Sociology Review Guide PDF

Functionalism ​ Posits that any differences in wealth, power, and resources in the social structure are justified, inevitable, and useful for two reasons: 1.​ People are inherently unequal in their value or functional significance to society (e.g., uniqueness, scarc...

Functionalism ​ Posits that any differences in wealth, power, and resources in the social structure are justified, inevitable, and useful for two reasons: 1.​ People are inherently unequal in their value or functional significance to society (e.g., uniqueness, scarcity, aptitude skills). 2.​ Society must motivate the most qualified individuals to utilize their talents in the most “important” ways. Deviance in Functionalism ​ Norms, regulations, and institutions of power act as collaborative organs that organize and direct social life based on the survival and cohesion of society. ​ Deviance is behavior that violates social norms but serves critical societal functions: ○​ Clarifies societal values by showing what is unacceptable. ○​ Promotes social change by highlighting flaws in norms or systems. ○​ Strengthens social cohesion by uniting members against deviant behavior. ​ Institutions enforce norms and laws to maintain the health and functionality of society. Essentialism ​ Attributes behaviors, traits, or differences to innate, stable, deterministic, and biological/physiological explanations. ​ Certain characteristics (e.g., behaviors, traits, social differences) are viewed as natural, fixed, and rooted in biology or nature. Functionalism vs. Essentialism ​ Essentialism assumes biological determinism and fixed traits. ​ Functionalism focuses on contextual adaptation and how traits or behaviors serve societal needs. Neoliberalism ​ Emphasizes that consumerism is the most important duty of citizens, individual freedoms trump public interests, and social issues should be addressed by the market or at the private level. ​ Core principles: ○​ Minimal state intervention. ○​ Unregulated markets as the most efficient way to allocate resources, drive innovation, competition, and growth. ○​ Privatization of public services (e.g., healthcare, education, utilities) to improve efficiency and reduce costs.  ○​ Reduction of public spending on social welfare programs, emphasizing fiscal discipline. ○​ Encourages open international trade and capital flows to benefit all participants. ○​ Promotes self-reliance and personal responsibility, reducing the role of collective solutions or state-supported safety nets. ○​ Focus on austerity measures disproportionately affects low-income populations, exacerbating systemic inequality. Sociological Imagination ​ Introduced by C. Wright Mills, explores the relationship between structural, political, or economic issues and personal troubles to identify the hidden processes shaping our lives. ​ Encourages us to: ○​ Make the familiar strange and the strange familiar by critically assessing phenomena taken for granted. ○​ Connect personal troubles (e.g., unemployment) with systemic factors (e.g., economic recessions, automation, inequality). ​ Example: Viewing gender roles as shaped by centuries of social and historical evolution, rather than as natural phenomena. Grounded Theory ​ A qualitative methodology critical for interpretive studies, where theoretical explanations emerge from data rather than being predefined. ​ Core features: ○​ Avoids ethnocentrism: Researchers must use participants’ meanings and perspectives rather than imposing external interpretations. ○​ Focuses on emergent theoretical explanations, built iteratively through constant comparisons of data. ○​ Commonly used in pilot studies, where little prior theorizing exists. ​ Example: A study on workplace dynamics lets participants highlight significant themes like "trust" or "conflict," rather than starting with predefined categories. Structural Determinism ​ Suggests that an institution’s original design, intent, processes, language, and culture inherently shape its ongoing functions and outcomes. ​ Barriers to change: ○​ Institutions like policing or incarceration resist reform because they were not designed to prioritize the needs of marginalized groups. ○​ Reform efforts often fail, leading some to advocate for abolitionist approaches (e.g., prison abolition or defunding police).  ​ Example: Systems like courts and media require substantial financial, cultural capital, and time, making change inaccessible to many marginalized groups. Radical/Conflict Views ​ Focuses on how power, institutions, and society influence individuals, highlighting macro-level structures and inequalities. ​ Emphasizes inequality, exploitation, and the ways dominant groups maintain control over resources and decision-making processes ​ An individual’s actions, opportunities, and even consciousness are shaped by their position within larger systems of power and inequalities ​ Key points: ○​ Society is characterized by ongoing struggles between groups with conflicting interests, often divided by class, race, or gender. ○​ Individual actions, opportunities, and consciousness are shaped by larger systems of power and inequality. ​ Example: access to education, healthcare, and social mobility Constructivism ​ Argues that phenomena and categories are socially constructed and demand certain behaviors. ○​ Example: Gender is a construct—society defines “masculine” or “feminine,” and individuals conform to these roles. Situationism ​ Behavior is shaped more by environmental factors than by a person’s traits or motivations. ​ Social cues, cultural norms, and immediate circumstances have the strongest influence ​ Highlights the micro-level impact of situational variables on behavior. ○​ Example: Stanford Prison Experiment showed how roles and settings influence individual actions. Choice Paralysis & Paradox of Choice ​ Choice Paralysis: Overwhelmed by options, leading to inaction or poor decisions. ​ Paradox of Choice (introduced by Barry Schwartz): ○​ Having more options reduces satisfaction and increases stress. ○​ Decision-making zaps energy, and the belief in finding a “best” option often leads to regret. Homophilic Reproduction  ​ People hire, promote, and socialize with those deemed similar, perpetuating hegemonic leadership and reducing diversity. ​ Homophily: the preference for associating with similar others→perpetuates existing norms, values, and power structures ○​ Minority authority figures are critical for challenging biases and promoting inclusivity. Contact Hypothesis ​ Positive intergroup interactions reduce prejudice and foster mutual understanding and critical thought ○​ Example: Workplace diversity programs encourage collaboration and challenge biases. Social Contagion ​ Behaviors, emotions, or symptoms spread spontaneously within groups. ○​ Example: Facebook mood study showed emotional contagion through social media posts→exposure to positive or negative posts influenced posts Cumulative Advantage/Disadvantage ​ Coined by Robert K. Merton (1968): ○​ Advantage begets more advantages (e.g., "the rich get richer"). ○​ Small initial differences can compound into significant disparities. Rituals ​ Serve to unify groups and reinforce collective identity; deindividuation process (Durkheim’s "collective effervescence"). ○​ Example: camaraderie in sports stadium, fervor in a political rally. ​ Zerubavel perspective on rituals: rituals are designed to obscure, naturalize, and legitimate the mental segmentations constituting “reality” into discrete chunks; reaffirm segmentation of time into weeks, months, and years ○​ Example: national holidays, ceremonies. Social Control ​ Mechanisms for maintaining normative compliance: ○​ Formal Sanctions: Rules enforced by authorities (e.g., police, courts). ○​ Informal Sanctions: Social practices to regulate behavior (e.g., microaggressions, gestures, reputational damage). Deviance, Crime, and Recidivism  ​ Deviance: Violating social norms; varies across cultures and contexts. ​ Crime: Deviant behaviors that violate laws, categorized as: ○​ Malum in se: Inherently wrong (e.g., murder). ○​ Malum prohibitum: Wrong due to prohibition (e.g., jaywalking). ​ Recidivism: Reverting to criminal behaviors after intervention. Collective Conscience & Social Cohesion ​ Collective Conscience (Durkheim): Shared societal values and norms, without which, groups fear dissolving into chaos ​ Social Cohesion: Bonds that unify communities, supported by shared identity and rituals; describes the strength of social bonds and sense of social connectedness Anomie ​ (Theorized by Durkheim) A sense of aimlessness or despair resulting from breakdowns in societal norms; often occurring during periods of rapid social change or instability ○​ Example: Economic crises leaving individuals disconnected from collective values. Stigma & Labeling Theory ​ Stigma: Negative labels that alter self-conception and social interactions. ​ Labeling Theory (Howard Becker): Labels are internalized and shape self-identity and behavior over time ○​ Individuals don’t commit crimes→society defines what constitutes a crime and then labels a transgressor accordingly Stereotype Threat ​ Situational anxiety about confirming negative stereotypes; primes self-doubt and anxiety which diverts cognitive resources and reduces performance ○​ Example: Girls scoring poorly on math tests after being reminded of stereotypes. Broken Windows Theory ​ Disorder signals permissiveness, encouraging further deviance. ○​ Example: Graffiti in neighborhoods fosters a sense of lawlessness. Strain Theory ​ Coined by Robert Merton:  ○​ Deviance arises when societal goals (e.g., wealth) conflict with limited opportunities (e.g., education). Deterrence Theory ​ Crime results from rational calculations of risks versus rewards. ○​ Punishments must be swift, certain, and severe to deter behavior. Later Entrapment ​ Individuals enter the justice system through minor offenses and face escalating challenges that perpetuate criminalization. Street & White-Collar Crimes ​ Street Crimes: Visible offenses (e.g., violence, theft); overemphasized in media. ​ White-Collar Crimes: Professional offenses (e.g., fraud); less visible