SPEECH AND ORAL COMMUNICATION.docx

ENGLISH: Speech and Oral Communication General: Use English accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately in oral discourse GRAMMAR The Parts of Speech The parts of speech fall into two categories: 1) the content words (also called form classes because they are best identified by form rather than...

ENGLISH: Speech and Oral Communication General: Use English accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately in oral discourse GRAMMAR The Parts of Speech The parts of speech fall into two categories: 1) the content words (also called form classes because they are best identified by form rather than by functions) which include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs; and 2) the structure words most of which do carry some meaning but which also serve to form a structural framework so that the words can fit into sentences. A. Aspect and Tense of Verb TENSE MEANING EXAMPLES SIMPLE PRESENT (verb + -s/-es) – singular subject (verb, base form) – plural subject -expresses events or situations that exist always, usually, and habitually It snows in Alaska Edbert and Kyle watch television every day SIMPLE PAST (verb + -d/-ed) -an action happened at one particular time in the past -it began and ended at a specific time in the past It snowed in Alaska last year. Edbert and Kyle watched television last night. ASPECT PROGRESSIVE (also called continuous) 27 The progressive aspects give the idea that an action is in progress during a particular time. It begins before, is in progress during, and continues after another time or action. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE (am/is/are + V-ing) -an action began in the past, is in progress at the present time, and probably will continue a. Beth is sleeping right now PAST PROGRESSIVE (was/were + V-ing) -an action began before and was in progress at a particular time in the past. b. Beth was sleeping when I arrived FUTURE PROGRESSIVE (will/shall + be + V- ing) -an action will begin before another action, and it will be in progress at a particular time in the future c. Beth will be sleeping when we arrive NOTE: WILL vs. BE GOING TO To express a PREDICTION: Use either will or be going to. To express a PRIOR PLAN: Use only be going to. To express WILLINGNESS: Use onlywill. e.g. 1. According to the weather report, it will be cloudy tomorrow According to the weather report, it is going to be cloudy tomorrow (Prediction) Why did you buy this paint? I am going to paint my bedroom tomorrow. (Prior plan) I will do it for you (Willingness) PERFECT The perfect aspects all give the idea that one thing happened before another time or event PRESENT PERFECT (has/have + V-en (past participle) -an action happened sometime before now at an unspecified time in the past. The exact time is not important (Adverbs like ever, never, already, yet, still and just are frequently used with the present perfect -a situation that began in the past and continues to the present (usually used with for or since) Gary has already eaten I have known him for many years NOTE: the difference between since and for: FOR + a duration of time SINCE + a particular time PAST PERFECT (had + V-en (past participle) -an action was completely finished before another activity or time in the past Gary had already eaten when his friend arrived FUTURE PERFECT (will/shall + have + V-en (past participle) -an action was completely finished before another time in the future b. Gary will already have eaten when his friend arrives PERFECT PROGRESSIVE The perfect progressive aspects give the idea that one event is in progress immediately before, up to, until another time or event. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (has/have + been + -an event is in progress -it happened before now up to now a. Abet has been delivering the speech for 30 minutes now 28 V-ing) PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (had + been + V- ing) -emphasizes the duration of an activity that was in progress before another activity or time in the past b. Abet had been delivering the speech for 30 minutes before the President arrived. FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (will have + been + V-ing) -an event is in progress -it happened before another event in the future and will last for a particular period of time c. Abet will have been delivering the speech for 30 minutes by the time the President arrives C. Dynamic Verbs, sometimes referred to as “action verbs,” express a wide range of actions which may be physical, mental, or perceptual as opposed to a stative verb which purely expresses a state in which there is no obvious action Some examples of dynamic verbs are: eat, drink, go, type, read, write, listen, speak, watch, say, grow, melt, sleep, cook, talk, etc. Subject – Verb Agreement Rule 1: A compound subject joined by or, or nor requires a singular verb if each part is singular; if the parts differ in number or person the verb agrees with the subject nearer to it. e.g. My aunt of my uncle is arriving by train today. The book or the magazines are on the shelf. Rule 2: Two singular subjects connected by either-or or neither-nor require a singular verb, but when a singular and plural subject are connected, use a plural verb e.g. Either