior in physical activity settings: 1. **Dweck and Leggett's Social-Cognitive Model:** This model focuses on how individuals view their ability, classifying them into two categories: those with an entity view (fixed ability) and those with an incremental view (ability can change through effort). Research suggests that those with an entity view tend to exhibit maladaptive motivation patterns, while those with an incremental view are associated with more positive motivation outcomes. 2. **Approach vs. Avoidance Achievement Goals:** In addition to task and ego goal orientations, achievement goal theory introduces the concept of approach and avoidance goals. Approach goals involve striving for competence, while avoidance goals revolve around avoiding incompetence. Research indicates that approach goals are positively related to physical activity levels and motivation, suggesting that practitioners should emphasize approach goals in sport and exercise settings. 3. **Motivational Climate:** The social climate created by coaches, teachers, or leaders can influence individuals' goal orientations and motivation. Task-oriented climates tend to foster more adaptive motivation patterns, while ego-oriented climates are linked with less adaptive patterns. 4. **Competence Motivation Theory:** This theory posits that people are motivated to feel competent, and their perceived competence and control are crucial determinants of motivation. Positive affective states resulting from competence and control lead to increased motivation, while negative affective states can reduce motivation. Feedback, reinforcement, coaching behaviors, and motivational orientations influence perceived competence and control. The section also discusses the development of achievement motivation and competitiveness in three stages: 1. **Autonomous Competence Stage:** Typically occurs before age 4, focusing on self-mastery and self-testing. Children in this stage are less concerned with comparing themselves to others. 2. **Social Comparison Stage:** Begins around age 5, characterized by direct comparisons of one's performance to that of others. Children become preoccupied with who is faster, stronger, smarter, etc. 3. **Integrated Stage:** The most desirable stage, involving a balanced integration of social comparison and autonomous achievement strategies. Those in this stage can appropriately compete and compare themselves to others or adopt self-referenced standards. These theories provide valuable insights into how motivation and achievement behavior are influenced by individuals' perceptions, goals, and the social contexts in which they engage in physical activities. Understanding these theories can inform the practices of sport and exercise professionals, helping them create motivational environments that promote positive outcomes. This section provides tips and strategies for guiding achievement orientation and promoting positive achievement motivation in individuals, especially in the context of physical activity and sports. The key points include: 1. **Consider Interactional Factors:** Recognize the interplay between personal and situational factors in influencing achievement behavior. Assess participants' stages of achievement motivation, goal orientations, attributions, and their preferences for approaching or avoiding certain situations. 2. **Emphasize Task Goals:** Encourage individuals to prioritize task goals over ego goals. Task goals focus on self-improvement and mastery, while ego goals revolve around outperforming others. Promoting task goals helps prevent maladaptive achievement tendencies. 3. **Create a Task-Oriented Motivational Climate:** In educational and sports settings, foster a motivational climate that emphasizes task-oriented approaches rather than ego-oriented competition. Coaches, teachers, and leaders should create an environment that values effort, improvement, and personal growth. 4. **Monitor and Alter Attributional Feedback:** Pay attention to the attributions individuals make about their performance. Provide constructive feedback that helps them view their successes and failures in a balanced way. Encourage attributions that emphasize controllable factors like effort. 5. **Assess and Correct Inappropriate Attributions:** Identify and address inappropriate attributions, especially those linked to low self-esteem or learned helplessness. Help individuals reframe their attributions to promote a growth mindset and a belief in their ability to improve through effort. 6. **Help Participants Determine When to Compete:** Teach individuals when it's appropriate to compete and compare themselves socially and when it's more beneficial to focus on personal improvement and self-referenced standards. 