but more damaging financially. Municipal Violations & Bail ​ Municipal Violations: Non-criminal infractions leading to fines or corrective actions. ​ Bail: Disproportionately affects low-income individuals unable to secure release. WEEK 2 Zerubavel—Islands of Meaning ​ Social life is segmented into "chunks" through language, rituals, and categorization, shaping reality. Interest Convergence ​ Critical analysis of societal change, emphasizing whose interests are served by these shifts. ○​ Assata Shakur critiqued Abraham Lincoln, arguing his stance on abolition prioritized the Union over Black liberation. ○​ Example: Lincoln stated, "My paramount objective in this struggle is to save the Union...not either to save or destroy slavery." ​ Changes align when powerful interests mutually benefit, suggesting activists may find more success by aligning objectives with institutional priorities. Psychological Operations (PSYOP) ​ Methods to influence opinions, emotions, and behaviors for the objectives of powerful entities. ○​ Utilized in military, propaganda, or political campaigns. ○​ Strategies involve evoking fear, trust, or loyalty via media and cultural messaging. ○​ Example: Wartime messages aimed at lowering enemy morale. Industry Plant ​ Celebrities believed to gain fame through wealth, nepotism, or connections rather than talent. ○​ Often presented as authentic to maintain relatability and fan loyalty. Scandal Processes ​ Scandals unfold in predictable stages: ○​ Protected/Contained: Known only to victims or insiders. ○​ Latent: Becomes an "open secret." ○​ Activated: Leaks or shifts bring the issue to public light. ○​ Institutional Denial: Organizations downplay or deny involvement. ○​ Amplification: Media attention grows, increasing public scrutiny. ○​ Commodification: Profits generated from documentaries, books, and news. Non-Disclosure Agreement (NDA) ​ Contracts ensuring confidentiality between parties by restricting information sharing. Catch and Kill ​ Media outlets acquire exclusive rights to a story, suppressing its publication through threats, legal actions, or quid pro quo deals. Morality Clauses ​ Contracts requiring specific behavior standards, with violations potentially resulting in fines or termination. ○​ Common in entertainment, sports, and business. Showmance ​ Romantic relationships between co-stars, often seen as publicity stunts. Scotty Bowers ​ WW2 veteran who facilitated Hollywood’s clandestine sexual networks, connecting sex workers with elites. ○​ Participant in Dr. Alfred Kinsey’s research, bridging academia and the sexual revolution. ○​ Highlighted how elites maintain public personas while shielding their private activities from consequences. Controlled Images ​ Degrading depictions that subjugate marginalized groups, particularly women of color, to reinforce social hierarchies. ○​ Examples: ​ "Jezebel": Hypersexualized Black women. ​ "Dragon Lady": Manipulative Asian women. ○​ Reflect and reproduce systemic inequality through media and institutions. ○​ Ineffective to replace controlling images with positive ones without addressing their function. Social Closure Processes ​ Practices drawing boundaries to monopolize resources for dominant groups. ○​ Examples: Gerrymandering, laws, or credentialing. Michel Foucault (1926–1984): Power and Disclosure ​ Power is both repressive and productive, shaping identities, norms, and societal truths. ○​ Operates through discourse, defining what is considered "normal." ○​ Power identifies limits and possibilities of various identity categories, and people then understand themselves within them ○​ Enforces norms through surveillance and self-regulation. ​ Society maintains order through schools, media, medicine, and surveillance→shapes how people think ​ Knowledge is shaped by power→reinforces power structures (schools, hospitals, prisons, and science create truths that justify their authority) ​ Panopticism: constant surveillance of prisoners→self-discipline due to fear of being observed (i.e. cameras, phone tracking, workplace monitoring) ​ Power not as a top-down system but embedded Bio-Governmentality  ​ Combines governmentality and biopolitics to examine how institutions regulate populations. ○​ Subtle: Advertising body ideals. ○​ Severe: Policies controlling health behaviors. ○​ Example: Media shaping norms around fitness or parenting, health campaigns, economic policies (loans, retirement funds), educational curricula ○​ Other examples→Eugenics, one child policies, hysteria diagnosis, criminal justice system dangers Zerubavel—Islands of Meaning ​ Social life is segmented into discrete chunks (time, spaces, identities) through language and rituals. ○​ Framing Mechanisms: ​ Diagnostic Framing: Identifies issues and root causes. ​ Prognostic Framing: Proposes actionable solutions. ​ Motivational Framing: Inspires collective action Framing Resonance and Diffusion ​ Resonance: Frames succeed when credible, consistent, and relevant to audiences. ○​ Example: Climate activists showing evidence of rising temperatures. ​ Diffusion: Frames spread through media, cultural artifacts, or direct interactions. Framing resonance: Benford and Snow (1988) ​ Frames vary in terms of their efficacy with securing a sense of relatability, mobilizing support, and/or influencing change ​ Credibility and relative salience (emotional connection) interact 1)​ Frame consistency: congruence between beliefs claims, and actions; inconsistent messaging undermines trust and reduces resonance 2)​ Empirical credibility: aligns with people’s lived experiences or verifiable facts 3)​ Credibility of the frame’s experts, articulators or claims-makers: status, knowledge, persuasiveness, data presented, etc. ○​ Diagnostic Framing: Identifies problems and root causes. ○​ Prognostic Framing: Suggests solutions and implementations. ○​ Motivation & Collective Action Framing: Inspires individuals to act Pivotal Moments ​ Focus on how educators and institutions can effectively transmit academic skills, resources, and networks to students lacking cultural capital during their upbringing. ○​ Bridging gaps for disadvantaged students by providing mentorship, resources, and guidance.  ○​ Example: First-generation college students receiving mentorship to navigate higher education systems. Cultural Capital ​ Social assets that facilitate upward mobility in society, encompassing cultural, objectified, embodied, and erotic forms rather than economic resources. ○​ Embodied Capital: Knowledge, habits, language proficiency, etiquette, confidence. ○​ Objectified Capital: Physical objects or cultural goods such as books, art, or technology. ○​ Institutionalized Capital: Formal credentials, qualifications, or recognitions. ○​ Erotic Capital: Attractiveness, charm, and sexual desirability. ○​ Privileges stem from familiarity with dominant norms, networks, and language, which enable favorable outcomes in education, healthcare, or labor markets. ○​ Example: Performing hegemonic attractiveness often garners positive returns in dating or career contexts. Ontological Shock ​ A profound disorientation caused by experiences that fundamentally challenge one’s beliefs, assumptions, or worldview, compelling a reevaluation of prior understandings. Overton Window ​ Framework illustrating the range of acceptable discourse or policies within mainstream populations at a given time and place. ○​ Spirited discussions are tolerated within these bounds, but topics outside the window are often deemed radical or unacceptable. UFOlogy ​ Historical discourse on phenomena and mass sightings, consistently documented across cultures. ○​ Diana Pasulka suggests most religious/spiritual doctrines involve narratives of humans interacting with non-human intelligence or beings from another realm (often the sky). ○​ Cultural variations influence how these narratives are expressed and endorsed by societies. ○​ Decline in "magical thinking" since the 1600s due to the rise of science, positivism, and empiricism during the Age of Enlightenment/Reason. Modern UFOlogy in America  ​ Gained prominence in 1947 after the Roswell incident in New Mexico, where a reported crash was later attributed to a weather balloon. ​ Resurgence in the 1960s with the rise of sci-fi pop culture, New Age spiritual movements, and growing interest in conspiracy theories (e.g., those involving JFK). ​ In 1987, journalist George Knapp published articles about Bob Lazar, John Lear, and Area 51, further fueling UFO discourse. ​ Recent popularity reflects renewed interest in UFO disclosures, New Age beliefs, hallucinogenic drugs, and witch/bruja subcultures. ​ Government disclosures focused on airspace/national security, with less emphasis on political transparency or citizen rights. ○​ Christopher Mellon argued these disclosures aimed to destigmatize the topic to encourage witnesses to report experiences, benefiting national security. ​ Public skepticism persists due to stigmas tied to mental illness and conspiracy theories, limiting broader acceptance in academia and society. UFO/UAP Projects: Secrecy and Shifts ​ Terminology evolution: ○​ UFO: Unidentified Flying Object, associated with extraterrestrial speculation and stigma. ○​ UAP: Unidentified Aerial Phenomena, reframing the topic for scientific neutrality. ○​ USO: Unidentified Submerged Objects, accounting for underwater sightings. ○​ Trans-Medium Objects: Describing phenomena capable of seamless movement through air, water, and space. ​ Project Names: ○​ Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL): Early defense-related research. ○​ Advanced Aerospace Weapons System Application Program (AAWSAP): A Defense Intelligence Agency program studying UFO phenomena. ○​ Bigelow Aerospace Advanced Space Studies (BAASS): Partnered with AAWSAP using private-sector resources. ○​ Air Force Office of Special Investigations (AFOSI): Investigates incidents with national security implications, including UAPs. ​ Secrecy through private-sector intermediaries: ○​ Robert Bigelow received government funding to study UFOs, ensuring a layer of separation from public oversight. ○​ Private contractors shielded projects from Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests, avoiding transparency requirements. ​ Black Budgets: ○​ Senators Inouye and Stevens facilitated classified appropriations (black funds) to covertly finance AAWSAP and AATIP. ○​ These funds supported sensitive operations under the guise of national security, avoiding public disclosure in government records or budget reports. Intersectionality ​ Examines the interconnectedness of social identities (race, gender, class, sexuality) and the systems of oppression/domination that shape individual experiences and societal structures. ○​ Highlights the multiplicity of experiences with oppression, which vary in configuration and intensity based on unique combinations of identities. ​ Multiplicity of Experience: No single identity (e.g., race, gender, class) can fully explain an individual's experience. ○​ Identities intersect, creating unique dynamics of privilege and oppression. ○​ Example: No two individuals with intersecting identities experience privilege or marginalization in identical ways. ​ Interrelated and Compounding Systems: ○​ Patterns of oppression (e.g., racism, sexism, classism, homophobia) are not independent but interwoven, operating through societal institutions such as education, healthcare, legal systems, and the economy. ○​ Reinforces structural inequalities, perpetuating systemic domination. ​ Matrix of Oppression: Coined by Patricia Hill Collins, this concept illustrates how overlapping axes of inequality (e.g., race, gender, class) collectively shape experiences of domination and subordination within a broader power hierarchy. ​ Gendered, Racialized, and Classed Institutions: ○​ Recognizes that all individuals and institutions are shaped by systems of identity markers. ○​ These structures embed systemic oppression into societal institutions (e.g., schools, workplaces, healthcare, legal systems), normalizing and reproducing inequalities over time. ○​ Institutional Analysis: Highlights how design, norms, and practices perpetuate inequality. Critical Race Theory (CRT) in Education and Media Literacy ​ Focuses on the intersection of race, identity, and systems of oppression in education and media. ○​ Encourages a critical reading of entertainment media to uncover racism, sexism, and classism in portrayals of people of color. Five Elements of CRT: 1.​ Intersectionality of Race and Racism: ○​ Analyzes how intersecting identities (e.g., race, gender, class) influence media representations. 2.​ Challenge to Dominant Ideology: ○​ Critiques cultural narratives that present inequality as natural or merit-based. 3.​ Commitment to Social Justice:  ○​ Advocates for dismantling systems of oppression and promoting equity, inclusion, and representation. 4.​ Certainty of Experiential Knowledge: ○​ Elevates the voices and perspectives of people of color as central to understanding systemic racism. 5.​ Transdisciplinary Perspective: ○​ Draws from multiple disciplines (e.g., sociology, history, law, media studies) to provide a holistic understanding of systemic inequality. Looking Politics, Oppositional Gaze, and Black Female Spectatorship ​ Bell Hooks (1992): Introduced the Oppositional Gaze, emphasizing resistance against harmful media depictions, particularly of Black women. Encourages active critique and rejection of stereotypical portrayals to promote agency, resistance, and self-love. ​ Punishment for Looking: Historically, Black Americans were punished for “looking,” symbolizing a denial of agency and the right to observe or critique. Cinema provided one of the first opportunities for Black audiences to “look,” but media often reinforced racist and sexist stereotypes. ​ Harmful Representations in Media: ○​ Underrepresentation: Black individuals are often excluded or tokenized in mainstream media. ○​ Misinterpretation: Distorted portrayals of Black experiences perpetuate misconceptions. ○​ Stereotypes: Media reinforces narratives of subordination and negative self-conceptions. ​ Independent Black Media: Emerged as a response to reclaim narratives and present authentic representations of Black individuals and communities. ​ Critical Awareness: Hooks stresses the importance of analyzing media to understand: ○​ Purpose: Reinforcing white supremacy. ○​ Implications: Reaffirming subordination and perpetuating systemic oppression. ​ The Oppositional Gaze: ○​ A politically charged framework for resistance. ○​ Challenges internalized stereotypes and empowers marginalized viewers to critique media. ○​ Frames “looking” as a deliberate act of power and self-affirmation. ​ Differences in the Gaze: ○​ Black Men: Able to enter an “imaginative space of phallocentric power” that mediates racial negation. ○​ Black Women: Experience intersectional oppression and face compounded challenges tied to race and gender. ​ Key Takeaway: Media functions as a tool to uphold white supremacy, but critical engagement with these representations can foster resistance and empowerment. Oppositional Gaze (Bell Hooks, 1992)  ​ Encourages resistance against internalizing harmful depictions by critically analyzing and rejecting them. Positions "looking" as an act of power, agency, and self-love for marginalized audiences, particularly Black women. ​ Critical Media Literacy Similarities: While similar in purpose, the Oppositional Gaze centers specifically on Black female spectatorship, highlighting their unique experiences of oppression and agency in media consumption. ​ Historical Context: ○​ Punishment for Looking: Historically, Black Americans were penalized for looking, symbolizing a denial of their right to critique or observe. Cinema offered one of the first spaces where Black audiences could “look,” though this space often perpetuated racist and sexist stereotypes. ○​ Media’s Harmful Effects: ​ Underrepresentation: Black individuals were systematically excluded or tokenized in media. ​ Misinterpretation: Black experiences were distorted, reinforcing systemic oppression. ​ Stereotypes: Negative portrayals reaffirmed subordination and shaped self-perceptions. ​ Independent Black Media: Emerged as a response to systemic exclusion, reclaiming narratives and creating authentic representations of Black lives. ​ Intersectionality of the Gaze: ○​ Black Men: Can occupy an “imaginative space of phallocentric power” that mediates racial negation. ○​ Black Women: Face compounded challenges tied to race and gender, experiencing unique forms of oppression in media portrayal. ​ Key Takeaway: The Oppositional Gaze serves as a politically charged framework that empowers marginalized viewers to challenge stereotypes, resist systemic oppression, and affirm their identity through critique and self-love. Aggrieved Entitlement ​ Definition: Describes the frustration and resentment of hegemonic, privileged individuals who perceive societal shifts toward equality as a threat to their dominance or cumulative advantage. ​ Perspective on Equality: ○​ Privileged groups interpret equality as a loss of status or power, rather than fairness. ○​ Challenges to traditional power dynamics provoke feelings of entitlement to prior advantages. ​ Key Contexts: Observed in resistance to social progress, such as movements for gender equality, racial justice, and economic redistribution. Identity Work, Stigma Management, and Neutralization ​ Purpose: Individuals use identity work to navigate societal expectations and maintain self-concept when confronting stigma or social judgment. ​ Strategies: ○​ Distancing and Rejection Tactics: ​ Deflection: Shifting blame or negative attributes onto others within the same group to affirm superiority. ​ Boundary Work: Drawing distinctions between oneself and others to reinforce personal identity and social boundaries. ○​ Embracement: ​ Acceptance and Pride: Affirming a stigmatized identity and framing it as a strength. ​ Examples: Reclaiming stigmatized labels or using stigmatized identities as sources of pride and resistance (e.g., activism or community building). ○​ Fictive Narrative: ​ Storytelling or Embellishment: Shaping one’s narrative to cast their identity in a more favorable or empowering light. ​ Aggrieved Entitlement Connection: ○​ Individuals may use distancing and fictive narratives to justify entitlement or deflect challenges to their privilege, framing themselves as victims of unjust systems. Stigma Distancing ​ Definition: Discourses used to preserve a positive sense of self by implying that one’s ascribed or social identity does not align with their personal identity. ​ Purpose: Allows individuals to distinguish or elevate themselves from certain stigmatized identities or groups. ​ Examples: ○​ Entire Identity/Population: "I am not a bum." ○​ Role Within a Population: "I am houseless but at least not a beggar or dumpster diver." ○​ Sector or Type Within a Population: "I am houseless but sober…this is only temporary." ○​ Related Institutions: "I’m houseless but don’t rely on Salvation Army or state aid." ​ Associated Strategies: ○​ Boundary Work: Drawing distinctions between oneself and others in the same group. ○​ Defensive Othering: Deflecting negative stereotypes onto others within a group to preserve self-esteem. Stigma Embracement  ​ Definition: Discourses that affirm alignment between one’s ascribed identity and personal identity, often reframing a stigmatized label as a source of pride. ​ Purpose: Reclaims stigmatized identities and offers a self-justifying rationale for acceptance. ​ Types: ○​ Identity/Population Embracement: Reclaiming stigmatized identities (e.g., "Sex work is work"). ○​ Role-Specific Embracement: Pride in a specific skill or identity within a stigmatized group (e.g., strippers, dommes). ○​ Associational Embracement: Connecting oneself to a community role (e.g., entrepreneur, educator, activist). ○​ Ideological Embracement: Aligning with broader ideologies or movements (e.g., feminist or queer advocacy, framing work as explorative and autonomous). Cover/Cover Story ​ Definition: A legitimate profession or purpose used to conceal stigmatized, illegal, or covert activity. ​ Purpose: Provides credibility and obscures the true nature of underlying activities. ​ Function: ○​ Creation of a