John or Susan is available. Neither the teacher nor the principal is coming. Either the house or the cars are for sale. Neither Jenny nor the others are available. Rule 3: When one of your two subjects is I, put it second and follow it with the singular verb am. e.g. Neither she nor I am going to the festival Rule 4: Compound subjects joined by and require a plural verb, but when the parts refer to the same person or have some other close relation, they take a singular verb. Also, if parts of the compound subject are modified by each, or no, a singular verb is required. e.g. Her professor and thesis adviser is here. (same person) Every branch and twig was covered with dust. No one is here. Rule 5: Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as well as, besides or not. Ignore these expressions when determining whether to use a singular of plural verb. e.g. The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly. Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking. 29 Rule 6: The definite pronouns each, everyone, one, everybody, anyone, someone, and somebody are singular and require singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of. e.g. Each of the girls sings well. Everyone of participating teams is pleased about the judging. Note: Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Every one is two words when the meaning is each one. e.g. Every one of the items on sale is gone. Rule 7: With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder, etc.—look at the noun in your phrase (object of the preposition) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the prepositions is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb. e.g. Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared. Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared. All of the pie is gone. All of the pies are gone. Some of the pie is missing. Some of the pies are missing. Rule 8: When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbs. e.g. Neither of them is available to speak right now. Either of us is capable of doing the job. Rule 9: The words here and there have generally been labelled as adverbs even though they indicate place. In sentences beginning with here or there, the subject follows the verb. e.g. There are four hurdles to jump. There is a high hurdle to jump. There sits the guest of honor. Here sleeps my baby brother. Rule 10: Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time. e.g. Ten dollars is a high price to pay. Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense. Rule 11: Sometimes the pronoun who, that or which is the subject of the verb in the middle of the sentence. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural according to the noun directly in front of them. So if that noun is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb. e.g. Charlene is the scientist who writes the reports. The word in front of who is scientist, which is singular. Therefore, the verb writes is singular. He is one of the men who do the work. Men preceding who is plural. 30 The verb do is likewise plural. Rule 12: Collective nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or plural depending on their use in the sentence. e.g. The staff is in a meeting. The staff are in disagreement about the findings. Nouns Nouns are names of anything exists or that can be conceived, referring to a person, place, thing, or idea. They can also be categorized based on the following: The kind of thought or perception they convey (abstract or concrete) The type of matter they name (common or proper) The number (singular or plural) The quantity or amount they indicate (collective or mass) The gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter) What to Remember About Noun Possessives and Pluralization Possessives An apostrophe is added to form the possessive case of singular and plural nouns ending in –s or –z; ‘s to those not ending in –s or –z An of phrase is used after nouns not related to people. e.g. the tires of the car the surface of the road the roof of the house the leaves of the tree Nouns connected with people and human activity usually take the ‘s form. e.g. Proper names: Abraham Lincoln’s speech Personal nouns: the girl’s dress Collective nouns: the team’s success Relating to human activity: the body’s ability Institution: the museum’s members Many phrases of time take the ‘s form. e.g. a month’s pay two weeks’ vacation a year’s work season’s greetings Certain idioms take the ‘s form. e.g. our money’s worth an arm’s length Higher animals can take the ‘s form. e.g. a dog’s life the kitten’s cry a bird’s nest the horse’s mane Double possessives using both of and the ‘s form are common with proper nouns when reference is definite and personal. e.g. a novel of Conrad’s a painting of Picasso’s Plurals 31 The plural of most nouns are generally formed by adding final –s when the singular form can be pronounced without adding a syllable, or a final –es if the singular form ends in –s, -ch, -z, and –x that cannot unite with s to form one syllable. Plurals of figures, signs, and letters used as words add ‘s. There are nouns generally used in the singular and therefore require singular verb. Among these are beard, food, fish, fruit, grass, hair. The following nouns do not have their plural