Soil Science Notes PDF

Soil Science Notes Monday, October 28th Soils of the Temperate Regions Soils of tropical regions - low fertility, Oxisols, nutrients Soils of the dry regions - salinity, lack of moisture, Aridisols, Entisols, wa...

Soil Science Notes Monday, October 28th Soils of the Temperate Regions Soils of tropical regions - low fertility, Oxisols, nutrients Soils of the dry regions - salinity, lack of moisture, Aridisols, Entisols, water Soils of temperate regions - highly diverse, Alfisols, Spodosols, intense use Europe & Northern part of the United States Soils of the cold regions - temperature, Gelisols, Histosols, carbon Last Ice Age – glaciers covered soil in Europe Brought more sand to Europe ○ Clay found along the coast ○ Granite Rock ○ Striation → ice scrapes over the landscape leaving a pattern More soil carbon in the northern part of Europe (Scotland) ○ Carbon comes from dead plants ○ Soil organic carbon levels = balance between production and decomposition (break down) ○ In the Northern part, plants grow slowly, yet decompose slowly as well Occurs in frozen regions too! Spodosols, Acrisols (Alfisols), Mollisols ○ Zonel pattern of soil in Europe, checkered pattern of soil in the USA North and West - Histosols (organic soils) Peat Areas ○ Subsidies Organic Materials → Saturated with Water Drain water → let air in → subsides and lose organic material Raised cattle around canals ○ Town of Gouda Eastern Part - Spodosols (sand areas) Western Part - Sea Clays Growing potatoes and flowers Drainage systems Riverline Clays → mainly used for fruit trees  Monday, November 4th Soils of the Cold Regions Soil Taxonomy → created in the US during the 1960s Gelisols → permanently frozen soils Permafrost within 200 cm of the surface < 0 degrees for at least 2 years Polar and Circumpolar regions, high elevations ○ North and South Pole, Alaska, Russia, Iceland, Greenland, Northern Canada ○ High up in Mountains (temperature of sea level is higher than on a mountain) Alps and Himalayas Characterized by perennial coldness ○ Rainfall level is generally low (low precipitation – mostly snow) Very dry climates, but also wet Cryturbation (frost churning) is common Gelisol Profile Key: active layer over permafrost ○ Organic Horizon ○ Active Layer ○ Seasonal Thaw Layer Temperature is slightly higher during summer allowing plants to grow Permafrost – temperature below 0 degrees Celsius for more than 2 successive years Increase in depth to permanently frozen layer (due to Climate Change) Cold Desert Soil, Antarctica ○ Similar characteristics to arid soils in dry areas ○ Build up salt (salt-enriched horizon) No leaching, parent material from nearby Finer soil (clay) is blown away ○ Desert pavement ○ Dry permafrost Landscapes Patterned ground → frost cracking into polygons during winters ○ Rocky Mountains, Montana Ice Wedge Polygon pushes soil apart to create the pattern Solifluction The curving of the trees ○ Soft Layer (active layer) on top of Hard Layer → The soft layer moves overtime downwards when saturated with water ○ Tree roots are influenced by the movement of soft layers, trees correct themselves to reach the sun Any plant is directed toward the light Globally Gelisols comprise 9% of the World's Soils 11.7 million sq. km in Russia 4.0 million sq. km in Canada 1.8 million sq. km in the US (80% in Alaska) China, Mongolia, Northern Europe, Greenland Physical Processes Occur in Gelisols Cryoturbation → occurs through freezing and towing ○ Soils shift and then refreeze creating irregular patterns Frostwedges Biological Factors → High Carbon Content as the carbon does not rot/decompose in lower temperatures Dry areas: C in soils from cyanobacteria Wetter areas: C lichens, mosses, liverworts, sedges, grasses Sometimes biological crust Ornitheogenic inputs (guano) ○ Penguin droppings Soil Organic Carbon Low in cold and dry areas: ○ 0.02-0.06% SOC Moist/Wetter: ○ 12-18% ○ Saturated soils lack oxygen to break down carbon Organic matter decomposition is low ○ Low temperature, short thaw season, saturated conditions, resistant plant materials Globally large SOC quantities in Gelisols 25% of the global SOC pool (exam?) Permafrost & Climate Change Accumulation of Carbon is due to the low rate of decay in plants ○ Plant growth is slow, plants die, however, the microorganisms don’t decay the soil organic matter, leading to high carbon build-up Moving permafrost ○ Soil is towing due to increased temperatures, allowing microorganisms to exist and release the carbon back into the atmosphere Use of Gelisols Support low human population (0.4% of people live on Gelisols) of all soil orders ○ Harbor vase energy reserves ○ Siberia cities > 0.5 million Danger of heat flux into the soil (removing vegetation, building directly on top of the soil) - finer textured soils (solifluction) ○ When building a house on gelisols it is important to minimising soil temperature changes Building on pilings or stilts (1 m air gap) Gravel pad Traffic may cause dust: early snow melt Snow does not reflect the sun as easily when covered in dust causing it to melt faster and earlier Flash floods down the stream Irregular ice block melting: hilly terrain (thermokarst) Summary of Gelisols Permafrost-affected soils Often very dry climates Cryoturbation Wilderness Construction problems Large Carbon storage  Monday, November 11th Soils of the USA US Rainfall Map Drier moving west (low precipitation) Wetter moving east (high precipitation) South is warmer 1 Kilometer → temperature drops -6 degrees Celsius The higher you go, the colder it gets Land Use The Northern Part is utilized for agriculture Grassland used for grazing pH increases if rainfall decreases (high pH in drier conditions) Rocky & Appalachian Mountains Formed 80-55 million years ago due to uplifting (plates slowly move around the earth, pushing up the earth’s crust) ○ Evident through volcanic activity and rocks jutting outwards Mount Elbert is the highest point at 14,440 feet (4401 m) Seaways 65 million years ago – underneath water Sierra Nevada (West) Uplifted 40 million years ago (recently pushed → sharp edges) The highest point is Mount Whitney at 14,505 ft (4,421 m) Funnel in between into the Mississippi River Appalachian Formed roughly 480 million years ago (flatter) The highest point is Mount Mitchell in North Carolina at 6,684 (2,037) Andisols → Washington, Idaho, Oregon, Northern California, Hawaii Crater Lake - Mount Mazama volcano deposited ash Mount Helen (1980) Ash lay on top of the glacial outwash Characteristics ○ Light soils (weight) ○ Porous ○ Problems with phosphorus ○ Often high in soil fertility (many minerals) ○ Younger soils Layers of ash build overtime when soil is used → ash, vegetation, ash, vegetation Uses ○ Construction problems → porous → hold a lot of water → massive landslides following earthquake ○ Timber (Oregon, Idaho, Washington) ○ Sugar Cane Alfisols → Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri (midwest) Derive from Loess → The end of glacier periods was dry w/low vegetation, soil was picked up and covered the midwest ○ Thicker Loess towards Mississippi River Characteristics ○ Clay wash down the soil profile ○ Fertile soils Cultivated crops, hay, pasture, forest Eastern partition of the Corn Belt Wine and Grapes ○ Erosion may be a problem Wisconsin state soil Aridsols → West Entisols → Nebraska sand hills, Southern California Irregular distribution across the US ○ Appalachian West Virginia ○ Shores of Lake Michigan Characteristics ○ Young soils ○ No significant soil formation ○ Little relationship Gelisols → Alaska Permafrost, soils with ice Histosols → North Carolina, Minnesota, Michigan, Wisconsin, Everglades (Flordia) Not well-drained - organic material Related to glaciers Characteristics ○ Dominantly organic (histo → tissue) ○ No permafrost ○ Mostly wet conditions ○ Peat → brownish only partially decomposed fibrous remains of plant tissues ○ Muck – much more decomposed (almost fluid when wet, powdery when dry) Inceptisols → Pennslyvania and New York, Appalachian Inception Soils show the beginning of horizon development Little or no clay movement (no leaching) Organic matter accumulation in the topsoil Mollisols → Extensive areas across the United States (Illinois, Iowa - different moving west) Highly productive Grass Root system ○ Fine root hairs ○ Deep rooting, especially tallgrass species ○ Part of the root mass turns over each year (organic matter increases) Stabilization of soil organic matter with calcium and magnesium Fire to keep trees from growing in the area ○ Maintain the prairie, allowing mollisols to develop ○ Bison help maintain grass levels as well Oxisols → Only found in Puerto Rico and parts of Hawaii Very weathered Low pH - acid soils 8% globally Spodosols → Similar to Histosols (Northern Wisconsin, Michigan, Florida) Mineral soils in which organic matter and aluminum or iron have been washed out and accumulated with depth ○ Happens from acid litter from coniferous vegetation ○ More rain than evaporation and transpiration  Fe, Al, SOC State soil of Michigan and Florida Uses ○ Forestry: northern hardwoods, pines, hemlock, spruce-fir ○ Pasture ○ Cultivated crops potatoes, cranberries, blueberries Ultisols → Southeast (Georgia) Low fertility ○ Forest Production ○ Agronomic crops – cotton and soybeans ○ Urban expansion Vertisols → Texas and along the Mississippi River Wet-dry monsoon ○ Dry soils crack, the material falls in, and the soil then is pushed when it rains again Inverted soils High clay content (> 30%); large shrink-swell potential Nearly level to generally sloping landscapes ○ Grasses dominant vegetation ○ Tree roots would