believable narrative or persona to maintain secrecy. Front ​ Definition: A business serving as both a cover story and a mechanism to hide or launder illegally obtained money. ​ Examples: ○​ Restaurants, bars, casinos, or stores used to: ​ Obscure illicit activities. ​ Conceal financial transactions. ​ Facilitate money laundering. ​ Enhance secrecy. Geographic Compartmentalization and Distancing ​ Definition: A stigma/identity management strategy where individuals restrict certain activities to specific areas, often far from where they live or work. ​ Purpose: ○​ Prevents overlap between personal and professional identities. ○​ Ensures anonymity and reduces the risk of discovery by primary social circles. ​ Key Use: Preserves separation between covert or criminal identities and daily life. Concealment and Selective or Full Disclosure  ​ Definition: A strategy where individuals control how much information they disclose about themselves and to whom. ​ Spectrum: ○​ Full Concealment: Total secrecy about one’s activities or identity. ○​ Selective Disclosure: Sharing limited details with specific individuals. ○​ Full Disclosure: Complete openness about one’s identity or activities. ​ Purpose: ○​ Balances privacy and self-protection with maintaining relationships or achieving specific goals. Double Slit Experiments ​ Electrons are self aware, know when they are being observed, and the process of merely observing it leads to behavior change→speaks to the idea of conformity and behaving a certain way under social pressures ​ Particles behave like little balls of matter: When you randomly shoot marbles at a screen through a single slit, they create a single band on the screen. Adding a second slit would logically produce two identical bands. ​ Waves behave differently: Waves passing through a single slit radiate out, creating a line of light where the intensity is highest in line with the slit. However, with two slits, waves create an interference pattern—some peaks amplify while others cancel each other out—resulting in multiple bands. ​ Electrons exhibit unexpected behavior: ○​ When fired as a stream through one slit, electrons act like particles, forming a single band. ○​ Through two slits, electrons produce an interference pattern, similar to waves, even though they are tiny bits of matter. ○​ When fired one at a time, they still create the interference pattern, defying expectations. ​ Wave-particle duality: A single electron starts as a particle, transforms into a wave of potential, goes through both slits, interferes with itself, and then hits the screen as a particle. ○​ Mathematically, the electron goes through all slits and none simultaneously. ​ Role of observation: When a measuring device is placed near one slit to observe the electrons: ○​ The interference pattern disappears, and two bands form instead, as if the electrons only went through one slit. ○​ The act of observation "collapses the wave function," meaning the electron behaves as a particle and "decides" to act differently when it knows it's being watched. ​ Significance: This experiment bridges the understanding of classical physics and quantum physics, raising questions about: ○​ What matter truly is ○​ How observation influences reality  ○​ The mysterious relationship between the observer and quantum phenomena. The experiment demonstrated that measuring a quantum system fundamentally alters its behavior, a key insight into quantum mechanics. Asch Conformity Experiments ​ Solomon Asch (1950s): Explored the power of conformity in group settings using confederates and line-length judgments. ​ Setup: ○​ A group of participants (one real participant, surrounded by confederates) was shown a series of lines and asked to determine which line matched the length of a reference line. ○​ Confederates deliberately gave incorrect answers, testing if the real participant would conform. ​ Findings: ○​ Participants often changed their correct answers to align with the group, demonstrating the influence of consensus reality on individual judgment. ○​ Highlights how social pressure can lead individuals to abandon their own beliefs or perceptions. ​ Key Question: Under what conditions will someone compromise their own judgment to fit in? ​ Mainstream example: "12 Angry Men" portrays a jury initially conforming to a majority opinion before one juror's dissent leads to reconsideration. ​ Implications: Demonstrates the profound effects of social conformity on decision-making. Milgram Shock Experiments ​ Stanley Milgram (1961, Yale University): Investigated obedience to authority figures. ​ Setup: ○​ Participants ("teachers") were instructed to administer increasingly severe electric shocks to a "learner" (a confederate) when the learner gave incorrect answers. ○​ The learner's pain was simulated through pre-recorded screams. ​ Findings: ○​ Most participants complied, even administering shocks they believed to be fatal, despite hearing screams of pain. ○​ Few participants questioned the authority or refused to continue. ​ Significance: ○​ Demonstrates the power of authority in compelling individuals to act against their morals. ○​ Reveals how social hierarchies and obedience can lead to harmful behaviors. Stanford Prison Experiment ​ Philip Zimbardo (1971): Studied the psychological effects of perceived power in a simulated prison environment. ​ Setup: ○​ College students were randomly assigned roles as guards or prisoners in a mock prison. ○​ Guards were given authority, uniforms, and minimal instructions, while prisoners were stripped of individuality. ​ Findings: ○​ Guards exhibited abusive behaviors, while prisoners became submissive and distressed. ○​ Highlights the Lucifer Effect: Situational factors, not stable personality traits, can compel ordinary people to commit harmful acts. ​ Critiques: ○​ Ethical concerns: Extreme psychological harm to participants. ○​ Researcher effects: Zimbardo's involvement may have influenced findings. ○​ Selection bias: Participants attracted to the experiment may have been predisposed to certain behaviors. ​ Key Insights: ○​ Situationism: Institutions and roles exert more influence on behavior than inherent personality traits. ○​ Deindividuation: Uniforms and roles reduce personal accountability and social identity. Duncan Watts’ Online Music Labs ​ Duncan Watts (2000s): Demonstrated how social influence shapes preferences. ​ Setup: ○​ Thousands of participants were randomly assigned to listen to and rate songs under varying conditions: ​ Some groups received no information about popularity. ​ Others were shown download or like counts. ​ Findings: ○​ Social feedback heavily influenced preferences; participants favored songs perceived as popular. ○​ Decisions were not independent but shaped by capitalist, technological forces, and social control. ​ Cumulative Advantage: Builds on Robert Merton’s concept—popular entities gain disproportionate credit and recognition. Facebook’s Mood and Feed Manipulation Experiments ​ Facebook (2014): Conducted an unconsented experiment on emotional contagion.  ​ Setup: ○​ 0.5 million users were unknowingly exposed to manipulated content: ​ Some saw more positive posts. ​ Others saw more negative posts. ​ Findings: ○​ Users' moods shifted based on the emotional tone of their feeds. ○​ Demonstrates emotional contagion: feelings can spread through social networks without direct interaction. ​ Implications: ○​ Highlights ethical concerns around consent and manipulation by large corporations. ○​ Reveals the potential for mass emotional influence through digital platforms. What are some reasons why deviants are inevitable within any society, and may actually be beneficial?​ Answer: ​ Deviance is inevitable because societal norms cannot accommodate every individual's behavior, and norms evolve over time. ​ Deviants challenge norms and promote social change (e.g., civil rights movements). ​ They help society clarify moral boundaries and strengthen collective values. ​ Sociological theories like Durkheim’s suggest deviance is a normal part of functioning societies, serving as a mechanism for innovation and adaptation. Why does labeling theory indicate that individuals can only come to be regarded as deviants and criminals through social interaction processes? What role might stereotype threat play within this dynamic?​ Answer: ​ Labeling theory argues that deviance arises when society labels an individual or group as such, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy. ​ Stereotype threat occurs when individuals internalize societal stereotypes, potentially leading to behaviors consistent with those stereotypes, further reinforcing deviant labels. How does Conley distinguish between street crimes and white-collar crimes? What differs within the framings of these social problems—especially with regards to prevention—and what implications may this have?​ Answer: ​ Street crimes: Violent or property crimes typically associated with lower socioeconomic groups. Prevention often involves punitive measures like increased policing. ​ White-collar crimes: Financial or corporate crimes by higher-status individuals, often addressed through regulatory mechanisms. ​ Implications: White-collar crimes are often perceived as less severe despite causing significant harm, reflecting class biases in how society frames and prevents crime. What main points are made about municipal violations, fines, and bail within the Formal Control Mechanisms lecture?