form: baggage, chalk, furniture, jewelry, scenery, information, machinery, pottery. The following nouns are always plural: trousers, binoculars, scissors, means, refreshments, forceps, pliers, and falls. Nouns ending in –ics are singular when they denote scientific subjects such as Physics, Mathematics, Linguistics Nouns ending in –ics are plural when they denote activities or qualities such as acoustics, acrobatics, athletics Hyphenated nouns or compound nouns usually attach –s to the element that is actually being pluralized: mothers-in-law, officers-in charge, editors-in- chief, mayors-elect Foreign plural: Foreign Noun Plural Form Foreign Noun Plural Form larva larvae criterion criteria vertebra vertebrae phenomenon phenomena alumnus alumni automaton automata bacillus bacilli libretto libretti cactus cacti/cactuses tempo tempi focus foci virtuoso virtuosi Order of Determiners in a Noun Phrase Pre- Determiner Core Determiner Post- Determiner (Adjective) Noun A. Articles Cardinal Numbers school all a/an 1, 2, 3… red college both the Ordinal Numbers old dormitory half B. Possessive Adjectives first, second,… last new house double her everyfew big garden his less high fence its little(quantity) tall garage my many(a) thick gate our more intellectual summer their most thoughtful rock your other excellent wool C. Possessive of names same Japanese silk Ex. John’s several silken steel D. single woolen clay 32 Demonstrative s this such plastic that cloth these leather those brick E. Indefinite paper another coat any, each skirt either enough much neither no some what(a) which whose PRONOUNS Pronouns are words that stand for a noun or noun phrase SUBJECT PRONOUN OBJECT PRONOUN POSSESSIVE PRONOUN SINGULAR I you he she it me you her him it mine your hers his its PLURAL we you they us you them ours yours theirs The noun being referred back to is called the “antecedent” (e.g. I read a book. It was good). The pronoun “it” refers to the antecedent noun “book” Possessive pronouns are not followed immediately by a noun; they stand alone. (e.g., That book is hers.) Possessive pronouns do NOT take apostrophes. Possessive determiners are followed immediately by a noun; they do not stand alone. (e.g. Her book is here.) It has no apostrophe when used as a possessive determiner. (e.g. A bird uses its wings to fly.) It’s is a contraction of it is or it has. ADJECTIVES Degrees of Adjectives 33 Only the comparative and superlative adjectives show degrees. We use the comparative for comparing two entities and the superlative for comparing three or more entities. Gladys is a rich woman, but Josie is richer than Gladys, and Sadie is the richest woman in town. Positive Comparative Superlative rich richer richest lovely lovelier loveliest beautiful more beautiful most beautiful Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and superlative degrees: Irregular Comparative Superlative good better best bad worse worst little less least much, many more most far further furthest Adjectives that do not admit comparative degree according to Bryan Garner: absolute impossible principal adequate inevitable stationary chief irrevocable sufficient complete main unanimous devoid manifest unavoidable entire minor unbroken fatal paramount unique final perpetual universal ideal preferable whole The Order of Adjectives in a Series The categories in the following table can be described as follows: Determiners e.g. this, that, these, those, my, mine, your, your, him, his, her, hers, they, their; or a, an, the Observation / Opinion e.g. beautiful, interesting, polite, difficult, hardworking Size e.g. tall, wide, large, high, narrow, thin Shape e.g. round, rectangular, circular Age e.g. young, old, new, ancient Color e.g. red, black, pale Origin e.g. French, American, Canadian Material e.g. woollen, metallic, wooden Qualifier e.g. rocking chair, hunting cabin, passenger car 34 Collective Adjectives When the definite article, the, is combined with an adjective describing a class or group of people, the resulting phrase can act as a noun: the poor, the rich, the oppressed, the homeless, the lonely, the unlettered, the unwashed, the gathered, the dear departed. The rural poor have been ignored by the media. The rich of Connecticut are responsible. The elderly are beginning to demand their rights. The young at heart are always a joy to be around. Irregular Comparisons A few of the comparatives and superlatives in English do not follow the usual pattern. Here is a list of common exceptions: Positive Comparative Superlative bad worse worst badly worse worst far(distance) farther farthest far(extent) further furthest good better best ill worse worst late later latest or last less lesser least little (amount) less least many more most much more most well better best Kinds of Adjectives Possessive Adjectives Modify a noun by telling whom it belongs to Answer the question “Whose?” Include his, her, its, my, our, their, and your e.g. You can share my rice. Have you seen their house? Demonstrative Adjectives Include that, these, this, those and answer the question “Which?” Used to modify a noun or pronoun e.g. I’m going to open that present Those socks look warm. Interrogative Adjectives Include what and which used in a question May look like an interrogative pronoun, but