Sparta Society Course Notes PDF

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[[https://aceh.b-cdn.net/re21/a/Spartan%20Society.pdf]](https://aceh.b-cdn.net/re21/a/Spartan%20Society.pdf) ======================================================================================================================== [[https://aceh.b-cdn.net/re21/hsc-spartan-society-course-notes-61933c5bb287f.pdf]](https://aceh.b-cdn.net/re21/hsc-spartan-society-course-notes-61933c5bb287f.pdf) ============================================================================================================================================================================== Survey ====== Issues and limitations of Ancient writers:The historical and geographical context, including: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ### a) Geographical setting, natural features and resources of ancient Sparta **GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING** - Fertile land →great for agriculture - Sparta is not located near the sea → meaning Spartans were safe from invasions - The river provided water and subsequently allowed crops to group - The area is away from the sea →meaning that spartans were able to sustain life by living close to the river - Mountains were shattered → provided defence → acted as a shield → provided wood and timber - Sparta well situated 200m above sea level at the northern end of the alluvial plain of Lakonia. - Settlements isolated, overland travel was difficult. - About 20% of the land was used for agriculture. - Located in the southern part of the Peloponnesian Peninsula in the Eurotas River plain. - "Sparta not only monopolised the best land, but stood at the meeting of the main routes that linked Lakonia to the rest of the world." -- FITZHARDINGE **NATURAL FEATURES** - Mountain ranges surrounded Sparta's west, east, and north. They formed a natural barrier to Sparta and limited communication. - West -- Taygetus. East -- Parnon. North -- Arcadian. - As a result, Sparta remained relatively isolated. - "...It was the distance of her enemies, not the valour of her soldiers, that allowed Sparta to remain unwalled." -- FITZHARDINGE - Eurotas valley is fertile with the Eurotas river giving adequate water supply. **RESOURCES** - Eurotas river was water supply. Mountains provided hunting grounds (hare and boar) and timber. - Wool, dairy, and meat from sheep and goats. - Soils in valleys suitable for growing crops -- barley, wheat, oats, grapes, olives. - Quarried marble from Mt. Taygetus. - Gytheum (their port) provided murex mollusc which was used as purple dye for soldier's cloaks. - "Hunting...consisted of wild goats, deer and hares." -- CARTLEDGE - "Sparta had simple but plentiful supplies of food." -- XENOPHON ### b) Significant sites: Sparta - When describing the significant site of sparta, the syllabus is asking you to refer to the precise position of the city and the features that are immediately surrounding it. - \~ 8th century BC Sparta began as an amalgamation of 4 villages. Mid 700s Amyclae was added. - However, more recent archaeological evidence suggests that there may have been a collection of 9 villages around the Eurotas River that make up Sparta. - Not architecturally grand like Athens. Lack of architectural splendour. - "...Neither built with magnificent temples, public edifices, but composed of villages." -- THUCYDIDES - Sparta was more like a network of rural townships than a city. - "...To the ordinary Greek, the town looked more like a cluster of rural townships than a city." -- FITZHARDINGE - Thucydides stated that if only the temples and buildings of Sparta remained, it would be difficult for future generations to believe the true extent of Sparta's power. Focus of study ============== Social structure and political organisation, including: ------------------------------------------------------- ### a) The Great Rhetra **LYCURGUS** - Lawgiver - From receiving the Delphic oracle, he reformed the Spartan constitution and established the system of Spartan education (agoge) focused on the development of the military ethos. - There is much debate between historians about whether Lycurgus actually existed as almost nothing historically accurate about him can be established from the surviving sources. - Herodotus (pro Sparta)→ "changed all the laws and made sure they should not be transgressed\...established military organisation, the divisions, companies of thirty and messes as well as the ephors and elders... became a well ordered state". Sparta shot up and flourished all due to Lycurgus, society loved him and ran really well. - Plutarch→ Lycurgus "sweep away the existing order... make a complete change to the constitution". - Aristotle concluded that Sparta was a happy balance of democracy and oligarchy. **THE GREAT RHETRA** - The Great Rhetra was a pronouncement reflecting the oral tradition of the Spartans and their laws, based on the Delphic oracles brought to Sparta by Lycurgus. - Significance→ foundation of the Spartan constitution, the oracle that Lycurgus supposedly received from the God Apollo at Delphi in central Greece, was referred to as the Great Rhetra suggesting the close connection the Spartans had with Apollo. Sparta became a well ordered state due to the Great Rhetra influencing change to the constitution e.g. established military organisation and instituted the council of elders. **Three main parts of the constitution:** - - - **EUNOMIA** - The reforms attributed to Lycurgus encompassed all aspects of life: political, economic and social. - Eunomia→ good order and good government, emphasised by duty and obedience to the laws. It was this good order that gave Sparta its relative stability. ### b) Roles and privileges of the two kings - The Spartans had two kings, drawn from two royal families- the Agiads and the Eurypontids and claimed divine descent from the demigod Herakles. - The kings asserted strong generalship and would lead the troops to war. - In early times both kings led the armies to war, this became a problem that resulted in a change of policy. Herodotus tells us that in the time of Cleomenes and Demaratus it was decided that only one king would go to war, the other remaining in Sparta. - Two ephors attended the king in battle. Their function was to advise the king, but also to check his power. Each month, the kings and ephors exchanged oaths. The ephors swore to maintain the kingship and the kings swore to rule according to the laws. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Religious | Sources | +===================================+===================================+ | - The Kings were priests of | - Herodotus said that each of | | Zeus Lacedaemonios and Zeus | them nominates two | | Uranios. Who were worshipped | 'pythians'\... whose duty it | | by their families. | is to visit Delphi. | | | | | - Appointed two pythioi whose | - Herodotus says that every | | job was to consult the oracle | month each king was given a | | at Delphi. | full grown animal to offer in | | | sacrifice in the temple of | | - Kings held office for as long | Apollo. | | as they maintained the | | | pleasure of the Gods. | | | | | | - Sacrifice to the God Apollo | | | each month. | | | | | | - Priests of the city. | | | | | | - Sacrifice to the Gods before | | | a war. The flame would be | | | carried into battle. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Military | Sources | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Supreme commander of the | - Herodotus tells us that the | | army. | decision to send only one | | | king to war dates from 507 BC | | - Only one of the kings went to | following a conflict between | | battle while the other stayed | kings Cleomenes and | | in Sparta. | Demaratus. | | | | | - King had unlimited power of | - Xenophon believed the king | | life and death in battle. | should lead the army on any | | | foreign campaign. | | - Bodyguard of 100 men. | | | | | | - Responsible for the conduct | | | of a military campaign. | | | Failure or misconduct could | | | lead to recall or punishment. | | | King was accompanied by two | | | ephors who kept an eye on his | | | activities. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Legal/Judiciary | Sources | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Responsible for legal matters | - Herodotus mentions that there | | regarding adoption of | were only three legal | | children. | responsibilities of the | | | kings. | | - Responsible for all matters | | | pertaining to public | - Herodotus stated that all | | highways. | matters connected with the | | | public roads are in their | | - Decide upon the marriage | hands. | | partner of an heiress whose | | | father had died. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Social/Special Powers | Sources | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Kings were supported at the | - Herodotus tells us that at | | expense of the state. | all public religious | | | celebrations they are the | | - Received the best seats at | first to sit down at the | | religious festivals. | dinner... each getting twice | | | as much of every dish as | | - Could receive the skins of | anybody else. | | any animals that had been | | | sacrificed in any religious | - Xenophon wrote that the Kings | | ceremony. | were granted choice parts of | | | the sacrificial victims. | | - Given the first seat at a | | | banquet, served first in the | | | syssitia, received double | | | portions at the meal. | | | | | | - Following a successful | | | military campaign, given a | | | percentage of the spoils of | | | victory. | | | | | | - King\'s death was taken very | | | seriously. All public | | | buildings would cease for a | | | ten day mourning period. | | | People were expected to wear | | | mourning clothes to the | | | funeral. The king\'s reign | | | was regarded as greater than | | | any other previously. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ ### c) Government - Sparta was governed by a system consisting of features of monarchy, oligarchy (government by the few) and democracy. This 'mixed' constitution was often admired by ancient writers such as Polybius who thought it combined the best features of government. - It had two kings. - The government's legislative powers and some of its judicial powers were vested in the Council of Elders or the Gerousia. - Laws had to be passed by the Ekklesia, the people's assembly. **EPHORATE** - The ephors were elected annually by the Ekklesia and composed of all Spartan men over the age of thirty. - The 5 ephors were the highest authority in Sparta after the two kings. - **5 ephors** (representing each territorial region / obai) - Ephors chosen by the Ekklesia for one year only. Had to be full citizen & 30 years +. Could not hold office more than once. - "...enjoys supreme authority in matters of the highest importance..." -- ARISTOTLE - At end of term, could be asked to justify the actions they had taken. - "Any ephor who was too zealous in the exercise of his constitutional power at a king's expense was well aware that he was vulnerable to retaliation at the hands of the same king in the following year." -- BUCKLEY - Aristotle believed that the ephors "...holds the state together..." because the people/demos have a share in the magistracy. - **Main Jobs:** - - - - - - - - The Ephorate shows a change occurred in Sparta's government after Lykurgus, as it was not mentioned in the Great Rhetra. - In the second half of the 5th century became the most powerful political institution in Sparta because they adopted some of the kings & Gerousia's roles. - Took over the areas of foreign policy (took from king's roles). - Could also put bills towards the Ekklesia (as well as the Gerousia). - Got some powers of the other institutions. - Two ephors on campaign with the king -- could investigate, fine, sentence to death, or exile a king (from Thucydides). \~ Gives sense that the kings have too much power, need to restrict. - "...very poor men often find themselves elected..." -- ARISTOTLE \~ Thus, all Spartans are not equal as Aristotle states that poor Spartans exist. - Every year declared war on the Helots - exchanged vows with the king each month (from Xenophon). **GEROUSIA** - The Spartan council of elders; which was made up of men over the age of sixty. - Council of elder noblemen (28 homoioi plus 2 kings). - Members had to be the "...best and most deserving." -- PLUTARCH Chosen by merit and by noble birth. - Elected by acclamation in the Ekklesia. - Geronte for life. - Served as a court for capital offences -- also tried cases involving the kings & could impose the loss of citizenship or exile. - Prepared laws for debate and voting by the Ekklesia. - "...with control over death and loss of citizenship rights, and the most important matters generally." -- PLUTARCH - Real power rested in ability to summon, dismiss, or reject legislation by the Ekklesia. - "...would perhaps be the most important element of government." -- WELCH - Main criticisms: - - - - Prepares the agenda for the Ekklesia. **EKKLESIA** - The assembly of the people. - Membership consisted of all Spartiates over 30 (from Xenophon). - Members had to have completed the agoge and be a member of a syssition. - Elected by the ephors and gerontes. - Could vote for or against proposals put by kings, ephors, or the Gerousia. The Ekklesia could not put forward their own proposals. - Only voted by acclamation. Yes or no. (from Thucydides) - Had the power to declare war, ratify treaties, and choose which king to lead the army. - Were presided over by the kings and gerontes; in the 5th century by the ephors. ### ### d) Social structure and occupations **SPARTIATES/HOMOIOIS** - The real Spartan full citizens. - Requirements: - - - - - - - Privileged class holding all political power. - Forbidden to engage in farming. Full time soldiers. State supported them. - Perioikoi and Helots outnumbered Spartans by several thousand. - Perioikoi always sided with the Spartans. - Homoioi translates to equal. Meant to have equal life, kleros and wealth **PERIOIKOI** - 'Dwellers around' or 'those on periphery'. - Members of different communities spread around Laconia and Messenia. Lived in small villages/towns. Not unique to Sparta. - Allied to Sparta. - Not citizens -- not permitted to be part of the Spartan political system but were subject to Spartan laws. - Not permitted to intermarry with Spartans. - Had monopoly on trade and manufacturing. Were the economic heart of Sparta and manufactured goods such as furniture, armour, weapons, and ships. Were fisherman, and craftsmen -- traded with other Greek communities. Used silver & gold currency. - As Spartiates were forbidden to engage in trade, the Perioikoi gained considerable wealth. Paid taxes. - "The economic role of the Perioikoi must have been an important one." -- PLUTARCH - Were apparently autonomous and self-governing but could not form independent alliances. - Supervised by the Ephors who could put them to death without trial - Advantages of being loyal to Sparta outweighed the advantages of rebelling. - Never allied themselves with the Helots. - Were contented with their situation: security in Sparta, had monopoly on trade, free to do as they wished except in times of war. - "The Spartans could not get on without the Perioikoi or the Helots." -- MICHELL - "Spartans were bound to them, certainly by no tie of affection." -- GROTE **INFERIORS** - Hazy category of people who either lost their citizenship or never qualified, but at the same time, were not Helots or Perioikoi. - Spartans had a code of honour through life; cowardice in battle resulted in public disgrace. If disgraced, the man lost political rights, had to wear special clothes, shaved head, no one to eat or exercise with him, no marriage, had to sit alone in public. - **Tresantes** -- Cowardly Spartiates. 'Tremblers'. - - - **Partheniai** -- Illegitimate children of helot men and Spartan women born during the Messenian wars. Sent off to colonies to live. - **Mothakes** -- Sons of Helots who had been taken as playmates for Spartan boys. - - **Neodamodes** -- Freed helots. Helots whose courageous military service earned them freedom. Not true Spartiates and did not share in political rights. - **Trophimoi** -- sons of foreigners sent to Sparta for education. **HELOTS** - Lowest level of society. Comprised \~70% of the population but had no political rights. - Were state owned serfs, bound to the land and could not be bought or sold. - Tyrtaeus compares them to donkeys worn down by heavy loads. - They were discontented and rebellious. - Thucydides reports that Spartans "constantly take most of their decisions with a view to precautions against the Helots." Emphasising that they were people always ready to revolt. - Lowest class in Spartan society. Had no political/legal rights at all. - \"The Helots are made to perform the most ignominious and degrading tasks..." -- MYRON (3rd century). - Occasions where they could be given freedom -- Neodamodes. - Sometimes served as light skirmishers in battle. Were used to supplement declining number of soldiers. - Worked the land and did most menial labour -- allowing Spartiates to focus on military training & freeing women from many household chores. - Obliged to pay \~50% of what they produced from the kleros they worked to their masters. Entitled to a portion of what they produced. - "Half-slave, half-free." -- POLLUX - Information extracted from Xenophon: - - - - ### e) The Spartan army **TRAINING (AGOGE)** - The agoge was the rigorous education and training program mandated for all male Spartan citizens. - Said to have been created by Lykurgus. - "Obedience was one of the chief characteristics of the classical Spartan." -- WELCH - The purpose of the agoge was the socialisation and development of values that served Sparta's needs. - It