​ Answer: ​ Municipal violations (e.g., traffic fines) disproportionately impact marginalized groups, leading to cycles of debt and legal entanglement. ​ Excessive fines and high bail amounts can trap individuals in the system, exacerbating inequality. ​ Efforts to reform these systems highlight issues like cash bail inequities and reliance on fines for municipal revenue Onion Article: ​ Brendan accepts society's determination that his privilege is deserved, reasoning there must be a valid justification for it. ​ He benefits from financial security, routine deference from others, and freedom from discomfort or want. ​ Brendan has faith that society has acted fairly in granting him advantages, such as: ○​ A relatively privileged upbringing in a safe neighborhood. ○​ Quick approval of loan applications. ○​ Easy access to job interviews through minimal effort (e.g., a few phone calls). ○​ The benefit of the doubt in most aspects of life. ​ He believes these privileges are the result of conscious, collective decisions made by others, and he does not feel it is his place to question them. ​ Brendan does not feel threatened by law enforcement and enjoys educational and professional advantages. ​ He concludes that social institutions have inherent disparities for a purposeful reason, trusting that someone would have addressed them if they were truly unjust. ​ Brendan presumes others do not deserve the same personal, professional, and financial advantages he has had, rationalizing his privilege as natural or earned. ​ He acknowledges that he is not the only one afforded a “fast track to professional advancement” but doubts the system will ever change, believing this pattern has persisted across generations. Introduction and Purpose Tara Yosso’s article explores the pervasive negative portrayals of Chicanas/os in entertainment media and how these depictions perpetuate deficit-based narratives. These narratives blame marginalized communities for their own socio-educational challenges, ignoring the systemic barriers they face. Using Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Paulo Freire’s critical pedagogy as frameworks, Yosso presents critical race media literacy as a pedagogical tool to challenge these harmful representations and promote social justice. The study described in the article involved a critical media literacy curriculum implemented among Chicana/o community college students. This curriculum aimed to raise critical consciousness by analyzing how race, class, and gender oppression intersect in media portrayals, and it encouraged students to critically examine these representations and their real-world impacts. Deficit Discourse and Media’s Role Yosso begins by identifying the problem: entertainment media often link race and cultural characteristics to failure, portraying Chicanas/os and other marginalized groups as less capable and less successful than white individuals. These portrayals align with traditional social science theories that attribute educational and social disparities to cultural deficits rather than systemic inequities. ​ Racialized Notions in Media: ○​ Media representations often depict Chicanas/os as unmotivated, involved in criminal activity, or otherwise inferior. For example, Hollywood films frequently show white individuals as educational and professional success stories, while portraying Chicanas/os as struggling or failing due to cultural shortcomings. ○​ Stereotypes such as the "bandido," "cholo," and sexualized Chicana perpetuate negative perceptions and microaggressions, reinforcing structural racism and inequality. ​ Media as an Educator: ○​ Borrowing from Carlos Cortés, Yosso emphasizes that media functions as part of a “societal curriculum,” shaping beliefs, values, and attitudes. Entertainment media serves as a subtle yet pervasive educator, often reinforcing systemic racism through repeated imagery. Theoretical Framework Yosso applies Critical Race Theory (CRT) to analyze and challenge the racism embedded in entertainment media. CRT’s five key tenets inform her approach: 1.​ Intercentricity of Race and Racism: Focus on the central role of race and racism in intersecting forms of subordination. 2.​ Challenge to Dominant Ideology: Question the cultural deficit explanations often used to rationalize inequality. 3.​ Commitment to Social Justice: Seek to dismantle systemic oppression. 4.​ Centrality of Experiential Knowledge: Value the lived experiences of marginalized groups as critical sources of knowledge. 5.​ Transdisciplinary Perspective: Draw insights from various academic disciplines to challenge oppressive structures. Paulo Freire’s concepts of literacy and critical consciousness also underpin Yosso’s framework. Freire advocated for “reading the world” alongside “reading the word,” encouraging students to connect textual analysis with an understanding of their social and political realities. He identified three stages of consciousness:  ​ Magical Consciousness: Inequality is attributed to fate or divine will. ○​ Belief that inequality is caused by forces beyond their control (i.e. fate, luck, divine will) ○​ View societal problems as unchangeable, leading to resignation and passivity ​ Naïve Consciousness: Inequality is blamed on individuals or cultural factors. ○​ Individuals start to recognize inequality but attribute it to personal, cultural, or community flaws rather than systemic or structural factors, leading to internalized blame and efforts to assimilate into dominant cultural norms ​ Critical Consciousness: Inequality is understood as a systemic issue, prompting efforts to change the structures causing it. ○​ Individuals recognize the social, economic, and political systems that perpetuate oppression and begin seeking collective solutions to address these issues ​ Naive-critical Consciousness: transitional phase where individuals oscillate between naive and critical consciousness; recognizing some structural causes of inequality but still rely on individualistic solutions and partially internalize societal blame ○​ Example: “I see how society discriminates against us, but if I work hard enough, I can show everyone that Chicanas/os are capable of succeeding.” The Critical Media Literacy Curriculum The study implemented a critical media literacy curriculum at a California community college, engaging 35 Chicana/o students. The program consisted of two sessions designed to examine media portrayals of Chicanas/os and their socio-educational impacts. Session 1: Media and Social Science Theories ​ Students participated in group discussions analyzing scenarios of unequal academic achievement and segregation in education. These discussions introduced four dominant social science theories explaining Chicana/o educational outcomes: 1.​ Genetic Determinism 2.​ Cultural Determinism 3.​ School Determinism 4.​ Societal Determinism ​ Students then watched clips from films like The Substitute, Dangerous Minds, and 187, which depicted Chicanas/os in stereotypical, often negative roles. They reflected on the connections between these portrayals and the theories discussed. Session 2: Critical Media Literacy Principles ​ A mini-lecture outlined key concepts of media literacy, such as: ○​ Media images are constructions. ○​ Media is driven by profit motives. ○​ Mediamakers bring their personal biases and experiences. ○​ Viewers interpret media through their own lived experiences.  ​ Students analyzed stereotypical portrayals of Chicanas/os in additional films, such as Treasure of the Sierra Madre and Duel in the Sun, focusing on characters like the “bandido,” “cholo,” and sexualized Chicana. Discussions contextualized these images historically and culturally, exploring their societal implications. Key Findings The curriculum had a significant impact on students, encouraging them to reflect critically on media portrayals and their own experiences. However, their responses highlighted both opportunities and limitations in their development of critical consciousness. 1.​ Confrontation: ○​ Students expressed anger and frustration upon recognizing the extent of negative stereotypes in media. Many had previously normalized these portrayals but were disturbed after seeing them contextualized. ○​ Some students verbalized a desire to “prove them wrong,” aiming to challenge these stereotypes through personal achievements. 2.​ Motivation: ○​ Negative portrayals inspired students to succeed academically and professionally, often as a way of countering societal perceptions. However, this motivation was largely individualistic, reflecting a naïve-critical consciousness. 3.​ Navigation: ○​ Students viewed individual effort as the primary means of overcoming systemic barriers, highlighting the persistence of deficit-based thinking even among those who recognized structural inequities. Broader Implications and Recommendations Yosso emphasizes the need for widespread implementation of critical media literacy in education and professional training. Key recommendations include: ​ Introducing media literacy education early (e.g., in elementary school) and continuing it throughout life. ​ Incorporating media literacy into the training of teachers, social workers, law enforcement, and healthcare professionals. ​ Centering the lived experiences of marginalized communities to ensure meaningful engagement with issues of racism, sexism, and classism. ​ Encouraging systemic approaches to dismantling structural inequalities, rather than solely focusing on individual achievements Conclusion Yosso’s critical race media literacy project demonstrates the power of education to challenge oppressive media narratives and inspire social change. While the curriculum fostered critical reflection among students, it also revealed the deep entrenchment of deficit-based thinking. By addressing these challenges, critical media literacy can serve as a transformative tool for raising consciousness and promoting equity. Why do stereotypes exist, according to Yosso? How does this relate to “controlling images” and “structural determinism”? ​ Stereotypes exist to reinforce systemic inequities and justify the subordination of marginalized groups ​ Perpetuated through media and social narratives, framing Chicanas/os and other communities as inherently deficient or incapable ​ Controlling images: refers to depictions in media and culture that dehumanize and stigmatize marginalized groups; these images serve to maintain existing power dynamics by shaping how society views these groups and how they view themselves ​ Structural determinism: emphasizes how societal systems and institutions are designed to perpetuate inequalities; through controlling images, stereotypes are embedded in these systems, making it difficult for marginalized groups to challenge their oppression; media plays a key role in normalizing these representations, effectively