it is used differently in a sentence: It is an adjective used to modify a noun or pronoun 35 e.g. What movie do you want to see? Which leaves turn color first? Indefinite Adjectives An indefinite adjective gives indefinite, or general information Often, it answers the question “How much?” Some common indefinite adjectives are all, any, each, every few, many, and some. e.g. Many children like dinosaurs. Did you want some bananas? Adverbs Adverbs are modifiers of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. They indicate manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as “how,” “when,” “where,” “how much.” Types of Adverbs Adverbs of Manner Provide information on how someone does something Placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end of the sentence) e.g. Jack drives very carefully. Their teacher speaks quickly. Adverbs of Time Provide information on when something happens e.g. We’ll let you know our decision next week. Adverbs of Degree Provide information concerning how much of something is done Placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end of the sentence) e.g. They like playing golf a lot. She’ll attend the meeting as well. Adverbs of Comment Provide comment, or opinion about a situation Placed at the beginning of a sentence e.g. Fortunately, there were enough seats left for the concert. Luckily, I was able to come to the presentation. Adverb Placement Adverbs of frequency are placed after the verb ‘to be’ when used as the main verb of the sentence. e.g. Jack is often late for work. Some adverbs of frequency (sometimes, usually, normally) are also placed at the beginning of the sentence for emphasis. Adverbs can also modify an adjective. In this case, the adverb is placed before the adjective. absolutely sure. She is extremely happy. They are 36 Do not use ‘very’ with adjectives that express an increased quality of a basic adjective. e.g. good—fantastic Adverbs of frequency (always, never, sometimes) usually come before the main verb. e.g. He is often late for class Do you always eat in a restaurant? They don’t usually travel on Fridays. Adverbs of frequency expressing infrequency are not usually used in the negative or question form. “Never,” “seldom,” “rarely,” and other adverbs of frequency with a negative sense are not usually used in the question form. When using adverbs of frequency in the negative form, put the adverb before the main verb. e.g. Does she rarely eat fish? They don’t. Adverbs of frequency are often placed at the beginning of a sentence. e.g. Sometimes, he likes to go to museums. Adverbs of frequency follow—come after- the verb ‘to be’ e.g. He is sometimes late for work. When an adverb modifies an adjective, there is no need to join the two with a hyphen. e.g. Thomas was a highly respected member of the team. (Incorrect) Thomas was a highly- respected member of the team. With words like “well” and “fast” (which are both adjectives and adverbs), a hyphen can be used to avoid ambiguity. e.g. We will be visited by a well- known actress. Usual order when two or more adverbs modify a verb: MANNER- FREQUENCY-PLACE-TIME-CAUSE/REASON Prepositions Prepositions show relationships in time and space and relationship between ideas (logical relationships). PREPOSITIO N USES EXAMPLES IN months, years, seasons in December in 2009 in autumn enclosure in a landmark in the box special expressions in the meantime in addition in contrast 37 ON AT FROM days of the week and dates on Wednesday on the fifth of July contact with a surface on the table on the floor time at six o’clock place as a point of orientation at the corner separation from a point of orientation away from me OFF separation from contact with a line or surface fell off the stem OUT OF separation from inside a landmark fish out of water BY denotes the idea of “connection” or nearness Stand by me. WITH association and/or accompaniment dinner with friends equal standing or ability rank with the best manner spoke with ease THROUGH structures space as a tunnel or channel through the woods duration through the years endurance through thick and thin ABOUT spatial movement in any direction walked about the room approximation about 10 miles concerning something about the book UNDER at a lower point than a landmark under the mango tree below under 18 OVER at a higher point than the landmark Over the fence ABOVE higher than above average BEFORE in front of before us earlier than before the year ends BETWEEN at an intermediate point in relation to two entities between you and me Conjunctions AND addition BUT shows contrast YET but at the same time SO therefore FOR because OR one or the other two alternatives is true NOR conjoins two negative sentences, both of which are true Correlative Conjunctions—pairs of conjunctions that are used together 38 both…and neither…nor whether…or either…or not only…but also Correlative conjunctions must be followed by the same grammatical structures. Incorrect: Either the meat (noun) was tough to begin with or overcooked (adjective) Correct: Either the meat (noun) was tough to begin with or it (pronoun) was overcooked. Subordinating Conjunctions connect two complete ideas by making one of the ideas subordinate to or less important than the other. e.g. He ran steadily as though