7. **Enhance Perceptions of Competence and Control:** Promote feelings of competence and control, as they are key determinants of motivation. Create environments that boost self-esteem, emphasize mastery, and empower individuals to take control of their learning and performance. The section emphasizes the role of professionals, including coaches, teachers, and exercise leaders, in shaping the motivational climate and guiding individuals toward adaptive achievement orientations. It also highlights the importance of recognizing the developmental stages of achievement motivation to tailor interventions effectively. This section focuses on specific strategies and guidelines for promoting positive achievement orientation and motivation, particularly in educational and physical activity contexts. The key points include: 1. **Emphasize Task Goals and Approach Goals:** Encourage students, athletes, and exercisers to prioritize task goals (focused on self-improvement and mastery) and approach goals (focused on achieving competence). Discourage the emphasis on avoidance goals. Intervene if individuals are expressing avoidance goals, as they can hinder motivation. 2. **Monitor and Alter Attributional Feedback:** Be mindful of the attributions made while providing feedback. Avoid attributing failure solely to low ability, especially with children, as it can reinforce learned helplessness. Instead, link attributions to individual goals and capabilities. For successful performances, attribute success to effort and ability, not luck or task easiness. 3. **Assess and Correct Inappropriate Attributions:** Recognize and correct inappropriate or maladaptive attributions made by participants, such as attributing failure to low ability. Encourage them to shift from low-ability attributions to attributing performance difficulties to a lack of effort and a focus on improvement. Correct attributions when participants make incorrect ones for successful performances as well. 4. **Determine When Competitive Goals Are Appropriate:** Help participants develop judgment about when competitive goals are appropriate and when they should focus on individual improvement. Balance the societal emphasis on competitive outcomes with a task-oriented orientation, especially in sports and educational settings. 5. **Enhance Feelings of Competence and Control:** Foster perceived competence and feelings of control, especially in children. Keep practices and competitions enjoyable and focused on achievement. Match participant skills and abilities, provide appropriate feedback and reinforcement, and create individualized challenges and goals. Maximize the involvement of all participants to enhance competence. The section underscores the role of instructors, coaches, and educators in creating a motivational climate that supports achievement motivation and provides practical guidance for implementing these strategies effectively. It also highlights the importance of consistent efforts to promote good judgment regarding competition and achievement. SUMMARY 1. Define motivation and its components. Motivation can be defined as the direction and intensity of effort. The direction of effort refers to whether an individual seeks out, approaches, or is attracted to certain situations. The intensity of effort refers to how much effort a person puts forth in a particular situation. 2. Describe typical views of motivation and whether they are useful. Three views of motivation include the trait-centered view, the situation-centered view, and the interactional view. Among these models of motivation, the participant-by-situation interactional view is the most useful for guiding professional practice. 3. Detail useful guidelines for building motivation. Five fundamental observations, derived from the interactional view of motivation, make good guidelines for practice. First, participants are motivated both by their internal traits and by situations. Second, it is important to understand participants’ motives for involvement. Third, you should structure situations to meet the needs of participants. Fourth, recognize that as a teacher, coach, or exercise leader you play a critical role in the motivational environment. Fifth, use behavior modification to change participants’ undesirable motives. You must also develop a realistic view of motivation: Recognize that other factors not related to motivation influence sport performance and behavior and learn to assess 109 whether motivational factors may be readily changed. 4. Define achievement motivation and competitiveness and indicate why they are important. Achievement motivation refers to a person’s efforts to master a task, achieve excellence, overcome obstacles, perform better than others, and take pride in exercising talent. Competitiveness is a disposition to strive for satisfaction when making comparisons with some standard of excellence in the presence of evaluative others. These notions are important because they help us understand why some people seem so motivated to achieve and others seem simply to go along for the ride. 5. Compare and contrast theories of achievement motivation. Theories of achievement motivation include the need achievement theory, the attribution theory, the achievement goal theory, and the competence motivation theory. Together these theories suggest that high and low achievers can be distinguished by their motives, the tasks they select to be evaluated on, the effort they exert during competition, their persistence, and their performance. High achievers usually adopt mastery (task) and approach goals and have high perceptions of their ability and control. They attribute success to stable, internal factors such as high ability and attribute failure to unstable, controllable factors such as low effort. They are characterized by an incremental view of achievement. Low achievers, on the other hand, usually have low perceived ability and control, judge themselves more on ego goals, focus on avoidance goals, and attribute successes to luck or ease of the task (external, uncontrollable factors). They attribute failure to low ability (an internal, stable attribute). Low achievers are also characterized by an entity view of achievement. 