ensuring their continuation What concerns and limitations did Yosso express about the naïve-critical consciousness indicators among participants? ​ Concern that students often remained in a naive critical stage of consciousness, where they recognized systemic issues but continued to rely on individualistic solutions ​ Partial awareness limited their ability to fully engage in collective, systemic approaches to addressing inequality ​ Internalized oppression: participants often internalized stereotypes, feeling compelled to “prove them wrong” through personal achievements rather than addressing structural causes of inequality ​ Individualism and meritocracy: social ideologies promoting individualism and meritocracy shaped participants’ thinking, making them believe success could be achieved solely through personal effort ​ Media and institutional racism: long-term exposure to racist ideoloogies in media and institutions further reinforced deficit-based narratives, preventing a shift to critical consciousness ​ Feasibility of systemic change: participants often felt that changing societal structures was beyond their control, leading them to focus on personal actions that seemed more attainable What are functions of language – namely with how they relate to culture, interaction, meaning-making, and framing? Language serves as a tool for cultural transmission, social interaction, constructing meaning, and shaping how issues are framed. It influences perception and is essential for maintaining or challenging societal norms. Why are expertise and empirical studies essential for influencing how social problems and potential solutions are framed? Expertise and empirical evidence lend credibility, help identify root causes, and guide the development of practical, evidence-based solutions. They also counter misinformation and enhance public and policymaker trust. Why might entertainers be useful/successful within politics or intelligence/military/police operations? Entertainers possess strong communication skills, public influence, and charisma. These traits can be effective in swaying opinions, building trust, and disseminating propaganda or strategic messaging. Why is Hollywoodland’s formation and early history crucial to understand, particularly according to structural determinism? ​ Key factors: ○​ Economic and Geographical Factors: Hollywoodland’s establishment was influenced by its access to oil revenue, favorable climate, diverse topography, and strategic proximity to railroads and ports. These conditions made it ideal for year-round filming and versatile settings. ○​ Institutional Alliances: Hollywood benefited from municipal alliances that provided support and infrastructure, anti-union policies that favored studio control, and media containment strategies that centralized content production. ○​ Financial Incentives: The lack of strict financial regulations allowed studios to operate with low accounting transparency, which helped solidify their control over the industry during its formative years. ​ Structural Determinism: ○​ Structural determinism emphasizes how economic, technological, and institutional systems shape and constrain the development of industries. Hollywoodland’s rise illustrates how external forces, such as capitalism, labor policies, and emerging technologies, directed its growth toward serving political and economic interests. ○​ The early structures created by these forces—vertical integration, control of labor, and domination of cultural narratives—continue to influence Hollywood’s role in global media and culture. TRUE OR FALSE – A main point of lecture regarding Coach Ted Lasso's experiences in England is that constructions of space, time, identities, and groups can significantly differ even between societies/cultures which speak the same language  ​ Coach Lasso's experiences in England humorously emphasize these contrasts, such as the differing terminology, rules of soccer (football), and cultural norms, showcasing the challenges and misunderstandings that can arise in cross-cultural interactions. Students' emphases on individualistic solutions are understandable for many reasons – but some explanations for why the participants in Yosso’s study exhibited aspects of naive-critical consciousness include: ​ Lack of access to these kinds of curricula, reflecting internalized oppression ​ Social ideologies of individualism and meritocracy ​ Long-term exposures to racist ideologies within society, institutions, and media ​ Individuals feel like this kind of approach is within their control and more feasible than changing an entire system The Origins of Hollywood 1.​ Early Foundations: ○​ Hollywood began as a small agricultural community founded in 1887. It was incorporated into Los Angeles in 1910 to access the city's water supply and infrastructure. ○​ Its name, "Hollywood," is said to have been inspired by a developer’s vision or a type of bush found in the area. 2.​ Filmmakers Flee to California: ○​ Early 20th-century filmmakers sought to escape Thomas Edison’s Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC), which controlled the use of film equipment in New Jersey and New York. ○​ California offered three major advantages: ​ A warm, sunny climate that allowed for year-round production. ​ Diverse natural landscapes that could double as sets for different environments. ​ The physical distance from Edison’s reach, which enabled filmmakers to use unlicensed equipment freely. Hollywood’s Emergence as the Film Capital 1.​ Birth of the Film Industry: ○​ By the 1910s, production companies began settling in Hollywood. Major studios like Universal, Paramount, and Warner Bros. emerged during this period. ○​ Silent films were the norm, with stars like Charlie Chaplin and Mary Pickford gaining immense popularity. 2.​ Transition to the Studio System: ○​ The 1920s saw the establishment of the studio system, a vertically integrated model where studios controlled production, distribution, and exhibition. ○​ Studios like MGM, Fox, and RKO dominated, cultivating stars and producing films on assembly-line schedules.  ○​ This period also marked the introduction of the “star system,” where actors were marketed as glamorous and aspirational figures. The Golden Age of Hollywood 1.​ The 1930s–1950s: The Apex of the Industry ○​ Known as the Golden Age, this era saw Hollywood solidify its cultural dominance. ○​ Films like Gone with the Wind (1939), Casablanca (1942), and The Wizard of Oz (1939) became cultural landmarks. ○​ Genres like musicals, Westerns, and screwball comedies thrived, with major stars like Humphrey Bogart, Katharine Hepburn, and Clark Gable emerging. 2.​ Technological Innovations: ○​ The introduction of synchronized sound revolutionized cinema with the release of The Jazz Singer (1927), signaling the end of silent films. ○​ The 1930s and 1940s introduced Technicolor, enhancing storytelling with vibrant visuals, as seen in films like The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938). 3.​ Censorship and the Production Code: ○​ The Hays Code, implemented in the 1930s, regulated content in films to align with moral standards. Topics like explicit violence, sexuality, and drug use were heavily censored. Hollywood’s Challenges and Transformations 1.​ Economic and Social Shifts: ○​ The Great Depression led to declines in movie attendance, prompting studios to create escapist entertainment like musicals and comedies. ○​ During World War II, Hollywood contributed propaganda films and morale-boosting content for both domestic and international audiences. 2.​ Decline of the Studio System: ○​ The 1948 Supreme Court ruling in United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. declared studio control of theaters an illegal monopoly. This decision dismantled the studio system, ending vertical integration. ○​ The rise of television in the 1950s posed a significant challenge, drawing audiences away from cinemas. 3.​ Reinventing Hollywood in the Post-Studio Era: ○​ The 1960s and 1970s saw a wave of independent filmmaking and auteur-driven projects. ○​ Films like Easy Rider (1969) and The Godfather (1972) reflected a more experimental, socially conscious approach. Cultural Icons and Landmarks 1.​ The Hollywood Sign:  ○​ Originally reading “Hollywoodland,” the sign was erected in 1923 to advertise a real estate development. Over time, it became synonymous with the film industry. 2.​ Walk of Fame: ○​ Established in 1960, the Hollywood Walk of Fame celebrates influential figures in entertainment, with stars embedded along Hollywood Boulevard. Modern Hollywood 1.​ Global Influence: ○​ Hollywood today remains the global epicenter of the film and television industries. Its reach extends worldwide through international markets and collaborations. ○​ The digital age has brought about new storytelling techniques, including CGI and streaming platforms like Netflix and Disney+. 2.​ Diversity and Challenges: ○​ Hollywood has faced growing demands for diversity and representation, both in front of and behind the camera. ○​ Movements like #MeToo and Time’s Up have pushed for accountability in addressing sexism, racism, and inequality within the industry. 3.​ Economic Impacts: ○​ The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted traditional film production and distribution, accelerating the rise of streaming services as dominant players in entertainment. Key Themes in Hollywood’s Evolution 1.​ Structural Determinism: ○​ Hollywood's development was shaped by larger economic and social forces, including capitalism, technological advancements, and global conflicts. ○​ Its rise to power is as much a story of industrial strategy as it is of artistic innovation. 2.