wolves were after him. (main idea) (subordinate idea) Frequently Used Subordinating Conjunctions after because now that until although before since when as even if so that whenever as if even though than where as long as if though wherever as soon as in order that till while as though lest unless Modals Basic modals: can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would Phrasal modals: be able to, be going to, be supposed to, have to, have got to, used to Modals do not take a final –s even when the subject is singular. Correct: She can do it. Incorrect: She can do it Modals are followed by the simple form of the verb. the only exception is ought, which is followed by an infinitive (to + simple form of the verb) Correct: She can do it. Incorrect: She can does it. Summary Chart of Modals and Similar Expressions USES PRESENT / FUTURE PAST MAY polite request (only with I or we) May I borrow your pen? formal permission You may leave the room. less than 50% certainty (Where’s John?) He may be at the He may have been in the library. 39 library. MIGHT SHOULD OUGHT TO BE SUPPOSED TO MUST less than 50% certainty (Where’s John?) He might be at the library. He might have been in the library polite request (rare) Might I borrow your pen? advisability I should study tonight. I should have studies last night, but I didn’t. 90% certainty (expectation) She should do well on the test. (future only, not present) She should have done well on the test. advisability I ought to study tonight. I ought to have studied last night, but I didn’t. 90% certainty (expectation) She ought to do well on the test. (future only, not present) She ought to have done well on the test. expectation Class is supposed to begin at 10:00. unfulfilled expectation Class was supposed to begin at 10:00, but it didn’t begin until 10:15 strong necessity I must go to class today. (I had to go to class yesterday) prohibition (negative) You must not open that door. 95% certainty Mary isn’t in class. She must be sick. (present only) Mary must have been sick yesterday. WILL 100% certainty He will be here at 6:00. willingness I will do that for you polite request Will you please close the door? CAN ability / possibility I can run fast. I could run fast when I was a child, but now I can’t. informal permission You can use my car tomorrow informal polite request Can we talk? impossibility (negative only) That can’t be true! That couldn’t have been true! past ability I could dance well during my younger years. 40 COULD polite request Could you help me? suggestion (affirmative only) You could talk to a doctor about your problem. He could have been at home. less than 50% certainty (Where’s Johnny?) He could be at home. impossibility (negative only) That couldn’t be true! That could not have been true! WOULD polite request Would you consider the offer? preference I would rather go to the park than stay home. I would rather have gone to the park repeated action in the past When I was a child, I would visit my grandparents every weekend. polite for “want” (with like) I would like an apple, please. unfulfilled wish I would have liked a cookie, but there were none in the kitchen. USED TO SHALL repeated action in the past He used to drink beer every night. past situation that no longer exists I used to live in the province, but now I live in the city polite question to make a suggestion Shall I keep the secret? future with “I” or “we” as a subject We shall celebrate after passing the examination. Tag Questions A tag question is a question added at the end of a sentence. It aims to seek agreement or to ascertain correctness of information. A tag question may be spoken (a) with a rising intonation if the speaker is truly seeking to ascertain that his/her information, idea or belief is correct, (e.g. Ann lives in an apartment, doesn’t she?) or (b) with a failing intonation if the speaker is expressing an idea with which s/he is almost certain the listener will agree (e.g. It’s a nice day today, isn’t it?) Affirmative Sentence + Negative Tag  Affirmative Answer Expected 41 Beth is here, isn’t she? Yes, she is. You like coffee, don’t you? Yes, I do. They have left, haven’t they? Yes, they have. Negative Sentence + Affirmative Tag  Negative Answer Expected Beth isn’t here, is she? No, she isn’t. You don’t like coffee, do you? No, I don’t. They haven’t left, have they? No, they haven’t. Basic Verb Forms Used in CONDITIONAL SENTENCES SITUATION IF- Clause RESULT - Clause Examples True in the present / future simple present simple present simple future (will + simple form) If I have enough time, I visit my parents every week. If I have enough time, I will visit my parents next week. Untrue in the present / future simple past would + simple form If I had enough time, I would visit my parents now. Untrue in the past past perfect would have + past participle If I had enough time, I would have visited my parents last month ENGLISH PHONOLOGY Effective oral discourse means being able to use grammatical structures accurately; having the ability to express ideas, messages, and intentions meaningfully; and observing rules of use appropriately when interacting with others in various social contexts. In other words, a competent speaker has good pronunciation and correct intonation, forms grammatical