get ripped apart when soil shifts ○ Utilize drip irrigation when  Monday, November 18th Soils of Wisconsin In the past, tectonic plates were floating across the Earth… Led to the formation of Mountains Wisconsin was on the move (moved from the Southern Hemisphere to the Northern Hemisphere) Wisconsin Ice Age (100,000 - 10,000 years) Ice lobes covered half of the state ○ Moved at a slow pace ○ Flattened landscape ○ Transported rocks/material from Canada Discovered by Chamberlin Patches of soil Driftless area (land not covered by ice) ○ Material not deposited by glacier Kettle Moraine ○ The area between two ice lobes Drumlins ○ A small hill that formed underneath the ice ○ Tear dropped shape (birds-eye) ○ 20-30 ft high (not very big) Arlington Loess Till Bedrock ○ Limestone (Calcium Phosphate) ○ Dowerstone (Magnesium Phosphate) ○ Striation → scratches on the bedrock caused by shifting of the glaciers Carbonate Bedrock Commonly fractured rocks ○ Soluble rocks: caves and sinkholes ○ Rainwater breaks down bedrock Groundwater contamination: rapidly flows through cracks, poor filtering → leach into groundwater Caves 5 Factors of Soil Formation (CORPT) → any soil anywhere in the world 1. Climate 2. Relief 3. Parent material 4. Time 5. Living Organisms (vegetation, people, animals, etc.) Wisconsin 1. Relief End Moraine (edge of glacier) Driftless pushed upwards - the uplifted area became dissected ○ Land is bouncing back up after being compressed by the weight of the ice Madison → Mendota, Monona, Waubesa, and Kegonsa were once one big lake called Lake Yehara 2. Living Organism - Vegetation Southern Part → Prairie (grassland & forest) ○ Fires induced by humans and natural factors Northern Part → Forest (trees) ○ Cooler climate w/more diverse vegetation Split between South and North merged over time 20 acres per day are transformed into Urban Expansions 3. Climate Glaciers Temperature Wisconsin Soil Order Map  45% Alfisols ○ Located in the Forest (Lower to Middle Southern Portion) The Driftless Area (Western – caused by Loess blown on top) Calcium Carbonate weathers → calcium, iron, carbon dioxide, etc. Zero soils results from Limestone/Dowerstone weathering 15% impurities in Limestone (clay) Driftless areas cultivated in patterns to avoid erosion caused by Drumlins ○ Often used for cultivation Potato cultivation ○ State soil → Antigo silt loam 18% Spodosols ○ Located in the North ○ Form under hemlock (type of tree) Leached Layer Not very fertile 12% Entisols ○ Not very fertile ○ Soils of the Central Sands Well to excessively drained soils Warm up early in the spring Drought susceptible Oak savanna natural vegetation, but also pine barrens Prarie Erosion by wind Original Crops: rye, barley, peas, flax, cabbage, potatoes, cranberries With irrigation impressive yields, golden sands ○ Aldo Leopold’s “Sand County Almanac” 11% Mollisols ○ Most fertile, thick top soils (loess) ○ Used for cultivation extensively in the Midwest overall 10% Histosols ○ Common in the Northern Part, yet occurs everywhere ○ Very wet and organic soils Located in between Drumlins where water collects ○ Lakes shrink because vegetation closes them off 4% Inceptisols  Monday, November 25th Soil Information Exam Info 35 Questions, multiple choice A similar level of difficulty and similar questions (probably exact same questions) Soil Data Physical, chemical, and biological properties Need for… ○ Environmental assessment, growing crops, characterization Existing Data Legacy Data New Data New Methods Soil Web (app) Soil maps Dig a pit Ground Penetrating Radar: Auger Measures the time it takes for a light Soil Explorer Soil samples Probe truck beam to reflect back to the machines. Online US Soils Road Cut Measure distance and App NRCS - Quarry USDA Electromagnetic Induction: USDA Website **Create as Unbias ATV w/gps sends magnetic pulse into Web Reports & observation** soil and records electric current Soil Literature (measures salt in soil) Survey Analysis - Soil Sensing Map salt on land Soil data and 1. Remote: information a. Spaceborne Elemental Concentration: satellites X-ray machine that is used to analyze b. Airborne: drones, elements in the soil (very rapid) balloons, etc. See how elements change with 2. Nearby depth a. Proximal sensors and scanners Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy A strong light beam determines soil color Mar’s Curiosity Laser & Rovers based on how well it reflects the light. Measures materials via wavelength The absorbance of light reflects the material in the soil!!! Soils Maps - show on a 2D level how soils are distributed across the landscape Based on soil profiles Find soil maps for the US on Web Soil Survey Names of Soils in the US organized by Series Soils Produce enough food Climate change Water quality and quantity Biodiversity Energy production