​ Symbolism of Hollywood: ○​ Hollywood serves as a symbol of dreams and aspirations, but it also reflects broader societal issues, such as inequality, exploitation, and cultural hegemony. How do neoliberal/state understandings about redemption differ from radical/critical views? What kinds of factors account for which perspective somebody might endorse? ​ Neoliberal/State Understandings: Emphasize individual responsibility, personal transformation, and "earning" redemption through specific, measurable actions like participation in programs or displays of remorse. Redemption is framed as adherence to institutional norms and societal expectations, often with a punitive or transactional undertone. ​ Radical/Critical Views: Focus on systemic factors, structural inequalities, and collective accountability. Redemption is seen as part of a broader effort to dismantle unjust systems, emphasizing that transformation is not solely individual but also collective and societal.  ​ Factors Influencing Perspectives: Personal experiences (e.g., interactions with the justice system), socioeconomic background, political ideology, and education level often shape whether someone endorses neoliberal or radical understandings. Why are government officials more likely to endorse neoliberal views? How does this perspective influence their decisions related to parole, sentencing, or the death penalty – thus also sometimes allowing for political factors to affect such outcomes? ​ Endorsement of Neoliberal Views: Government officials often align with neoliberal views because these emphasize law and order, individual accountability, and maintaining the legitimacy of state power. These frameworks also align with voter expectations in “tough on crime” environments. ​ Influence on Decisions: Neoliberal perspectives prioritize punishment and deterrence over rehabilitation, which can lead to harsher sentencing, limited parole opportunities, and support for the death penalty. Political considerations, such as appearing "tough on crime," also weigh heavily in these decisions, sometimes overriding evidence of reform or redemption. What rationales did Arnold Schwarzenegger - the Governor of California in 2005 – suggest in order to explain why he chose not to halt the execution of Stanley “Tookie” Williams? Schwarzenegger denied clemency for Stanley "Tookie" Williams in 2005, citing: ​ A lack of explicit remorse for the crimes he was convicted of. ​ Doubts about the sincerity of his transformation. ​ The symbolic weight of adhering to the rule of law and the justice system’s decisions. ​ He also highlighted Williams' authorship of writings dedicated to gang leaders, suggesting lingering connections to gang culture. Why might someone believe that nothing Williams could have possibly said or done would change the opinions of people who supported his execution - nor would they ever accept his claims of rehabilitation, atonement, remorse or “redemption”? ​ Supporters of Williams’ execution might have held unshakable views due to: ○​ Deep-seated beliefs in retributive justice, where punishment is seen as the ultimate moral reckoning. ○​ Skepticism about the authenticity of his rehabilitation efforts, fueled by racial bias or media portrayals. ○​ Political or social pressures that prioritize punitive measures over acknowledgment of personal transformation. What is the “loophole” within the language of the 13th Amendment that in part accounts for ongoing mass incarceration? How might this serve economic functions in particular – rather than just punishing someone and restricting their liberty? ​ The 13th Amendment abolished slavery "except as punishment for a crime," allowing forced labor in prisons. ​ Economic Functions: This loophole supports systems of mass incarceration by providing cheap or unpaid labor for private corporations and government projects. It transforms prisoners into a commodified labor force, perpetuating profit-driven motives within the prison-industrial complex. How does the concept of structural determinism help us to understand the American media as well as its prison system? ​ Structural Determinism: The concept that institutions and systems are designed to reinforce existing power dynamics and societal hierarchies. ​ Media: Often portrays crime and punishment in ways that justify mass incarceration, promoting fear and dehumanization of marginalized groups. ​ Prisons: Operate within economic and social systems that prioritize control, profit, and exploitation over rehabilitation and justice. Activist, programming, and environmental improvement efforts within state prisons are usually funded by taxes/governmental resources. What advantages are there with the recent shift at Donovan Prison towards relying on donations from non-profits and community members? ​ Advantages of Non-Profit Reliance: ○​ Greater flexibility in funding specific programs that align with rehabilitation goals. ○​ Community involvement fosters a sense of shared responsibility and investment in inmates' success. ○​ Reduces reliance on limited government budgets, potentially allowing for innovative programming. Why are institutional changes more likely to be implemented – and to succeed - when they appeal to some kind of interest convergence (i.e. a "win-win scenario" for multiple parties)? How might this concept be reflected within the unique new program developed at Donovan Prison? ​ Interest Convergence: Change is more likely when it aligns with the interests of multiple stakeholders (e.g., taxpayers, officials, inmates). ​ At Donovan Prison: Programs that reduce recidivism can save costs, improve public safety, and provide rehabilitative benefits, creating a win-win scenario for all parties. Restorative Justice refers to a justice model which facilitates safe dialogues between victims, perpetrators/offenders, next of kin, and/or community members. This approach emphasizes repairing harm, empowering victims, enhancing mutual understanding/healing/closure, confronting root causes of the wrongdoings, and potentially even transforming unjust systems - including those which focus on punishment. Empirical studies indicate that mutually consensual/voluntary engagement within restorative justice processes often increases the victim's satisfaction with outcomes and overall wellbeing - as well as the offender's accountability, empathy, and desistance. ​ Why might restorative justice continue to be supported by only a relatively small proportion of Americans? ○​ Restorative justice remains relatively niche due to: ​ Cultural emphasis on retributive justice and punishment. ​ Public skepticism about its effectiveness in severe or violent crimes. ​ Lack of widespread education and awareness about its benefits. ​ What sorts of contexts/factors do you think could reduce the effectiveness of restorative justice? ○​ Factors Reducing Effectiveness: ​ Coercion: If participation is not fully voluntary, the process loses its transformative potential. ​ Insufficient Preparation: Without adequate support for both victims and offenders, dialogues may fail to achieve understanding or healing. ​ Power Imbalances: Structural inequalities (e.g., race, class) can undermine equitable participation. ​ Lack of Resources: Effective restorative justice requires trained facilitators, funding, and support systems, which may not be available in all contexts. NEOLIBERALISM: emphasizes that consumerism is the most important duty of citizens, individual freedoms trump public interests & social issues should be addressed by the market or at the private level. Furthermore, each person is solely responsible for all of their own decisions & outcomes. RADICAL/CONFLICT VIEWS: focus on how power, institutions & society influence an individual; structural determinism CONTACT HYPOTHESIS: positive intergroup contacts reduce prejudice– but can also enhance one’s sense of civic responsibility & critical/radical thought. ESSENTIALISM: Suggests there are innate, deterministic, and physiological differences between groups. Examples of essentialist theories related to criminology include phrenology and atavism. PHRENOLOGY: A framework by Franz Joseph Gall in 1796 that dates back to Hippocrates of Kos (460–370 BC). Now regarded as pseudoscience, it posits that character, thoughts, behaviors, and emotions can be attributed to specific areas of the brain. Thus it proposes essentialist and deterministic understandings which are centered on neurological factors. ATAVISM & THE BORN CRIMINAL: During the 1870s, Italian physician/criminologist/eugenicist Cesare Lombroso posited that criminals are distinct due to multiple physical anomalies, and represent a “savage,” primitive or subhuman type of person. While other “physical stigmata” were identified, most of these “anomalies” focused on the cranium and face. RECIDIVISM: when one reverts to criminal behaviors TOTAL INSTITUTION: fully immerses & controls every aspect of life among individuals within them; highly routinized activities/schedule within the same location and under single authority; mandated heterogeneity & erasure of “self” yet individuals will still often find ways to maintain a sense of self – especially through identity talk; compels widespread compliance, degradation & helplessness; overall breads down individuals and shapes every part of their daily life in ways that serve institutional goals; examples include prisons, military programs, and psych wards STRUCTURAL DETERMINISM: institution’s' design, intent, processes, language & culture shape its functions/outcomes NIMBYISM: objecting to something when it occurs within the area they live or among individuals they are close with GANG DROP OUT “DEBRIEFING” PROCESS: California prisons have policy mandates which stipulate that Miranda legal warnings should not be given during debriefs, so that any information obtained will only be used administratively – meaning that it cannot serve as evidence for criminal prosecutions. The main purpose of a debrief is to obtain sufficient verifiable information from the individual about their gang involvement, which adversely impacts the gang and violates general codes of silence. The state views debriefing somewhat as proof that someone has genuinely given up gang membership, and to help ensure that no gang will ever accept them as an associate or member again. Hence, debriefs are technically not for the purpose of acquiring incriminating evidence against the individual or their peers, and thus no immunity is granted in these instances. Afterwards, staff usually has some obligation to place the inmate in protective custody and/or