sentences, and uses language appropriately when communicating with others. The Speech Mechanism 42 The speech-producing mechanism or vocal apparatus consist of the following parts as shown in the figure: The resonators or resonating cavities: the pharynx or pharyngeal cavity, the nasal cavity, and the oral cavity. These cavities serve as the passage of the moving stream of air. The pharyngeal cavity is a space formed by the root of the tongue and the walls of the throat. The articulators: lower lip, lower teeth, the tongue and its parts (the tongue apex is made up of the tongue tip and blade, the front of the tongue, and the back of the tongue or dorsum), as well as the soft palate or velum with its pear-shaped appendage called the uvula. Articulators are movable parts. The important points of articulation are the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge (the gum behind the upper teeth), the hard palate (the bony roof of the mouth) and again, the velum. Except for the velum, these parts are non-movable. They are the parts of speech apparatus near which or against which the articulators are placed in the production of the various speech sounds. The vocal cords / bands. They are two short bands of elastic flesh and muscle located inside the larynx (Adam’s apple). The opening between them is called the glottis. The glottis may be opened so as to cause no obstruction in the passage of air as in normal breathing, completely closed, or partially closed. Speech sounds produced with an open glottis are said to be voiceless. When the vocal bands are brought so close together than the air passing through causes the glottis to vibrate, the speech sounds produced are said to be voiced. When the vocal bands are pressed together so tightly as to resist 43 considerable air pressure from the lungs, the sound produced is a glottal stop. The Phoneme The phoneme is a minimal significant or contrastive unit in a language. This speech sound signals a difference in meaning e.g.. /p/, /b/, and /f/ as in pan, ban, and fan. Note that a phoneme is enclosed in slants / /. A phoneme may be pronounced in different ways, depending on its position in the utterance, and still remains the same phoneme. These variations in pronunciation, called allophones, are enclosed in square brackets [ ]. For example, the phoneme /p/ is pronounced differently in the following words: pin, spin, nip. It is aspirated in pin [phin], unaspirated in spin [spin] and unreleased in nip [nip-]. The Vowel Phonemes of English The following statements show the nature of vowels: Vowels are oral sounds. Vowels are voiced. Vowels are characterized by a free flow of air through the oral cavity. Using Trager and Smith and the IPA transcription systems, the following are the simple and complex vowels of English with their corresponding key words: Key Word Trager- Smith IPA Key Word Trager- Smith IPA bit i I pall > > bet e e beat iy i: bat æ æ bait ey eI just(adv) i - bite ay aI ago Ə Ə bout aw aƱ hut boat ow oƱ hot a a boy oy ƆI pull u Ʊ boot uw u: The Consonant Phonemes of English The first set of consonant sounds in English are the stops /p, b, t, d, k, g/. they are produced by a stoppage of air. The sounds /p, t, k/ are voiceless because the vocal cords do not vibrate. On the other hand, /b, d, g/ are voiced. The /p, t, k/ sounds are aspirated when they occur initially in a stressed syllable. For example, the /t/ sound in the words ten and attend are aspirated or produced with an accompanying puff of air. The sound /k/ in cat and recount are likewise aspirated. The same is true with the /p/ sound in pen and append. The second set of sounds are the fricatives / f v θ ð s z š ž h/. They are produced by an obstruction of the airstream causing audible friction. 44 Further, English has two affricates /č/ and /j/, three nasals /m n դ/, a lateral /l/, a retroflex /r/ and two semivowels /w v/. The retroflex and the semivowels are sometimes referred to as glides. The following table shows the consonant sounds of English in two transcription systems. Key Word Trager- Smith IPA Key Word Trager- Smith IPA pan p p sure š ∫ ban b b azure ž ž ten t t hat h h den d d cat č t∫ cot k k job j dჳ got g g mine m m fan f f nine n n van v v sing դ դ thin θ θ lot l l hen ð ð rot r r so s s well w w zoo z z yell y y Awareness of certain sounds are crucial in pronouncing noun plurals, and noun possessives as well as the third person singular inflection of regular verbs. Similarly, it is also significant in pronouncing the regular simple past inflection. To illustrate: Noun plurals are spelled as –s or –es. This plural inflection can be pronounced in three different ways, i.e., /-s/, /-z/, or /Əz/ as shown below: /-s/ /-z/ /-Əz/ cats, ropes, rocks, graphs beds, chairs, seeds, stones, leaves, dolls dishes, churches, judges, garages, buses /Əz/ occurs after sibilants or s-like sounds such as /s, z, š, ž, č, j/ /s/ occurs after voiceless sounds except /s, š, č/ /z/ occurs after voiced sounds except /z, ž, j/ The pronunciation rules defined for the plural above also apply to noun possessives and third person singular forms of regular verbs. Likewise, the regular simple past tense inflection –ed has three variants, namely /t, d, Əd/ /Əd/ occurs after /t/ and /d/ as in planted, hated, needed, and