Social Psychology Reviewer PDF

Intuitive judgments and biases can Chapter 1: guide or mislead us. Introducing Social Social influences shape behavior: Cultural norms and social contexts Psychology...

Intuitive judgments and biases can Chapter 1: guide or mislead us. Introducing Social Social influences shape behavior: Cultural norms and social contexts Psychology significantly affect our actions. Personal attitudes and dispositions also shape behavior: Individual Social Psychology: The scientific study of differences interact with situational how people think about, influence, and factors. relate to one another. Social behavior is biologically rooted: Evolutionary psychology, Social Thinking: neuroscience, and genetic - Attitudes: Evaluations of people, predispositions are integral. objects, and ideas that influence behavior. Social psychology’s principles apply in everyday life: - Beliefs: Convictions about the truth of Understanding social psychology something. helps address issues like prejudice, relationships, and health. Social Influence: - Culture: Enduring behaviors, ideas, Social Psychology and Human Values attitudes, and traditions shared by a group and transmitted to future generations. How do human values influence social psychology? - Conformity: Adjusting behavior or ○ Values enter through research thinking to align with group standards. topics, social representations, and researchers' assumptions. Social Relations: ○ Naturalistic Fallacy: The error of deriving what ought - Prejudice: Preconceived negative to be from what is. judgment of a group and its members. - Aggression: Behavior intended to harm Social Psychology’s Methods (Research someone physically or emotionally. Method): - Correlational Research: Study of Social Psychology’s Big Ideas naturally occurring relationships among variables. We construct our social reality: Our perception of reality is shaped by our - Experimental Research: Manipulation beliefs and experiences. of variables to determine cause and effect. Our social intuitions can be powerful but sometimes perilous:  - Independent Variable: The factor being manipulated in an experiment. - Dependent Variable: The outcome measured to see the effect of the Chapter 2: The Self in independent variable. a Social World - Random Assignment: Assigning Self-Concept: Who Am I? participants to conditions by chance to reduce bias. -Definition: Self-concept refers to a person’s answers to the question, “Who am -Hypotheses: Testable predictions derived I? from theory. Field Research: Studies conducted in - Self-Schema: Beliefs about oneself that natural, real-life settings. organize and guide processing self-relevant information. Laboratory Research: Controlled experiments in artificial settings Possible Selves: Images of what we dream of or fear becoming. Ethics in Social Psychology - Spotlight Effect :The belief that others are paying more Ethical Principles: attention to us than they actually are. ○ Informed Consent: Participants must agree to :Overestimating the extent to which others participate with full notice and evaluate our appearance and knowledge of the study’s behavior. nature. ○ Debriefing: Participants are - Illusion of Transparency: Belief that informed about the study’s others can read our emotions more clearly purpose after its conclusion. than they actually do. ○ Deception: Acceptable only when necessary and when no Self-Esteem: harm will occur. Definition: A person’s overall sense of Social Psychology’s Applications self-worth or self-value. Sources of Self-Esteem: Addresses practical issues in health, law, business, and environmental Achievement, feedback, challenges. relationships, and cultural standards. Benefits of High Self-Esteem: - Self-Serving Bias: Tendency to perceive oneself favorably. Resilience, optimism, and Manifestations: motivation. Attributing successes to oneself and Risks of High Self-Esteem: failures to external factors. Unrealistic optimism: Believing we Narcissism: Excessive self-love and are less likely to experience negative self-focus. events. False consensus effect: Overestimating how much others Self-Efficacy agree with us. False uniqueness effect: Definition: The belief in one’s ability Underestimating how common our to succeed in specific situations or abilities or achievements are. accomplish tasks. Impact: ○ High self-efficacy enhances - False Consensus Effect: Overestimating motivation, performance, and how much others share our opinions and persistence. behaviors. ○ Distinct from self-esteem. - False Uniqueness Effect: Underestimating how common one's abilities or successes are. Locus of Control Self-Presentation Definition: The extent to which people perceive outcomes as Definition: The act of expressing internally controllable or externally oneself and behaving in ways controlled. designed to create a favorable ○ Internal Locus of Control: impression. Belief that outcomes are the result of one’s actions. ○ External Locus of Control: Belief that outcomes are Key Concepts: determined by external forces ○ Impression Management: (fate, luck, etc.). Efforts to control the Learned helplessness: A sense of impressions others form of hopelessness from repeated failures. us. ○ Self-Handicapping: Creating obstacles to avoid blaming ourselves for failures.  ○ Self-Monitoring: Adjusting ○ Explicit Attitudes: behavior to fit the social Deliberate and conscious situation. evaluations. Cultural Influences: Self-Control: - Individualism: Priority to one’s own - Ego Depletion: Self-control weakens goals over group goals; identity defined by after prolonged exertion. personal attributes. Focus on the individual’s goals over Chapter 3: Social group goals. Emphasizes personal identity and Beliefs and Judgments independence. Introduction to Social Thinking Common in Western cultures. Definition: Social thinking involves how we perceive, interpret, and - Collectivism: Priority to group goals; judge social information. identity defined by group membership. Key Focus Areas: Focus on the group’s goals over ○ How we construct our social individual goals. reality. Emphasizes interdependence and ○ The biases and shortcuts in social harmony. judgment. Common in Asian, African, and ○ The interplay between Latin American cultures. automatic and controlled processes. Self-Knowledge Limits of Introspection: Judgment Processes: ○ People are often unaware of the factors influencing their The Powers and Limits of Intuition thoughts and behaviors. ○ Affective Forecasting: The Intuitive Thinking: Thinking that is difficulty of predicting the effortless, habitual, and automatic. intensity and duration of Deliberate Thinking: Thinking that future emotions. is conscious, intentional, and Dual Attitudes: controlled. ○ Implicit Attitudes: Automatic and unconscious Priming: evaluations.  Definition: Activating particular - Belief Perseverance: Persistence of associations in memory. initial beliefs despite contradictory evidence. Example: Seeing the word “yellow” may make someone recognize the Judging Our Social World word “banana” faster. Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making. Embodied Cognition: Representative Heuristic: Definition: The influence of bodily sensations on cognitive preferences Judging something and judgments. based on how similar Example: Holding a warm drink it is to a prototype. might make someone perceive others Example: Assuming as warmer. someone in a suit is a lawyer. Perceiving Our Social World ○ Availability Heuristic: Schemas: Mental frameworks that Judging likelihood help organize and interpret based on how easily information. examples come to Belief Perseverance: mind. ○ Definition: Persistence of Example: initial beliefs, even when the Overestimating basis for those beliefs is airplane crashes after discredited. hearing about one in ○ Example: People still believe the news. stereotypes even after seeing Counterfactual Thinking: contradictory evidence. Overconfidence Phenomenon: Definition: Imagining alternative ○ Definition: The tendency to outcomes that could have occurred overestimate the accuracy of but didn’t. one’s beliefs. Example: “If only I had studied ○ Example: Thinking you are harder, I would have passed.” certain about a fact but being incorrect. Illusory Thinking: Illusory Correlation: - Confirmation Bias: Tendency to search ○ Perceiving a relationship for information that supports our beliefs. where none exists. Illusion of Control:  ○ Believing we can control uncontrollable events (e.g., Chapter 4: Behavior superstitions). and Attitudes Attributions: Explanations for why people Introduction to Attitudes and Behavior behave the way they do. Definition of Attitudes: A favorable Types: or unfavorable evaluative reaction - Dispositional Attribution: Attributing toward something or someone, behavior to internal traits. exhibited in one’s beliefs, feelings, or intended behavior. - Situational Attribution: Attributing Components of Attitudes: behavior to external factors. ○ Affective: Emotional reactions (e.g., liking or - Fundamental Attribution Error: disliking). Underestimating situational influences on ○ Behavioral: Actions or behavior. observable behavior toward Example: Assuming someone is rude the attitude object. because of their personality rather than ○ Cognitive: Beliefs or external stress. thoughts about the attitude object. The Impact of Social Beliefs - Implicit Attitudes: Automatic, unconscious evaluations. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: ○ Definition: A belief that leads - Explicit Attitudes: Conscious, deliberate to its own fulfillment. evaluations. ○ Example: A teacher expecting a student to succeed might give them When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? more attention, leading to Conditions for Attitudes Predicting better performance. Behavior: Behavioral Confirmation: ○ Minimal external ○ Definition: A type of influences: Behavior reflects self-fulfilling prophecy where internal attitudes when social expectations cause external pressures are low. individuals to act in ways that ○ Attitude specificity: Specific confirm those expectations. attitudes are better predictors of specific behaviors.  ○ Attitude accessibility: Why Does Behavior Affect Attitudes? Strong, easily recalled attitudes are more likely to Self-Presentation Theory: guide behavior. ○ Definition: We express Theory of Planned Behavior: attitudes that make us appear ○ Definition: Intentions consistent to others. (determined by attitudes, ○ Example: Saying you care subjective norms, and about the environment to fit perceived control) predict social norms. behavior. Cognitive Dissonance Theory: ○ Example: Positive attitude ○ Definition: Psychological toward exercise + social discomfort arises when support + perceived ability = attitudes and behaviors are likelihood of exercising. inconsistent, leading to an adjustment in attitudes or behaviors to reduce tension. ○ Key Concepts: Attitude-Behavior Relationship: Selective Exposure: Tendency to seek - Theory of Planned Behavior: Intention information that to act is influenced by attitudes, norms, and aligns with current perceived control. attitudes. Example: Avoiding - Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort from news that contradicts inconsistent thoughts or behaviors, leading personal beliefs. to attitude change. ○ Classic study: Festinger’s study on boring tasks and attitude adjustment based on When Does Behavior Affect Attitudes? monetary reward. Self-Perception Theory: Role of Behavior in Shaping ○ Definition: When unsure of Attitudes: our attitudes, we infer them - Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: by observing our behavior. Agreeing to small requests increases ○ Example: Realizing you compliance with larger requests. enjoy jogging because you do it often. - Role Playing: Acting a role can shape Applications of Attitudes and Behavior attitudes and behavior (e.g., Zimbardo's study). Evil and Moral Acts:  ○ Doing a bad act can lead to more common in a justifying it and changing population. attitudes to align with Example: Parental behavior. investment theory ○ Doing good acts (e.g., explains gender volunteering) can promote differences in mating more prosocial attitudes. preferences. Social Movements: ○ Universal Behaviors: ○ Large-scale behavior changes Behaviors common across all (e.g., laws) can shape societal cultures (e.g., smiling, attitudes over time. emotions, caregiving). The Influence of Culture on Behavior Culture: Chapter 5: Genes, ○ Definition: The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, Culture, and Gender and traditions shared by a group and passed from one Introduction to Nature and Nurture generation to the next. ○ Cultural Diversity: Key Question: How do nature (genes) Cultures differ in and nurture (culture) interact to norms, values, and shape behavior? practices, shaping Human Diversity and Universality: individual behavior. ○ Humans share a common Example: genetic makeup but also Individualistic vs. exhibit significant cultural collectivistic cultures. diversity. The Influence of Evolution on Behavior Evolutionary Psychology: Norms: ○ Definition: The study of the ○ Definition: Standards for evolution of behavior and the accepted and expected mind using principles of behavior in a group. natural selection. ○ Examples of norms include: ○ Key Concepts: Personal space: Natural Selection: Cultural differences in Traits that enhance comfort zones. survival and Pace of life: Faster in reproduction become industrialized  countries, slower in ○ Men: More physical rural settings. aggression. Expressiveness: ○ Women: More indirect or Open emotional relational aggression. expression varies Sexuality: across cultures. ○ Men: More likely to prioritize Cultural Similarities: physical attractiveness and ○ Universal friendship norms, seek casual relationships. trait dimensions, social ○ Women: More likely to beliefs, and status norms. prioritize emotional connection and commitment. How Biology and Culture Interact Biology and Gender: Interaction Between Nature and - Sex: Biological characteristics that define Nurture: male and female. ○ Genes and environment work together to shape behavior. - Gender: Characteristics people associate ○ Example: Cultural norms can with being male or female. amplify or suppress biologically rooted behaviors. -Gender Roles: Expectations for behavior Epigenetics: based on gender. ○ Definition: How environmental factors affect gene expression without Gender Differences: altering DNA. Independence vs. Connectedness: Theories Explaining Gender Roles ○ Men: More individualistic Social Role Theory: and assertive. ○ Gender differences arise from ○ Women: More relational and contrasting societal roles. empathetic. ○ Example: Women’s roles in Social Dominance: caregiving lead to nurturing ○ Men: More likely to exhibit traits. traits of dominance and Gender Role Socialization: leadership. ○ Definition: The process by ○ Women: More likely to show which individuals learn communal traits and be culturally appropriate gender democratic in leadership. behaviors. Aggression: ○ Influences: Family, media, peers, and education.  - Cohesion:The more connected Chapter 6: individuals feel to a group, the more likely Conformity and they are to conform. Obedience - Status:People conform more to high-status individuals. Introduction to Social Influence - Public Response: eople conform more Social Influence:The ways people are when their responses are made publicly. affected by the real or imagined presence of others. -No Prior Commitment: People are more likely to conform if they haven’t previously Types of Social Influence: committed to a position -Conformity: Changing behavior or beliefs - Group Size: Larger groups increase to align with a group. conformity (up to a point). - Compliance: Conforming to gain - Unanimity: Conformity drops when at approval or avoid rejection. least one person disagrees with the majority. - Obedience: Following direct commands, typically from authority. Why Do People Conform? - Acceptance: Conforming while Normative Influence: genuinely agreeing with the group. ○ Definition: Conforming to gain approval or avoid 2. Classic Studies: disapproval. -Sherif’s Study on Norm Formation: ○ Example: Dressing formally Participants judged the movement of a point to fit in at a job interview. of light in a dark room (autokinetic effect). Informational Influence: ○ Definition: Conforming - Asch's Line Experiment: Demonstrated because the group provides conformity to group pressure. valuable information. ○ Example: Following locals’ - Milgram’s Study: Demonstrated high behavior in a foreign country. levels of obedience to authority figures. Obedience to Authority 3. Factors Influencing Conformity: Key Factors Affecting Obedience: ○ Proximity of Authority:  Obedience decreases ○ Using conformity to promote when authority is beneficial behaviors (e.g., distant. recycling campaigns). ○ Proximity of Victim: Understanding Destructive Obedience decreases Obedience: when the victim is ○ Helps explain atrocities, such closer. as genocide, where ○ Legitimacy of Authority: individuals comply with Obedience increases harmful orders. with perceived Empowering Resistance: authority legitimacy ○ Recognizing factors that (e.g., lab coat). promote nonconformity and ○ Institutional Authority: independent Obedience increases decision-making. when authority is tied to a reputable ○ institution. Defiance by Others: Chapter 7: Persuasion Obedience decreases Persuasion: The process by which a when others defy message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, authority. or behaviors Resisting Social Pressure Routes to Persuasion: Reactance: ○ Definition: A motive to -Central Route: Focuses on logical, protect or restore one’s sense compelling arguments. of freedom when it is threatened. - Peripheral Route: Relies on superficial ○ Example: Rebelling against cues like attractiveness. rules perceived as overly controlling. Elements of Persuasion Asserting Uniqueness: ○ People strive to maintain -The Communicator: Who is delivering the individuality and stand out message? when appropriate. Credibility: Perceived expertise and pplications of Conformity and Obedience trustworthiness. Attractiveness and Liking: Positive Social Influence: Physical appeal and similarity. -The Message: What is being said?  Reason versus Emotion: Logical Forewarning: arguments versus emotional appeals. ○ Knowing in advance that Discrepancy: Difference between someone will try to persuade the audience's existing views and the you makes you less susceptible. message. Selective Exposure: One-sided versus Two-sided ○ Tendency to seek information Appeals: Arguments for only one that supports one’s side versus addressing pre-existing attitudes. counterarguments. Inoculation Effect: Primacy Effect: Information ○ Strengthening pre-existing presented first has the most attitudes by exposing people influence. to weak opposing arguments. Recency Effect: Information Applications of Persuasion presented last has more influence if time has passed. Advertising and Marketing: ○ How persuasion techniques -How the Message is Communicated: The are used to sell products. medium of delivery. Political Campaigns: Active Experience vs. Passive ○ Strategies for influencing Reception: Engaging in the process voter attitudes. versus just hearing the message. Health Campaigns: Personal Influence: Messages ○ Messages aimed at changing conveyed by people versus media. health-related behaviors. Media Effects: The comparative power of print, radio, and TV media. Ethical Concerns -The Audience: Who receives the message? The ethical implications of using Age: Younger people are more persuasion to manipulate or susceptible to persuasion. deceive audiences. Need for Cognition: A personality trait indicating preference for thinking critically. Resisting Persuasion: -Attitude Inoculation: Exposing people Resistance to Persuasion to weak arguments builds resistance to stronger ones. Reactance Theory: ○ People react against threats to their freedom by asserting their independence.