also aimed to prepare the best possible warriors -- with physical and mental preparation. - They were deliberately underfed to encourage self-sufficiency. - Physical preparation -- phalanx tactics, endurance. - Mental preparation -- courage, obedience, discipline. - "He emerged into manhood mentally and physically tough and hardened..." -- MICHELL - "It was the intense discipline and training that allowed them to fight effectively..." -- OBER - The system of education, training, and socialisation turned boys into fighting men whose reputation for discipline, courage, and skill was unsurpassed. - Boys sung Tyrtaeus' poetry to inspire aggression and patriotism. - The whole purpose of the education system was to develop "...smart obedience, perseverance under stress, and victory in battle" -- PLUTARCH - Brief stages of the Agoge: - - - - - - - - - **COMPOSITION** - Structure: - - - Hoplite: the most common type of heavily armed foot-soldiers in ancient Greece. - Spartan culture was a warrior community -- reputation amongst other Greek polises based on pre-eminence at war (Xenophon). - Education and training of Spartiates focused on their roles as hoplites in the phalanx. - "An honourable death is preferable to a dishonourable life." -- XENOPHON. - Fleeing the battlefield -- loss of honour, become Tresante. - "Come back with your shield or on it." -- PLUTARCH - Cloth tunic covered by bronze breastplate. - Helmet made of thin bronze, often decorated with crest of horse hair. Had no earholes, would have been virtually death on battlefield. - Bronze greaves for lower leg protection. - 3m long spear -- thrusting not throwing. - Spartan army did not have cavalry or bows & arrows. "... arrows were regarded by the Spartans as the weapons of the womanly and weak." -- CARTLEDGE - In war, the army was supplemented by perioikoi and lightly armoured helots. - "The commander should outclass his troops... in stamina and courage." -- AGESILAUS - Phalanx: Could be as many as 8 rows deep, and moving in formation, they were nearly unstoppable so long as their rear and flanks were protected. The phalanx was perfect for combat on open ground or level terrain. - Retreat tactic: The retreat tactic can be seen in the Battle of Thermopylae, where a faked retreat was used to lure the Persian immortals in the narrow parts of Thermopylae. The retreat was followed by a fast U-turn and reformation of the wall of shields and a fast march against the opponent which had already lost its cohesion trying to chase the retreating phalanx. That is the reason of the great number of Persian causalities. This tactic is sometimes also referred to as the 'anastrofi' or 'U-turn'. "SPARTAN SANDWHICH" Told to us by Herodotus. - Weaknesses of the Phalanx: - If the opponent concentrated their forces in one central point, they could break the shield wall. - The largest weakness inherent in the phalanx formation was in the weak flanks. Basically left unprotected, the phalanx flanks were open to cavalry charges, artillery barrages and rushing hordes of enemy infantrymen. - The role of the Spartan Army: - Military -- operating through the Peloponnesian League the Spartan army was responsible for the defence of Sparta and her allies from any external threat whether it be Greek or Persian. - Civic -- all warriors were citizens who made decisions about war and peace as members of the assembly. - Domestic -- suppression of helots. - Economic -- consumers of goods produced by produced by periokoi and helots. - Ideological -- transmitters of military values, such as heroism, unity, loyalty, obedience, sacrifice. ### f) Control of the helots **CONTROL OF THE HELOTS** - Helot revolt was greatest fear of the Spartiates → could destroy unique social structure - debate amongst historians regarding extent of threat "...as a city ruling over a large discontented population of subjects...she must always be prepared to fight...They were always bitterly dissatisfied and ready to rebel, whenever an occasion presented itself..." - BURY - Fear caused by the outnumbering of the Spartiates by the helots (10000: 170000- 224000) - Houses were scattered to discourage banding - According to Critias → Spartans had removable arm bands on their shields, special locks, and always carried a spear in fear of a revolt "...immediately upon taking up office the ephors would declare war on the helots, so that they could be killed without pollution (ramification)." -- PLUTARCH **THE MILITARY** - Buckley argues the commonly held view → main role of Sparta's military was to discourage the much-feared helot revolts. - "Spartan policy... always greatly affected either directly or indirectly by the Helots. Helot revolt threatened the existence of the Spartan state." -- BUCKLEY - It was necessary for Spartans to be raised full-time soldiers; capable of battling against helot revolts. "Spartans did...genuinely fear helot revolt." -- CARTLEDGE - The army played a domestic role in the suppression of helots. "...they assign to the helots every shameful task leading to disgrace...so that they would never forget they were slaves." - MYRON - This is why half of the Spartan army always remained in Sparta. **THE SYSSITIA** - Syssitia was the name for the meals the Spartans (Homoioi) shared together in the messes. - "...maintaining equality among men." -- PLUTARCH - Spartans would have to eat with their brothers. - "\...at the banquets and drinking entertainments of the men it was fit for the guests to sing the paean" -- ALCMAN - The syssitia patently served to bring kinship groups together, and in having those who would fight together eat together in peacetime, a strong bond was formed. - The syssitia in effect became an extended family, where all were \"children of the state\" - Helots were responsible for providing Spartiates with their syssitia contributions "...and in giving land over to them they set them a portion which they were constantly to hand over." - MYRON - Failure to be elected excluded one from citizenship, and were socially humiliated. - "...exclude anyone who wasn't able to pay this particular due." -- ARISTOTLE - "...enforces the exclusive status of the Spartiates in a society." -- BRENNAN - Design credited to Lykurgus to instil military ethos and break family bonds. - "The family unit counted very little." -- BETTANY HUGHES **THE KRYPTEIA** - Secret police force of young Spartan men. Run by the ephors who annually declare war on the Helots. - They entered valleys at night hunting down and murdering any Helots they found. - Cartledge believes the purpose was "... to murder selected troublemaking helots and spread terror among the rest." - "Rumour of bloodthirsty adolescent death squads created a reign of terror to help keep control over the large population and remind them of Spartan dominance." -- BETTANY HUGHES - Played a major role in the control and suppression of helots. - Portrayed as tyrannical/vicious weapon. - Method of enforcing the laws against the Helot population - Plato viewed the Krypteia as part of the Agoge. "Frequently... killing helots who stood - out for their physique and strength." ### g) Role and status of women - Unlike their Athenian counterparts, Spartan women were highly visible in Spartan society. - In no other Greek polis did women have the privileges and freedoms like in Sparta. For they exercised and mingled freely with the menfolk. - Women who died in childbirth were given the same funerary status as men killed in battle -- marked graves. - "Women underwent the servitude of maternity as men did the servitude of war." -- SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR - Spartan women were forbidden \[by Lykurgus\] from wearing make-up, jewellery, or perfume (Plutarch). - Outside writers critical of Spartan women because of their differences. - They had more control over their financial situation -- because the men were frequently away at war, they were responsible for managing the kleros. - Had a reputation for great beauty. "... land of beautiful women." -- HOMER. - Excluded from holding public office, and did not have the right to vote. - Spartan women were "...very unique in the ancient world." -- BURROW - "Spartan women live without restraint in every improper indulgence and luxury...they were unruly and undisciplined." -- ARISTOTLE. (misogynistic view) Aristotle misunderstands Sparta's endeavour for procreation. It is not about hedonism, but creating children. **LAND OWNERSHIP AND INHERITANCE** - The kleros could be passed down within families, and in cases where there was no son to inherit, daughters became heiresses. - Women could own land. "... nearly two-fifths of the whole country are held by women." -- ARISTOTLE - Upon marriage, women tended to their husbands land as well as their own. - They did not lose control of their inherited property upon marriage including dowries. - Managed the kleros whilst me were at war. - "...they were entitled to own and