raided /t/ occurs after voiceless sounds except /t/, e.g. liked, surprised, realized, cooked /d/ occurs after voiced sounds as in loved, played, owned and belonged Suprasegmental Phonemes and Prosodic Patterns in English Pronouncing consonant and vowel sound correctly in an utterance is not enough. As consequential are other phonemic phenomena labelled as 45 suprasegmentals which contribute to a meaningful interpretation of what is being said. These phonemes consist of stress, pitch, and juncture. A combination of them makes up the prosodic patterns of spoken language or oral discourse. Stress Stress refers to the degree of prominence a syllable has. In the word forgive, the syllable –give sounds more prominent than for-. There may be as many degrees of stress as there are syllables, but some of the differences may be imperceptible. For individual words, three stress phonemes are significant. These are: ‘ primary stress ` mid stress ˘ weak stress (usually not indicated) In words more than one syllable, there will be on syllable which is more heavily stressed than others. This syllable carries the primary stress (e.g. rémedy, devélop, understánd). In some longer words, other syllables may carry secondary stress e.g. légendâry. The most important thing is to recognise where the primary stress is. The assignment of primary stress can change between words derived from the same base. (e.g. photograph, photographer, photographic). In word groups and sentences, there are four degrees of stress: ‘ primary stress ᶺ secondary stress ` tertiary stress ˘ weak stress (usually not indicated) Note the words intelléctual and curiósity. In isolation each words get a primary stress; however, when put together to form the phrase intellêctual curiósity, the primary stress in one is reduced to secondary stress. A word group carries only one primary stress. Note that the last content words generally is assigned the primary stress in a phrase or sentence unless contrastive meaning is desired in which case there is a shift of stress. e.g. a black dóg a bláck dog (not white or brown) Grammatical Stress Patterns Grammatical patterns are accompanied by regular stress patterns. Sometimes such stress patterns are the sole means of differentiating one grammatical pattern, with its concomitant meaning, from another. The common ones include: 46 Compound noun ́ ` e.g. rócking chair, póstmàn Modifier + noun ᶺ e.g. blâck bírd, lông hand Verb + noun object e.g. Carabaos êat gráss. He is wâtching a móvie. Verb + adverbial ᶺ ́ e.g. This information is not to be hânded óut. My boyfriend câlled úp. Pitch Levels and Terminals Although many degrees of pitch are employed in speaking, only four levels of relative pitch are used as phonemes. These are: 4 extra high 3 high 2 normal 1 low Pitch is relative. The normal pitch of every individual’s speaking voice, whatever its actual height (some speakers tend to be either high pitched or low pitched), is called level 2. From this level, one makes departures either upward (level 3) or downward (level 1). We begin on level 2, our natural normal level, and remain there until we reach the primary stress. Pitches combine into patterns to make meaningful melodies over the whole phrase or sentence, e.g. 231, 233, or 232. In 231, a statement or proposition is being uttered. These melodies have three methods of closure called terminal junctures or simply terminals. As the name suggests, these terminals occur at the end of the sentence. oftentimes, they are marked with arrows as follows: ↓ = fading terminal ↑ = rising terminal → = sustained terminal The fading terminal as in 231↓ is characterized by a rapid fadeaway of the voice into silence. It closes a statement. e.g. 2I’m going to 3school↓ The rising terminal as in 233↑ is a short, slight rise in the pitch from the last level heard, but it does not go all the way up to the next level. This terminal commonly occurs at the end of a yes-no question. e.g. 2Are you 3happy3↑ 47 The sustained terminal as in 232→ is characterized by a slight lengthening of the preceding pitch 3 word (i.e., the word that gets the primary stress. It may be heard at the end of a long sentence subject e.g. 2All of the members of the 3team2→look confused. Patterns of pitch, with their accompanying terminals such as 231↓, 233↑, and 232→ are called intonation contours. Commonly Used Intonation Contours 231↓ This contour occurs in: Statement or declarative sentence e.g. 2We watched a 3movie1↓ Command e.g. 2Read the an3nouncement1↓ Wh- or information question (a question that begins with words like who, what, where, when, why, which, and how) e.g. 2What’s your 3name1↓ 233↑ This contour commonly occurs at the end of yes-no questions. Yes-no question in statement form e.g. 2He’s an 3actor3↑ Yes-no question in question form e.g. 2Are you 3coming3↑ Initial grammatical unit (phrase, clause, or sentence segment) e.g. 2If you’ll 3notice3↑ 232→ This contour signals incompleteness. Initial grammatical unit (an alternate for 233↑) e.g. 2If you’ll 3notice2→ Statement to indicate the speaker has more to say; often the word following this contour is but. e.g. 2She’s a bright 3girl2→but… ORAL COMMUNICATION and LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS There are three elements in oral communication: the speaker, the message, and the audience. The purpose of the speaker’s message must be appropriate to the occasion and the intended audience. Oral communication process may be illustrated as one-way or two-way as shown below. 