enhance their safety from retaliation through other practices. However, certain instances such as the controversial experiences of Rene “Boxer” Enriquez demonstrate that both California elected officials and prison staff do not always abide by their duties to keep dropouts who debrief in protective custody– nor did they follow through with agreements they made in exchange for Enriquez’s cooperation as an informant later McCann 2014 - Neoliberal & Radical Imaginations Stanley “Tookie” Williams”: co-founder of the Crips gang ​ Executed in 2005 despite global advocacy for clemency ​ Two contrasting frameworks of redemption shaped the discourse around Williams’ life, activism, and execution 1)​ Neoliberal redemption: emphasizes individual responsibility, personal transformation, and adherence to state-sanctioned norms; argues that individuals must renounce their past, show remorse, and comply with institutional expectations to be considered “redeemed” ​ Many supporters framed his transformation within a neoliberal lens; arguing that he was proof of personal change (e.g. anti-gang activism, Nobel Prize nominations, public service) ​ Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger rejected this reasoning→claiming Williams refused to fully “atone” for his crimes, especially since he didn’t explicitly admit guilt or cooperate with authorities 2)​ Radical redemption: frames redemption as not just individual transformation but also a critique of systemic oppression and White supremacy ​ Williams acknowledged his past mistakes but refused to conform to the state's expectation of “proper redemption”, as he maintained his innocence for the crime he was convicted of ​ Refusal to snitch or debrief on gang activity was seen not as defiance but as an act of resistance against a system that criminalizes and exploits Black communities ​ Mumia Abu-Jamal viewed William’s execution as a deliberate move to silence a powerful Black voice advocating against mass incarceration ​ December 13, 2005→Williams was executed at San Quentin State Prison ○​ Schwarzenegger justified his decision by arguing: ​ Williams had not explicitly apologized for the murders he was convicted of ​ His dedications in his book to figures like George Jackson and other Black activists was problematic, as these individuals are associated with radical political movements ​ His refusal to debrief on gang activity suggested he was still loyal to gang culture ​ Redemption is contingent on adherence to state expectations rather than personal or community transformation ​ Themes: ○​ Capital punishment as a legitimizing force for the state: affirmed the legitimacy of capital punishment itself; reinforced the idea that some people are permanently irredeemable ○​ White supremacy and the prison system: prison-industrial complex is tied to racial control and economic exploitation; gang involvement was a byproduct of systemic inequalities, including poverty, deindustrialization, and police brutality; mass incarceration (like slavery and Jim Crow laws) before it, serves as a mechanism to control Black communities ○​ Redemption as a political tool: the neoliberal framework of redemption serves state interests by making individuals take full responsibility for their actions without acknowledging structural oppression while radical redemption  acknowledges both personal and collective accountability (challenging the legitimacy of state power) ○​ 13th amendment loophole: abolishing slavery except as a punishment for crime; justified forced labor in prisons, making mass incarceration a source of economic exploitation; in CA, incarcerated individuals work for as little as $0.08-$0.15 per hour, often with fees deducted from their wages ○​ Media as a reinforcer: dehumanizes prisoners and depict them as irredeemable to rationalize incarceration; state and corporate interests benefit from maintaining these narratives, ensuring public support for punitive policies ○​ Endorsing neoliberal views: state officials endorse neoliberal views because they justify the existing power structures and allow political considerations to influence parole, sentencing, and executions; restorative justice, which emphasizes dialogue, accountability, and community healing remains underutilized because it contradicts the retributive model that dominates the justice system; activism and policy change are more likely to succeed when they align with interest convergence–meaning they must appeal to multiple stakeholders (e.g., reducing recidivism saves taxpayer money) The Gang Debriefing Process: A Tool of State Control In California’s prison system, debriefing is the formal process through which an incarcerated person renounces their gang affiliation and provides intelligence to authorities. It is often a requirement for: 1.​ Gaining parole – Many parole boards view debriefing as proof that an individual has genuinely abandoned gang life. 2.​ Avoiding prolonged solitary confinement – The California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (CDCR) has historically placed alleged gang members in Security Housing Units (SHUs), often for decades, unless they agreed to debrief. 3.​ Being transferred to safer housing – After debriefing, inmates are supposed to be placed in protective custody to shield them from gang retaliation, though in practice, protections are often inadequate. Debriefing is controversial for several reasons: ​ False Information & Coercion – Inmates desperate to escape long-term solitary confinement may fabricate information about others just to meet debriefing requirements. ​ Ongoing Retaliation Risks – Even after debriefing, inmates may face reprisals from gangs, as well as neglect or betrayal by prison authorities. ​ Surveillance & Entrapment – Some critics argue that debriefing does not genuinely dismantle gang structures but instead creates informants, allowing law enforcement to infiltrate gangs more deeply while still maintaining cycles of incarceration. Williams’s Refusal to Debrief: A Political and Ethical Stand Stanley "Tookie" Williams categorically refused to debrief, despite knowing that his life was at stake. His refusal was not merely personal but deeply political. He denied involvement in the murders for which he was convicted and refused to provide information about other gang members. The radical imagination of redemption views this decision as a form of resistance—a refusal to legitimize a system that disproportionately imprisons Black and Brown people under the guise of public safety. Why Williams Rejected the Debriefing Process 1.​ It Would Have Empowered the State to Incarcerate More Black People ○​ Williams believed that law enforcement already unjustly targeted Black communities and that debriefing would help fuel more mass incarceration. ○​ He saw how gang enforcement efforts disproportionately criminalized Black youth, often branding them as gang members based on neighborhood, social ties, or minor infractions. 2.​ The State Would Have Executed Him Regardless ○​ Even if he had debriefed, Williams doubted that it would have changed the state's decision to execute him. ○​ His execution was symbolic—a way for California to assert its power over Black men who defied its authority. 3.​ It Would Have Undermined His Message to At-Risk Youth ○​ By refusing to cooperate with a system he saw as corrupt, Williams maintained credibility among young people in marginalized communities. ○​ He wanted to reach at-risk youth on his own terms, not as an informant for the same system that criminalized them. Neoliberal Redemption: Why the State Rejected Williams The neoliberal model of redemption requires individuals to demonstrate transformation through cooperation with state authority. This means: ​ Confessing past wrongdoing in a way that aligns with the state’s version of events. ​ Denouncing one’s past self publicly and participating in approved rehabilitation programs. ​ Contributing to law enforcement efforts, often by debriefing or informing. Williams met some of these requirements—he wrote anti-gang books, renounced violence, and mentored youth—but because he refused to debrief and maintained his innocence, the state viewed him as insufficiently redeemed. Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger’s clemency rejection specifically cited Williams’s refusal to admit guilt and the dedications in his books to Black revolutionaries like George Jackson as reasons for proceeding with his execution. Radical Redemption: A Challenge to the Prison-Industrial Complex In contrast, the radical imagination of redemption sees transformation not as obedience to the state but as resistance to oppressive systems. Under this framework: ​ Williams’s refusal to debrief was a rejection of the state’s power over him. ​ His activism was an alternative form of atonement, reaching at-risk youth outside of state institutions. ​ His execution was not justice, but rather an assertion of state control over Black bodies. This perspective aligns with abolitionist critiques of the prison-industrial complex, which argue that mass incarceration is a modern extension of racialized social control. Broader Implications: Debriefing, Capital Punishment, and Mass Incarceration 1. The Role of Debriefing in Sustaining Mass Incarceration ​ Debriefing does not dismantle gangs; it expands police surveillance and feeds cycles of imprisonment. ​ People desperate to escape solitary confinement may fabricate or exaggerate gang affiliations of others, leading to false imprisonments. 2. Political Calculations in Parole, Sentencing, and Executions ​ Politicians often align with "tough on crime" policies because they benefit from public fears of crime. ​ Executing Williams sent a message that redemption outside state-sanctioned channels is invalid. 3. The 13th Amendment Loophole: Slavery by Another Name ​ The 13th Amendment abolished slavery, except as punishment for a crime. ​ This loophole allows prisoners—many of whom are disproportionately Black and Brown—to be exploited for low-wage or unpaid labor. ​ Debriefing feeds into this system, as it ensures a steady supply of incarcerated workers under the guise of gang control.