manage property...in their own right..." -- CARTLEDGE - Spartan women were able to acquire wealth -- inheriting from fathers and husbands. - These entitlements were viewed by other Greek poleis as too liberal and with men away at war and women running the kleroi, some feared this would lead to gynaikokratia -- 'government run by women' (Aristotle). Aristotle has incorrectly equated property ownership with citizenship rights. **EDUCATION** - Participated in sport -- inscription at Olympia telling of Kyniska's victory at the Olympics in chariot racing. - Had an education and were encouraged to be athletic and active. As well-fed as boys -- unusual for Greece. - Assumed they were at least partially literate -- although very little evidence for this. - "... there is reliable evidence that Spartan women could at least read, if not write..." -- CARTLEDGE - Forbidden by Lykurgus to weave or spin -- done by Helots. - "They did not have to prepare and cook food, make clothes or do the housework: Helot women did all that for them." -- CARTLEDGE - Physical training included running and athletics -- sometimes with boys in the agoge (Plutarch). - Eugenic principles underlie much of Sparta's reproduction. By eliminating weak male infants, they assured survival of the fittest. The rigorous training of women, including the bibasis, ensured women were fit and fertile → could thus produce strong warriors. - Physical fitness was seen as essential to produce sons who would be warriors (Plutarch). - Instead of lamenting at the death of their sons, Spartan women took pride in their bravery (Plutarch). - Spartan girls were renowned for their beauty, athleticism, and independence -- they ridiculed Spartan boys who were skinny and underdeveloped (Partheniai) - Were unofficial enforcers of the Spartan code -- LITTLEFAIRISM. The economy ----------- ### a) Land ownership **LAND OWNERSHIP** - Lakonia was one of the most fertile farming areas in Greece. - Sparta had a strong agricultural economy -- had most fertile land, cheap labour (helots) and could fund the Messenian wars for over 10 years. - Lakonia was annexed and the regions of Cyunria and Thyreatis were added. This led to conflict with Argos. - Rich plains of Messenia were annexed. - In both cases the original Achaean populations were Helotised. - The conquest of Messenia suggests that land was in short supply by the 7th century BC. - Wealth disparity existed. "While some of the Spartan citizens have quite small properties, others have very large ones." -- ARISTOTLE **AGRICULTURAL** - Sparta was largely an agricultural economy. - Agricultural work and cultivation done by the helots - Fertile Eurotas Valley allowed production of all cultivated food needs - "Agriculture was at the heart of the Spartan economy..." -- WELCH **KLEROI** - Land ownership is a key part of the Sparta system and economy. - Having a kleros was one of the important aspects of being a Spartiate and a Spartiate without a kleros became an inferior. - The kleros was one of the main features that established and maintained equality amongst the Spartiates. - A modern historian, Hodkinson claims that the ownership of land was never equal and became more unequal as time went on creating a big division between rich and poor - The basic landholding (kleros) was cultivated by the helots who had to annually give a fixed proportion of produce to the 'owner' of the kleros they worked evidenced by Tyrtaeus. - Distribution of kleroi was 'traditional' and older families had larger holdings resulting in marked differences of wealth within the state - Land divisions also included Perioikoi -- Lycurgus reputedly gave 30 000 allotments to Perioikoi (Plutarch). **HELOTS** - Sparta was technical brilliant at exploiting resources -- helots, land management, and roads. - Required to fight in wars as light infantry. - "The Spartans could not get on without the Perioikoi or the helots." -- MICHELL - The helots were state-owned and tied to the kleros. They were serfs. ### b) Technology **WEAPONS AND ARMOUR** - The Perioikoi made hoplite armour and weapons -- leather, copper, tin and iron were in sufficient supply as natural resources. - From around the 6th century, after the second Messenian War, Spartiates were forbidden from engaging in any trade or work except war. - Soldiers had: - - - - - - - Spartans had come to dominate the original inhabitants of Laconia and Messenia through iron weapons which were stronger than bronze. - Archaeological evidence shows that high quality bronze work was being produced and exported from Laconia throughout the 6th Century BC - The 'Bronze of a Spartan Warrior' - - **POTTERY** - Painted Laconian pottery was highly valued by other Greek centres in 7th century along with bronze work vases (Herodotus). - Remains of Spartan pottery has been found in Egypt, Italy, Rhodes, France and North Africa. - Local clay was abundant, but little is known about the Spartan methods and who made it. - The remains we have suggest that they were interested in displaying human subjects, the figures are painted in black and sometimes there is a small use of colour. - The most famous piece of Spartan pottery is the 'Arkesilas Cup' - - - ### Summary: - Technology contributed to the economy - Armour, weapons, pottery - Main resources used to make technology - iron, bronze, clay - Perioikoi in charge of making technology predominately → external trading → trade was limited BUT necessary at times → may not have always been perioikoi making technology ### ### ### ### ### ### c) Economic roles of the periokoi and helots **PERIOKOI** - Periokoi were Sparta's economic muscle. Engaged in mining, manufacturing, trade. - All mineral and marine resources of Lakonia were in Perioikoi hands. - Vital to the Spartan military -- made weapons from metals. - Pliny and Herodotus note Periokoi made shoes, purple garments, objects of wood and iron. - Fisherman, shipwrights, and navy personnel at Gytheum were all Perioikoi. - Made and imported Spartan chariots. - Perioikoi could become wealthy -- Niocles competed at Olympia. - Plutarch suggests Lykurgus gave the Perioikoi 30,000 allotments of land. - - Periokoi have an absolute monopoly on trade in Sparta. - Earlier, Spartans were involved in manufacture and Spartiates could have various occupations. - - Changed because there was now a need for a large permanent army. They had conquered Messene and were outnumbered → were now dependent on the soldiers to protect them from internal revolt and external threats. - According to Welch up until the 6th century Spartans were also architects, potters, and painters. - Argument against Spartans not producing → suggests they were uncultured. However, the Spartan elite were non-productive as were the Athenian elite. - Craftsmen in Sparta were Perioikoi. Archaeological evidence: - - - - "As tradesmen they must have been useful." -- MICHELL - "The economic role of the Perioikoi must have been an important one." -- PLUTARCH **HELOTS** - Tyrtaeus compares helots to donkeys worn out by their burdens. - Tyrtaeus informs us that Helots have to hand over 50% of what they produce. The remaining half was theirs -- incentive to work hard. - Spartan society had fundamentally an agricultural economy and helots were the agricultural workers. - Their productivity freed the Spartiates to pursue military interests -- even their contributions to the syssitia were provided by the helots. - Household tasks usually performed by slaves in other Greek poleis, were done by helots in Sparta. - Helots produced the food needed for the syssition. They were essential for a Spartan man's citizenship. - The threat of helot revolt prevented the Spartans from establishing an empire. - "Spartan foreign policy was always greatly affected... by the helots." -- BUCKLEY - They are the machinery of production → critical to the economy. - Agricultural industry was labour-intensive → Sparta required a large supply of helots. - Required a full-time army to instil fear and protect Sparta from Helot revolt. - One cannot have a non-producing military elite without an exploited and much larger productive lower class as the basis of the economy. - Spartans did "...genuinely fear helot revolt, and with reason, in the light of the actual revolt of the mid 460s." -- CARTLEDGE ### ### d) Economic exchange **USE OF IRON BARS** - Iron spits do not infringe on Sparta's economy. - Iron spits (credited to Lykurgus) seen as a deliberate introduction to stop Spartans from purchasing luxuries. Attaching Lykurgus' name to a law gives it standing and prestige. - Sparta was the one Greek polis that didn't adopt silver currency -- because they didn't have silver. It is thus a smart economic decision to stay with iron currency. \*Littlefairism - Cawkwell suggests that Sparta must always have used some Greek currency in order to pay mercenaries and send ambassadors abroad. - Law that states ephors can search houses for stockpiles of gold → implies it was available. "... the possessor \[of gold and silver\] subject to a penalty." -- XENOPHON - According to Plutarch, gold and silver "wormed its way into the city" during the 4th century BC. **TRADE** - The Giglio shipwreck is evidence that Laconian goods were part of a traders' stock. - The wreck contained both Samian and Lakonian pottery. The shipwreck shows that Lakonian goods were part of a trader's stock. Shipping was an important method of transportation and trade. - Lakonian potters recovered aryballoi, mugs and bowls and two Lakonian mugs with strap on handles were found. - What Spartan items were traded? - - - - - **Summary:** - Lycurgus took away coins → introduced iron bars as a form of currency - - Purpose to achieve Eumonia → a more egalitarian society, to curb corruption, and stop people from accumulating too much wealth → take away all distractions → focus on military - Iron bars were tactfully chosen as currency → hard to carry, big, heavy → would prevent people from accumulating too much or stealing Religion, death and burial -------------------------- ### a) Gods and goddesses **FUNCTION OF RELIGION IN SPARTA** - In essence, a kind of transaction→ do things for the gods e.g. make sacrifices, and they will look after you in return e.g. success in battle. Failure to please the gods will result in punishment. - Established the identity of a people and of a particular form of society. Achieved with its preference for certain gods and promotion of specific mythical stories peculiar to Sparta. - Provided social cohesion by providing a sense of belonging. Religious festivals involved the entire community. - Religion offered a rare chance for recreation and enjoyment of food. Allowed for a form of social release from the rigid rules under which Spartans lived. **ARTEMIS** - Apollo's twin sister. - Infallible archer. - Goddess of hunting, the forest and the moon. - Goddess of chastity and protector of women who were about to be married or who were approaching childbirth. - Sanctuary of Artemis Limnatis in the west Taygetus foreland. **ARTEMIS ORTHIA** - Artemis Orthia = growth and fertility. - Orthia = goddess of fertility and protected vegetation. - Artemis = wild animals, hunting and presiding over childbirth. - Orthia was a local goddess who later became linked to Artemis. - Popular cult in Sparta is suggested by the large number of votive offerings that have been found at the site. - British school in Athens found 603 masks. They cover a period of five centuries. - Hundreds of thousands of miniature votive offerings, small figures seen dancing, playing music and in hunting attire have also been discovered→ attest to the popularity of the site. - Temple of Artemis Orthia. - Hundreds of thousands of miniature votive offerings have been found at her sanctuary. E.g. small figurines seen dancing, playing music and in hunting attire. Attests to the popularity of the site. - British school at Athens found 603 masks. - Initiation rites occurred here for Spartans boys→ theft of the cheese festival. **THEFT OF THE CHEESES** - A practice where young boys would attempt to steal cheeses that had been placed on the altar at the temple of Artemis Orthia. As they did so, the young boys would be whipped. - Scholars remain divided on the nature and significance of this. - Plutarch→ "I have witnessed many of them dying under the lashes they received at the altar of Artemis Orthia". - Xenophon provides a different view of the event. His view is that the purpose of the whipping was to demand excellence in all branches of instruction, even thieving. "A short period of pain may be compensated by the enjoyment of long-lasting prestige". - Michell→ suggests that Xenophon confused his description of what happened at the altar with a dance in which hungry boys tried to steal food. Boys were given lengthy preparation for this and the shedding of their blood on the altar was the final part of their initiation. "The sprinkling of the blood of the participants in this ceremony was of the nature of a blood-bond between gods and human beings". - Severe beatings have occurred annually at the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, sometimes even leading to death. **POSEIDON** - Brother of Zeus. - God of the sea and horses. - Responsible for earthquakes and was known as the 'Earthshaker'. - There were several sanctuaries of Poseidon in Lakonia. - Helots were entitled to asylum at the sanctuary of Poseidon at Tainaron. - They believed Poseidon sent the devastating earthquake of 464 BC to punish them for violating this sanctuary by dragging helots from Poseidon's altar and murdering them. - Thucydides→ tells us that the Spartans believed the earthquake of 465 BC was due to the gods punishment of them for killing the helots who sought refuge at the altar of Poseidon. - Xenophon tells us that when invading Argos the earth tremor was interpreted as Poseidon's encouragement to advance. **APOLLO** - Son of Zeus. - Temple of Apollo at Delphi is where Apollo is believed to send messages that influence decisions of the entire Greek world. - God of light, music and truth and bringer of health. - Archer-god whose arrows never missed their target. - The sanctuary of Apollo Amyklaios at Amyklai. **Revision points** - A god honoured in Athens but not so in Sparta→ Hephaestus. - A god closely associated with growth and fertility→ Artemis Orthia. - A shrine to Apollo is located at Amyclae. - God of wine honoured in Athens but not so in Sparta→ Dionysus. - The festival being celebrated before the Battle Plataea in 479 BC→ Hyacinthia. - Referred to by both Aristophanes and Pausanias→ Temple of Athena of the Bronze House. - Spartan kings were priests of Zeus. - The festival that interrupted the sending of troops to Thermopylae in 480 BC→ Karneia. - Where the ugly Spartan girl was transformed into a beauty→ Therapne. - Thousands of votive offerings have been discovered here→ Temple of Artemis Orthia. ### b) Myths and legends **LYKURGUS** - Claimed to have instituted government and strict social order. - Plutarch talks of institutions in Life of Lykurgus. - He is thought to have brought good order (Eunomia), with a conservative form of government that effectively prevented revolutions. - Unique culture emphasizing austerity and discipline to facilitate military society. - Herodotus tellsus that the Oracle at Delphi was believed to have recognised Lycurgus' divinity. - Archaeological record does not support Lycurgus. - Tyrtaeus, Spartan poet fails to reference Lycurgus. - According to Herodotus, when he died a "...temple was built in his honour, and he is still regarded with profound reverence." - Modern historian Andrews says that "... the perpetuation of his name was one of the most successful frauds in history." **DIOSCURI** - The mythical twin Spartan heroes Castor and Polydeuces. - Dioscuri means youth of Zeus. - Born from an egg. - Were the twin sons of Zeus, and brothers of Helen of Troy. - Myth is: Zeus (in swan form) came to Earth. Leda had affairs with both Zeus and Tyndarus on the same night. - Polydeuces' dad was Zeus → he is immortal. - Castor's dad was Tyndarus → he is mortal. - In battle, Castor was killed by brothers Idas II and Lynkus. - So Polydeuces killed Lynkus, and Pausanius tells us that "...Not far from Asklepios stands a trophy, raised, they say, by Polydeuces to celebrate his victory over Lynkus." - Polydeuces persuaded Zeus to allow him to share his immortality with Castor. - They spent alternate days in Hades and in Mt. Olympus. - Spartans saw the Dioscuri as patrons and protectors of Sparta. - At Dromos, there was a sanctuary to the Dioscuri with a statue of them. They are naked - - Thousands of votive offerings have been found at Amyclae, to the Dioscuri. - - Spartans worshipped them as they represented youth, warfare, and athletics. - Reflected in the institution of 'twin' kingship. ### c) Festivals +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | **Festiva | **Descrip | **Partici | **Divinit | **Locatio | **Main | | l** | tion** | pants | ies | n** | ritual/st | | | | or | involved* | | ages** | | | | roles** | * | | | +===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+ | **Hyakint | Based on | Everyone. | Apollo & | Held at | Stage of | | hia** | the | All | Hyakintho | the | mourning→ | | | legend | Spartans | s. | Amyklaion | sorrowful | | | that | make the | |. | , | | | Apollo | pilgrimag | | 5km south | had two | | | killed | e | | of city. | phases, | | | Hyakintho | to | | | rememberi | | | s | Amyklai | | | ng | | | with a | together. | | | those | | | discus | Stressing | | | lost. | | | and could | unity and | | | | | | not save | cohesion. | | | Joyful/re | | | him so | | | | newal | | | instead | | | | phase→ | | | turned | | | | renewal | | | him into | | | | of land | | | a purple | | | | for the | | | flower | | | | year to | | | that | | | | come. | | | returns | | | | | | | each | | | | Held in | | | spring. | | | | July. | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | Evidence: | Interpret | | | | | | | ations: | | | | | | - Pausa | | | | | | | nias | - Phase | | | | | | descr | 1 | | | | | | ibes | repre | | | | | | the | sents | | | | | | site | the | | | | | | of | cult | | | | | | the | of | | | | | | Amykl | the | | | | | | aion. | dead | | | | | | | and | | | | | | - Finds | mourn | | | | | | of | ing. | | | | | | potte | | | | | | | ry | - Phase | | | | | | and | 2 | | | | | | fragm | repre | | | | | | ents | sents | | | | | | of | renew | | | | | | metal | al | | | | | | objec | parti | | | | | | ts→ | cularly | | | | | | offer | of | | | | | | ings? | the | | | | | | | crops | | | | | | - Friez |. | | | | | | e | | | | | | | from | - Reall | | | | | | Amykl | y | | | | | | aion | impor | | | | | | which | tant | | | | | | depic | for | | | | | | ts | crops | | | | | | the | to | | | | | | Hyaki | retur | | | | | | nthos | n | | | | | | flowe | back | | | | | | r. | in | | | | | | | the | | | | | | | next | | | | | | | year. | | | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | **Gymnopa | Developed | Spartan | No | Marketpla | Unarmed | | edia** | after | boys not | divinitie | ce | youth | | | Sparta | of | s | within | participa | | | lost a | military | rather | Sparta. | ting | | | battle to | age. | about | | in | | | Argos in | | building | | Athletic | | | order to | | martial | | war | | | better | | skills | | dances | | | prepare | | and | | that | | | their | | spirit. | | required | | | youth in | | | | a high | | | their | | Apollo | | level of | | | military | | was also | | fitness. | | | training. | | worshippe | | | | | | | d | | Held in | | | | | in this | | late | | | | | as he was | | July. | | | | | the god | | | | | | | of music, | | | | | | | singing, | | | | | | | dancing | | | | | | | and arts | | | | | | | and also | | | | | | | social | | | | | | | cohesion. | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | Evidence: | Interpret | | | | | | | ations: | | | | | | - Arist | | | | | | | ophanes→ | - More | | | | | | plays | evide | | | | | | sugge | nce | | | | | | sts | of | | | | | | that | the | | | | | | women | stron | | | | | | also | g | | | | | | parti | focus | | | | | | cipated | on | | | | | | in | milit | | | | | | this | ary | | | | | | festi | life. | | | | | | val | | | | | | | to | - Honou | | | | | | show | red | | | | | | their | those | | | | | | stren | who | | | | | | gth | had | | | | | | and | falle | | | | | | worth | n | | | | | | iness | and | | | | | | to | prais | | | | | | give | ed | | | | | | birth | Apoll | | | | | | to | o | | | | | | stron | for | | | | | | g | their | | | | | | men. | succe | | | | | | | sses. | | | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | **Karneia | Occurred | Priests. | Apollo | Sanctuary | In | | ** | every | | and the | of Karnos | August, | | | year. | Catch the | ram, | in the | nine days | | | | runner | Karnos. | city of | length. | | | Aim= to | race→ | | Sparta. | | | | find out | five | | | Sacrifice | | | the will | unmarried | | | of the | | | of the | men from | | | ram. | | | Gods. | each of | | | | | | Particula | the five | | | Musical | | | rly | Spartan | | | contest. | | | in battle | tribes. | | | | | | for the | The | | | Catch the | | | coming | runner is | | | runner | | | year. | the best | | | race. | | | | of each | | | | | | Karnos, | of them. | | | | | | the ram | | | | | | | that was | | | | | | | killed | | | | | | | could see | | | | | | | and | | | | | | | foretell | | | | | | | the | | | | | | | future. | | | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | Evidence: | Interpret | | | | | | | ations: | | | | | | - Pausa | | | | | | | nias→ | - It | | | | | | tells | endor | | | | | | the | se | | | | | | story | livin | | | | | | of | g | | | | | | the | in | | | | | | killi | the | | | | | | ng | field | | | | | | of | , | | | | | | Karno | milit | | | | | | s | ary | | | | | | by | life, | | | | | | the | athle | | | | | | sons | tic | | | | | | of | train | | | | | | Herak | ing | | | | | | les | and | | | | | | and | hunti | | | | | | the | ng. | | | | | | estab | | | | | | | lishment | - Shows | | | | | | of | the | | | | | | the | impor | | | | | | festi | tance | | | | | | val. | of | | | | | | | festi | | | | | | - Archa | vals | | | | | | eological | and | | | | | | → | that | | | | | | Rams | they | | | | | | head | took | | | | | | stone | festi | | | | | | has | vals | | | | | | been | very | | | | | | found | serio | | | | | | in | usly. | | | | | | the | Once | | | | | | Lacon | they | | | | | | ian | arriv | | | | | | regio | ed | | | | | | n | late | | | | | | from | to a | | | | | | 7th | battl | | | | | | centu | e | | | | | | ry | again | | | | | | BC. | st | | | | | | | the | | | | | | | persi | | | | | | | ans | | | | | | | becau | | | | | | | se | | | | | | | they | | | | | | | were | | | | | | | celeb | | | | | | | rating | | | | | | | these | | | | | | | festi | | | | | | | vals. | | | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ ### d) Religious role of the kings - The kings were the most important priest in Sparta. They were the priests of the Dioscuri, as well as holding the two priesthoods to Zeus: Zeus Lacedaemonios and Zeus Uranios. - Performed sacrifices on the way to battle 3 times -- leaving Sparta, leaving Lakonia, and before battle. - Elected the Pythoi to receive the oracles from Delphi. They were responsible for the safe keeping of the oracles. - Made a monthly sacrifice to Apollo for the polis of Sparta. "On the first and seventh day of each month each king is given a full grown animal to offer in sacrifice in the temple of Apollo..." -- HERODOTUS - "If a Spartan king had a reasonable religious excuse, he could be forgiven for not winning a battle or even for not fighting one." -- WELCH - Cleomenes in 494 BC set out to invade Argolid by land, but the omens were bad, so he was obliged to go by land. - The Spartans completely missed the Battle of Marathon due to their religious festivals. - "\...omens might hold back the day of joining battle or the beginning of a siege." -- XENOPHON ### e) Funerary customs and rituals - Marked graves only for men killed in battle or women killed in childbirth. - - Permitted for warriors to be buried on the battlefield with grave markers to show who it was. - One major difference compared with other Greek poleis is that the dead were buried within the city area rather than outside it. - "Lykurgus removed all superstition by not placing any ban on the burial within the city or on sitting tombs close to temples." -- PLUTARCH - Spartans were encouraged to view death as familiar and normal -- removes the fearfactor. - A strict period of eleven days was set for mourning. The twelfth day was marked by a sacrifice to Demeter and the end of grieving **DEATH OF A KING** - If a king died in battle, a statue would be constructed and form part of the funerary procession -- which was attended by all sections of Spartan society. - When a Spartan king died, horseman travelled from all over Lakonia, informing the inhabitants. - Women went around beating a cauldron. - Two people from each house (man and woman) were expected to join in the mourning; failure to do so resulted in heavy penalties. - Residents of Sparta displayed a public outpour of emotion -- striking their heads and proclaiming that the king was the best king they ever had. - All political activity was ceased for 10 days (Herodotus). - "...no elections or public meetings for ten days, all of which are spent in mourning." -- HERODOTUS - After the death of a king, all debts owed to him were remitted by his successor +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Evidence** | **What is revealed about Spartan | | | funerary customs and ritual?** | +===================================+===================================+ | Plutarch | - Remove superstition. | | | | | (provides information about | - No luxurious goods buried | | ordinary Spartan citizen burials) | with them. | | | | | The ideal- what was meant to | - No names inscribed on tomb | | happen in Sparta. | stones. | | | | | | - Bury bodies in city→ make | | | spartans accustomed to dead | | | bodies/spirits. Inculcate no | | | fear of death. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Archaeological evidence | - Limited evidence available- | | | no names on tombstones, only | | (provides information about | those who had died in battle | | ordinary Spartan citizen burials) | or childbirth. | | | | | | - Few graves with weapons and | | | funerary pottery→ | | | contradiction to what | | | Lycurgus says was found. | | | | | | - Pithos (jar with dead | | | person's bones) has been | | | found from the 8th century BC | | | with iron weapons, sword, | | | dagger and bronze ornaments. | | | Militaristic objects. | | | | | | - Cist graves found within the | | | city of Sparta. (Four), | | | covered with an earth mound, | | | depicting both a hunting and | | | a battle scene. Sacrificed | | | animals found with them. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Herodotus | - Kings were given elaborate | | | funerals and special burial | | Royal burial- no archaeological | rites. | | evidence. | | | | - Horse riders spread the news. | | | | | | - Whole state is in mourning, | | | very visible. | | | | | | - Whole state stops during ten | | | day period of mourning. | | | | | | - King praised for their | | | efforts. | | | | | | - If king killed in war→ statue | | | made. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Tyrtaeus | - It is the greatest honour. | | | Brings glory to town and | | Death of a soldier in battle. | people. | | | | | Pausanias | - Town mourns, as he gave his | | | life up for Sparta. | | | | | | - He is immortal in the grave, | | | because his name is recorded | | | down. | | | | | | | | | | | | - By the 2nd century AD Sparta | | | was packed with tombs and | | | cenotaphs (memorials without | | | a body) of the cities battle | | | heroes. Showing a lot of | | | people died in war and had | | | this honour. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ Cultural and everyday life -------------------------- ### a) Art - Sparta enjoyed an artistic Golden Age from c. 650 to 550 BC. - The decline in Sparta's production of carvings and pottery seem to have set in by the 6th century. One explanation for this is the increase in the number of Helots and Perioikoi and the decrease in the number of Spartiates. The fear of Helot/Perioikoi revolt engendered in the Spartans a sense of need to devote more attention to the military efficiency of the state; to the detriment of artistic pursuits. - It was "...the necessity to keep large populations under control which turned Sparta into a bleak and barren military camp." -- FINE - However, an alternate view is given by Oswyn Murray, who says that "...the military ethos and Spartan educational system produced a society which no longer needed the artist." - Yet, art is still being crafted, however, not by the Spartiates. Instead, by the Perioikoi. **SCULPTURE** - Spartan sculptors were active not only at home, but also in cultural centres such as Olympia and Delphi. - At the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, over 100,000 lead figurines have been unearthed. - - Sculpture in stone and marble was mostly associated with religion. - Limestone and marble. - Hoplite soldiers. - Less common. - Pyramidal stone with depictions of Menelaus and Helen. - Marble reliefs of the Dioskouroi. **PAINTED VASES** - Lakonian pottery was (for about 100 years; up to the 6th century) sufficiently valued to be a significant export commodity. - Lakonian vases have been found all over Greece and the Mediterranean world -- indicating production for export as well as domestic use. - A number of early 6th century BC Lakonian vase painters have been identified. The images depicted on the vases are of animal scenes, daily life, and mythological subjects. - Late geometric pyxis, from the Amyklaion, depicting male dancers and lyres in a decorative band above geometric registers. - Lakonian kylix from Taras depicting Tuny fish and dolphins. - The Arkesilas cup. **BONE AND IVORY CARVING** - Ivory work was another export product, reflecting the high quality of the craftsmen. - Over 200 ivory carvings were found at the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia. - The ivory was imported from traders in Syria. Archaeologists have commented on the style of Spartan ivory carvings as having a strong artistic influence from the east. - Dated to the 7th century BC, the 'Spartan Ivory Plaque Showing a Ship' shows a warship leaving or entering a port. It is interpreted as a decoration once fixed to furniture. - - - Relief carvings of horses, in bone. Ornaments probably affixed to a wooden object. - Spartan ivory plaque showing a ship, depicting the arrival or departure of a warship. - Spartan ivory combs e.g. combs found at the shrine of Artemis Orthia depict a lion, two horses and a fallen soldier and two sphinxes flanking a man whom they are attacking→ this carving on the reverse of the famous 'Judgement of Paris' comb. **BRONZE** - Decorated with goddesses and animals. - Much bronze found in graves and tombs. - Brooches, pins, horse trappings, polished mirrors. Shows wealth. - Striking miniatures of Spartan soldiers in armour. Votive offerings. - Votive male athlete figure. - Statue of Apollo at Amyklai. - Bronze vessels. - Over 6o fragmentary bronze hydriai (helmeted hoplite as central element). E.g. Pesaro hydria. - Huge bronze bowl given to King Kroisos of Lydia in Asia minor→ diplomatic gift. **Why is it important to question the traditional view of Sparta as a city without art and culture?** - Spartan propaganda → how Sparta wanted to be known and remembered as a military state → This is what we call historical bias - This is cancelled out by the archeological evidence found in both Sparta and in the Mediterranean and North Africa → Laconian pottery is a good example of this ### b) Architecture **AMYKLAION** - One of several shrines built at Amyklai. - Not strictly a temple, but a Throne of Apollo. It was a stoa-like building with an altar, which surrounded on three sides the colossal, column-shaped statue of the god. - One of the most important Spartan festivals, the Hyakinthia, took place at the Amyklaion. - Adimired in antiquity as the most significant shrine in all Lacedaemon (Pausanius). - Tripods of the spoils of war against Messenia were placed at the shrine. - The care and expense put into the throne indicates the piety and the resources of the society. **MENELAION** - This is a shrine to Menelaus and Helen. - Overlooks Mount Taygetus and the Eurotas Valley. - Excavations have found votive objects including ceramic figurines and urns inscribed with dedications to Helen.  **SANCTUARY OF ARTEMIS ORTHIA** - Temple site dates from 8th century BC. - Carved ivory images found at the site show the winged goddess grasping an animal or bird in either hand. - Place of annual trial of endurance for youths in the agoge, who had to steal cheese from the altar while being whipped (Plutarch and Xenophon). The 'Festival of the Unarmed Boys' or the 'Festival of the Naked Boys'. ### c) Writing and literature +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Tyrtaeus** | **Alcman** | +===================================+===================================+ | - Wrote during and after the | - Wrote before the 2nd | | 2nd Messenian War (Spartans | Messenian War. | | vs Messenians). Sparta were | | | successful in both | - Carefree approach to life, | | | love of beauty and | | - Closely associated with the | intellectual interests. | | development of the Spartan | | | army and the phalanx. | - Described the world around | | | him including nature such as | | - Exponent of the values and | flowers and birds. | | practice of hoplite warfare. | | | | - Spoke about the delights of | | - Promoted courage and | food, fine wine and | | cooperation | passionate love. | | | | | - Doesn't glorify war. | - Wrote for public | | | performances, wrote drinking | | - Emphasis on camaraderie. | songs, hymns for male choirs | | | and preludes for readings of | | - Support for the monarchy and | Homer. | | elders. Showed his | | | admiration. | - Best known for his Maiden | | | Songs, chorus work to be sung | | Sources | and danced by young girls at | | | Spartan festivals. | | - Tyrtaeus is the poet of | | | "barrack Sparta". He is the | - Wrote in the Laconian | | exponent of the values and | dialect, subject matter | | practice of hoplite warfare. | varied from local legends, | | His poems promote courage. | stories from Homer and often | | "Fear not the number of the | ended his stories with a | | enemy, nor be afraid\...". | moral message. | | | | | - Admiration of the monarchy: | Sources | | "To rule in council is for | | | the kings (who are esteemed | Extracts come from the Maiden | | by the gods and whose care is | songs: | | the lovely city of | | | Sparta)\...". | - "Would, ah would I were a | | | kingfisher, who skims over | | | the flower of a wave with the | | | halycons... the sea-blue | | | sacred bird\...". | | | | | | - "Now sleep the mountain | | | peaks... monsters in the gulf | | | of the dark-gleaming sea; now | | | sleep the tribes of | | | long-winged birds\...". | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Alcman → before the first war → all about culture/art/flourishing** **FIRST MESSENIAN WAR** - Spartans wanted more land/resources - Outcome: Sparta gained control of the land and the Messenians (original occupants) became the helots **Tyrateus → poetry all about comradeship → fighting → used in battle → military focus** **SECOND MESSENIAN WAR** - Messenians revolted against Sparta - there was an uprising - Outcome: the spartan won → continued to control the land and Messenians ### d) Greek writers' views of Sparta +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Historian** | **issues/limitations* | **View on Sparta** | | | * | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Herodotus** | He was very positive | Critical of the | | | towards Sparta so he | Spartan Constitution | | | may have embellished | | | | how good they were. | | | | He wrote from his own | | | | travels and | | | | eyewitness reports so | | | | people may not have | | | | recalled what they | | | | say very well. Just | | | | visited Athens → he | | | | didn't visit Sparta | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Thucydides** | He was on an opposing | Impressed by Eunomia | | | side to Sparta and | | | | wrote about their war | | | | with him being a | | | | general for Athens | | | | fighting against | | | | Sparta so he may have | | | | downplayed how good | | | | they were. He also | | | | could have overstated | | | | how proficient they | | | | were to ensure people | | | | didn't think Athens | | | | was weak for being | | | | defeated by Sparta. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Xenophon** | May be biased as an | Admirer of the | | | Athenian although he | Spartan state and the | | | admired the spartan | agog | | | state because he | | | | lacked criticism for | | | | them | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Aristotle** | Biased as an | -Aristotle was | | | athenian→underplayed | influenced by his | | | spartan's successes | teacher Plato | | | in politics | | | | | -Critical of land | | | Criticises the | ownership and small | | | Spartan constitution | groups of elite | | | | citizens | | | | | | | | -Was critical: should | | | | not have helots, | | | | women had too much | | | | freedom, too | | | | concerned with war | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Polybius** | Compared Rome's | | | | constitutions to the | | | | Greek city-state | | | | constitutions→ may | | | | have underplayed | | | | Greece\'s power | | | | | | | | Biassed because he | | | | was kicked out of | | | | Greece | | | | | | | | Was deported from | | | | greek which may have | | | | affect his views | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Pausanias** | Lived much after the | His description of | | | events, was trying to | buildings and | | | sell historic sites | monuments offers a | | | to travellers so they | contrast to | | | would come to see | Thucydides, who | | | Sparta and Greece. | claims there were no | | | Different depiction | significant temples | | | than Thucydides who | or public buildings | | | said there were no | in Sparta | | | significant temples | | | | or public buildings | | | | in Sparta. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Plutarch** | Greek so possible | Provides background | | | bias towards these | and information on | | | people being really | early Sparta - | | | amazing. We don't | Praises Lykurgus | | | know where he sourced | | | | his information about | | | | the people he wrote | | | | about from. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ ### e) Leisure activities **ATHLETICS** - Play field sports completely naked. - Anointed their bodies with olive oil before exercise. - Stadion (running), discus, javelin, jumping, wrestling and boxing. - Rigorous training, famous for their running. - Girls practised running and jumping. Foot races were performed in honour of Helen and Hera. - Pausanias→ mentions the dromos (race track) where Spartan youths practised. - Xenophon→ mentions a Spartans was killed by a discus while on campaign. - Statue of Hetoimokles→ he and his father won the wrestling at Olympia eleven times between them (Pausanias). **HUNTING** - Hunting dogs - shared amongst Spartiates so all could participate. - Foothills of Mt Taygetus were the hunting grounds. - Hunting was done with a javelin or spear. - Killing a boar was a rite of passage for young men, a 'blooding' that proved men's virility. - Xenophon stated, "hunting made a man ready for war." **EQUESTRIAN SPORTS** - Popular throughout the populace, as Greek city states where activity was reserved the very rich. - Sparta dominated the 4-horse chariot event at Olympia - Not introduced to military structure until the 4th century. - Women could breed and train horses for competition, famously Kyniska, monument raised to success at Olympia (recorded Pausanias). - Alcman compared beautiful women to horses = Suggesting value **COCKFIGHTING AND BOARFIGHTING** - Strong game birds that were aggressive were symbolic of the maleness that was much valued in Spartan society. - Erect crest of the cock→ potent phallic image. - Immature wild boars were raised in captivity and matched against one another in a similar fashion. - Before the contest each team had to fight a young boar. Outcome= taken as an omen indicating the struggle between the two teams of boys. - Plutarch→ cocks fought to the death. - Attic vase→ draws an obvious comparison with a battle between fighting cocks paralleling that of hoplites or of heroes who are engaged in a combat. - Pausanias→ adolescents, divided into two teams each year fought each other in an all in struggle that included kicking and eye-gouging. **MUSIC AND POETRY** - Renowned for its fine music. - Choral music and dance songs. - Songs sung by dancing choruses. Accompanied by a stringed instrument and a wind instrument. - Poetry sung by massed voices. A chorus master would have provided instruction. - Young Spartans were taught lessons about the gods, Sparta's heroes, Spartan military, social and political values. - Spartan flutes→ carved from bone in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens. - Thucydides→ commented that in the lead up to battle the Spartans advanced "slowly to the sound of many flutes... in order that their hoplite line should not be broken". **FOOD** - Frugal, plain and unappetising. - Supposedly Lycurgus who specified a light diet and Plutarch elaborates the thinking that copious quantities of food would have made people fat and listless. - Lycurgan diet, produced both tall healthy youths, not weighed down by food and young women who would produce lean children. - Black broth made of pork, vinegar and blood (famous cuisine). - Barley→ staple grain made into porridge and bread. Other bread made from wheat was a special treat. - Range of fruits consumed, figs contributed to messes. - Olives and olive oil was common and cheese from goats milk. - Honey from Spartan hives. - Meats were rare, Spartans ate pork and poultry as well as fish. - Hunting provided game meat for the table e.g. wildbore and hare. **CLOTHING** - There was a language of dress to distinguish between those who were free citizens, those young and in training, those who were disgraced and those enslaved. - Spartiates everyday wear was often a kilt or wrapped themselves in a cheap and coarse cloak called a tribon. Symbolised Spartan simplicity and austerity and was supposed to mask the differences of wealth and power. There most famous and distinctive outfit was the purple/red battle cloak made from the finest Laconian wool that marked them as soldiers. - Teenage boys wore a rough woollen garment that looked like a shawl. - Spartans who had been disgraced for fleeing or failing in battle were forced to wear a cloak of coloured patches. - Helots wore dogskin caps and animal skins. - Spartan women dressed modestly in a Dorian peplos, open right up one side so that their thigh would show when walking. Wore little jewellery, no make-up or expensive perfumes. - Girls exercised in short slit skirts. ### f) Marriage customs - Arranged by male relatives, two kings able to step in and arrange the marriage for a widowed or orphaned girl. - Married "when they were ripe for it" -- meaning in late teens, when healthy conception was most likely, male and female were approx. the same age. - Dowries, physical attractiveness, fitness for child bearing, and social class were important factors in marriage, as evidenced by Plutarch. **MARRIAGE BY CAPTURE** - The ritual was designed to display a man's strength in carrying off his wife (Brennan). - She would then have her head shaved and dressed as a man -- a symbol of leaving behind her past life, designed to assist the bridegroom (Brennan). **EUGENICS** - Hoping to produce stronger children. - Plutarch, Life of Lycurgus "men sneaked out of their barracks to visit their wives" - produce an active coupling more likely to produce strong children -- militarism **WIFE LENDING** - Discussed by Xenophon, Polybius, and Plutarch. - Wives were loaned for the purposes of reproduction. - For example, an old man should introduce his young wife to an appropriate man to have children with. - Men who did not reproduce were heaped with ridicule and socially excluded. - Children were in a sense a form of common property.