6. Explain how achievement motivation develops. Achievement motivation and its sport-specific counterpart, competitiveness, develop through stages that include an autonomous stage when the individual focuses on mastery of her environment, a social comparison stage when the individual compares herself with others, and an integrated stage when the individual both focuses on self-improvement and uses social comparison. The goal is for the individual to reach an autonomous, integrated stage and to know when it is appropriate to compete and compare socially and when instead to adopt a self-referenced focus of comparison. 7. Use fundamentals of achievement motivation to guide practice. Parents, teachers, and coaches significantly influence the achievement motivation of children and can create climates that enhance achievement and counteract learned helplessness. They can best do this by (a) recognizing interactional influences on achievement motivation, (b) emphasizing individual task goals and downplaying ego goals, (c) monitoring the attributions made by those with whom you work and providing appropriate attributional feedback, (d) teaching participants to make appropriate attributions, (e) discussing with participants when it is appropriate to compete and compare themselves socially and when it is appropriate to adopt a self-referenced focus, and (f) facilitating perceptions of competence and control. hoofdstuk 7 This section discusses the principles of reinforcement and approaches to influencing behavior, emphasizing positive reinforcement as a preferred method for motivating and teaching individuals, especially in sports and physical activity settings. The key points include: 1. **Principles of Reinforcement:** Effective reinforcement is based on two premises: (a) positive consequences for behavior tend to motivate individuals to repeat that behavior, and (b) negative consequences for behavior tend to discourage individuals from repeating that behavior. However, reinforcement principles can be complex, as individuals may react differently to the same reinforcer, may not always be able to repeat reinforced behavior, and may have competing motives and reinforcers. 2. **Approaches to Influencing Behavior:** Two primary approaches to teaching and coaching are discussed: - **Positive Approach:** Focuses on rewarding appropriate behavior and increasing the likelihood of desirable responses in the future. It aims to strengthen desired behaviors by motivating participants and rewarding them when those behaviors occur. - **Negative Approach:** Focuses on punishing undesirable behaviors to reduce inappropriate behaviors. It involves criticism and attempts to eliminate unwanted behaviors through punishment. 3. **Combining Approaches:** While some coaches use a combination of positive and negative approaches, sport psychologists recommend a predominantly positive approach for working with athletes. Positive coaching and feedback foster better athlete satisfaction, team cohesion, and enjoyment of the sport. 4. **Guidelines for Using Positive Reinforcement:** Sport psychologists suggest the following guidelines for effective use of positive reinforcement: - Avoid planting negative seeds and make every comment a positive one. - Use verbal compliments, nonverbal cues (e.g., smiles), increased privileges, and rewards as forms of positive reinforcement. - Maintain a positive coaching or teaching style, aiming to motivate and inspire individuals rather than relying on punishment and criticism. Overall, the section highlights the importance of fostering positive motivation and behavior change through reinforcement and recommends an approach that emphasizes positivity, encouragement, and rewards over negativity and punishment. This section provides guidelines for effectively using reinforcement as a motivational tool, focusing on choosing appropriate reinforcers, scheduling them effectively, and rewarding behaviors that promote skill development and effort. Key points include: 1. **Choose Effective Reinforcers:** - Rewards should align with the preferences and needs of the individuals receiving them. - Types of reinforcers include social (e.g., praise), material (e.g., trophies), activity-related (e.g., playing games), and special outings (e.g., attending professional games). - Gathering information about individual preferences can help tailor reinforcement strategies effectively. 2. **Schedule Reinforcements Effectively:** - In the early stages of skill development or training, continuous and immediate reinforcement is recommended. - Continuous reinforcement provides motivation and information about performance. - Gradually transitioning to intermittent reinforcement is