48 loaded by Rizjoe villacruz (rizjoez10@gma Group Communication The Four Criteria that Determine a Small Group (Morreale, Splitzberg, & Barge, 2007) Includes Three of More People Includes Shared Perception Emphasizes Interdependence Requires Communication Public Speaking as Communication (O’Hair, Stewart, & Rubenstein, 2001) In public speaking, a speaker delivers a message with a specific purpose to an audience of people who are present during the delivery of speech. Public speaking always includes a speaker who has a reason for speaking, an audience that gives the speaker its attention, and a message that is meant to accomplish a specific purpose. Special Speaker Considerations Context—The speech context includes anything that influences the speaker, the audience, the speech, the occasion, or the situation. Goals—A clearly defined goal is a prerequisite for an effective speech. What is it that you want the audience to learn or do or believe as a result of your speech? How much ground do you want to cover? What do you personally want to achieve by delivering the speech? Outcome—A speech is not truly complete until its effects have been assessed and you decide whether you have accomplished what you set out to do. Usually this assessment is informal, as in listening to audience reactions. Constructive feedback is an invaluable tool for self-evaluation and improvement. Types of Speeches 49 An informative speech increases the audience’s understanding or awareness by imparting knowledge. It provides audience with new information, new insights, or new ways of thinking about a topic, and introduces new ideas, events, people, places, or things. A persuasive speech attempts to influence the attitudes, beliefs, values, and acts of others. It limits alternatives, seeks a response, and respects audience choices. Special Occasion Speeches Speech of Introduction prepares or warms up the audience for the speaker. It aims to motivate audience members to listen to what s/he has to say. Speech of Acceptance aims to express gratitude for the honor bestowed on the speaker. Eulogies and Tributes celebrate and commemorate the life the deceased while consoling those who have been left behind. Speech of Inspiration aims to uplift the member of the audience and to help them see things in a positive light. Expressions of Advice Asking Giving Accepting Rejecting Can you give me any / some advice? What should I do? What do you suggest/ recommend/ advise? What do you think I should / ought to do? You should + verb I advise you to + verb I suggest that you + verb You can / could +verb Why don’t you + verb Verb / Don’t + verb Thanks for the advice. That sounds like a good idea. Thanks. I’ll do that. Thanks, but I don’t think that’s a good idea. Thanks. I’ll think about it. Thanks, but I’m not so sure. Asking for a Favor Responding Yes No Can / could you do me a Sure. / Yes. / OK. / Yeah / Of I’m sorry but… (small/big) favour? course. I’d like to, but… Can / could I ask you for a Sure, what do you need? I wish I could, but… favour? I’d be glad to. Let me think about it. Will / can / could you + verb? I really can’t. Asking for Directions Giving Directions Could you tell me where… is? Go straight. 50 Where is…? Go straight for two blocks on Do you know how to get to…? Avenue/Street/Road. How do you get to… Go past (the market). I’m looking for… Go north/south/east/west. I’m trying to find… Turn right/left. Cross the street. You’ll see it on your right/left. Expressing Agreement Expressing Disagreement I agree. I’m not sure about that. I agree with that. I disagree. I agree with you. I don’t agree. I’m with you. I disagree with that. You’re right. I disagree with you. I couldn’t agree more. I completely disagree. I completely agree. You’re wrong. Expressions for Telephone Conversations Answering the phone Finding out who is calling Hello. (when answering home phone) Full Name/Company Name (for business people) May I ask who’s calling? Can I tell him who’s calling? May I tell her who’s calling? Taking a phone message Asking for clarification He’s not here right now. Would you like me to give him a message? She just stepped out. May I take a message? Excuse me? What was that again? Could you repeat that? Turn-taking and Turn-giving Expressions Introducing the topic Today we are here to discuss… The goal of our discussion today is… Bringing in other people What is your opinion, Mr. ? Do you agree with Mr. ’s opinion, Ms. ? Keeping the Discussion Moving Let’s go to another point. Next, let’s talk about… Giving an opinion In my opinion… Personally, I believe that… Getting further information Would you mind explaining that a little more, please? Could you explain that more fully? Could you tell us a bit more about that? Interrupting Excuse me for interrupting, but… Sorry to interrupt, but… Seeking clarification What do you mean? Sorry, I’m not quite sure what you mean. Do you mean that…? I’m sorry, I don’t quite follow. I don’t quite understand what you’re saying. Closing the discussion In conclusion, the purpose of this discussion… 51