Sociology PDF

1. Organisational Behaviour Employability Employment may be: a) Employed (a de nite or inde nite contract) b) Underemployment (work that does not utilise the full potential of the employee) c) Underground economy (income unreported to the government)...

1. Organisational Behaviour Employability Employment may be: a) Employed (a de nite or inde nite contract) b) Underemployment (work that does not utilise the full potential of the employee) c) Underground economy (income unreported to the government) + tax avoidance Types of employment: a) Profession (white collar occupation including theoretical knowledge, code of ethics, and authority over clients) b) Self employed (earning a living without working for an organisation) The dual labour market: i) Primary labour market (provides extensive bene ts to workers - interesting work, high income) ii) Secondary labour market (provides minimal bene ts - low income, repetitive work) 3 types of orientations to work: 1) Instrumental Orientation (a job is a means to earn a living, rather than to enhance self ful lment) 2) Bureaucratic Orientation (work is seen as a central life interest which provides progressive career enhancement - ex: police force) 3) Solidaristic Orientation (work o ers rewards which go beyond money, satis es the a ective needs) Marxist perspective Alienation: rooted in capitalism (individuals shut o their brain) - Alienation from the product of their labour - Alienation from their own human potential - Alienation from their coworkers - Alienation from the nal product There is con ict at work, in the form of: - Low productivity - Absenteeism - Health and safety issues - Discrimination - Strikes HR management - The development of employees as the most valuable resource of the organisation to achieve business objectives - Integrated approach to HR Vertical integration: Link between HR strategy and practices Horizontal integration: Link between the various HR practices together 1 ff fi fl fi fi fi ff fi fi ff fi  Organisational Development De nition: The planning and implementation of programmes to improve e ectiveness and respond to change 3 E’s of management: (i) E ciency (ii) Economy (iii) E ectiveness Uniformity: - Standardisation: homogenisation of products - Common procedures Max Weber - Rationality - Rules - Regulations - Bureaucracy - Depersonalisation Functional vs Dysfunctional con ict Functional: encourages motivation, commitment, high quality of work, resolution Dysfunctional: sabotage, stress, low quality of work Perspectives of con ict: Unitary model: 1 source of leadership, 1 focus Pluralist model: Power is dispersed, less utopia and more stress Culture - The collective programming of the mind - Distinguishes members of one group from another - Human minds are created tabula rasa - blank slate Culture involves: Espoused values (the stated values and rules of behaviour in the organisation) Artefacts (physical surroundings, style, mission statements) 1) Power distance (members of organisation accept that power is distributed unequally) 2) Uncertainty avoidance (a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity) 3) Individualism vs Collectivism (extent to which individuals are integrated into groups) 4) Masculinity vs Femininity (countries may be assertive = masculine, caring = feminine) Force Field Analysis - A strategic tool used to understand what's needed for change - Lewin’s 3 step model: Unfreezing (prepare to make change) Changing (make the change) Refreezing (institutionalise any changes that have been made) Resistance to change: Logical (time required to adjust to new ways of doing these) Psychological (fear of the unknown, need for security) Sociological (opposing group values, political coalitions) 2 ff ffi fi fl fl ff  2. Industrial Societies The Industrial Revolution Industrial revolution: A set of economic, technological and social changes following the emergence of factories - Economic: Division of labour, e ciency - Technological: new machinery, steam power, mining - Social: changes in family structures Fernand Braudel ‘A History of Civilisations’ speaks about the Industrial Revolution: - End of 18th century, beginning of 19th century - Came about in 2 stages: a) Cotton industry (major growth in the cotton industry) b) Metal production (railways and increased use of iron) James Watt improved the steam engine (for steam power) used for production and transport (instead of human/animal strength) Industrialisation - The general process by which pre-industrial societies transform into industrial ones Pre-industrial: agriculture and handcrafts Industrial: factories, machinery, industry, mass production, consumption, urbanisation, class con ict The fathers of sociology: - August Comte: coined the term sociology - Karl Marx: con ict theorist (alienation) - Emile Durkheim: division of labour + anomie (social dislocation when change is too rapid) - Max Weber: rationalisation (erodes emotions) Industrialism Industrialism: An economic system based on mechanised industry Characteristics: Factories Mechanisation of products (large quantities) Division of labour Bureaucracy Urbanisation The Babbage Principle - Charles Babbage - Tasks should be fragmented into a skilled component (division of labour) Taylorism - Frederick Taylor (scienti c management movement) - Optimising and simplifying jobs, increases productivity - Standardisation of each operation Fordism - Henry Ford (developed the assembly line method) - In exible production process - Rigid hierarchal and bureaucratic management structures 3 fl fl fl fi ffi Division of labour: - Technological DOL: within a factory (subdivision of work) - Social DOL: divisions in society by class Durkheim rejects the idea that industrialism destroys social solidarity. Rather, he argues that stronger bonds are created. Social Integration and Social Solidarity Durkheim was interested in social solidarity (when individuals are successfully integrated into social groups). Industrialisation brought about organic solidarity 1) Mechanical Social Solidarity (traditional, small-scale societies - kin-ship and family networks) 2) Organic Social Solidarity (modern, advanced societies - people are self together by economic interdependence and recognition of other’s contributions) Durkheim viewed division of labour as positive, but also recognised the concept of anomie (social dislocation when change is too rapid). Anomie is a result of the failure of modern societies to move from Mechanic to Organic solidarity Urbanism First recorded city: Jericho, Palestine Cities were in areas of fertile land and agricultural surplus The fall of the Roman Empire initiated urban decline. The end of the Dark Ages prompted cities to tear down walls, allowing for more trade. Urbanisation The movement of the masses to cities to be close to factories Crowded cities (instead of villages) Social problems (poverty, pollution, homelessness) Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft - Ferdinand Tonnies - Gemeinschaft: Pre-modern towns Communities on kinship (family) Intimate relationships Value of ascription (assigned status) Homogenous culture - Gesellschaft: Modern industrial societies Professional relationships Value of achieved status Heterogeneous culture Tonnies views urbanisation as destructive of community. Chicago School - Focused upon issues of social order - Has 2 streams; urban ecology, and urbanism (i) Urban Ecology: analogy about plants (cities are developed near advantages features of the environment - competing for survival) (ii) Urbanism: weakens the bond of kinship 4  Capitalism An economic system of economic enterprise, based on market exchange Capitalist mode of production: Capital: any assed used to produce commodities Labour contract: exchange of labour for wages Production of commodities: sold in a competitive free market Pro t: appropriated by owners of capital Accumulation of capital: the process by which capitalism expands The Wealth of Nations By Adam Smith Considered the Capitalism Bible Capitalism revolves around a resource which is mobile, exible and can command factories, raw materials and machinery Capitalism was more dynamic than any preceding system of production Mercantilism Mercantilism Capitalism Dominant 16th to 18th century Dominant 18th century onwards Is now extinct Enjoys world-wide acceptance Believes economic prosperity can be achieved through Views wealth creation as the key to economic growth the extraction of wealth (from taxation, balance trade with other countries, and accumulation of national reserves) Advocates monopoly Supports a competitive business environment Counterpart of Political Absolutism - Counterpart of Liberal Democracy - improving state power at the expense of other states Promoting individual freedom (which led to peace) (which often led to war) Discourages extravagance of consumers (to prevent the Encourages consumer spending and enjoyment of life to out ow of money from the economy) the fullest (to make the economy grow) Pro t made from trading scarce products (ex: copper and Pro t made from rationalising production (Taylorism) silk) Little impact on society Great impact on society Mercantilism: Wealth extraction Capitalism: Wealth accumulation ‘The Invisible Hand’: The unobservable market force that helps the demand and supply of goods in a free market to reach equilibrium automatically Marxian Perspective Marx’s ideal economy would produce according to the directives from a central authority (not an invisible hand) and distribute resources according to the public’s needs. Marx focuses on social con ict: the struggle between segments of society over valued resources 5 fl fi fi fi fl fl  Dialectical change Hegel developed the idea of dialectical change. Thesis: a new idea, contrasts an; Antithesis: an opposing idea - the contrast between the 2 resolved into a; Synthesis: which leads to the start of a new thesis Marx’s view on Hegel’s idea is called dialectical materialism. Stages of Societal Development 1. Primitive communism 2. Ancient civilisation (master + slave) 3. Feudalism (landowner) 4. Capitalism (bourgeoise vs proletariat) 5. Socialism In a capitalist society, workers are: - Forced to work - Subjected to the demands of capitalists - Themselves, a commodity - Dehumanised by their jobs - Feel powerless Alienation Workers are alienated from: (i) Their productive activity (ii) The nal product (iii) Their fellow workers (iv) Their own human potential Ideology and False Consciousness Ideology: an integrative system of thought, which is opposed to fact and reason. The ideology of the ruling class are the ruling ideas. Camera obscura: The agents of ideology (ex: laws, religion) conceal the true nature of life False consciousness: A way of thinking which prevents a person from perceiving the true nature of their social or economic situation The end of the Dialectical Process Communism is the nal destination of the dialectical process. - Communal ownership - Classless society - Distribution of wealth according to needs - Contradictions have been resolved - Final harmonious synthesis - The end of history Weberian Perspective - One of Marx’s earliest critic - Argues that Marx ignores other types of inequality (such as gender or sexuality) - Rejects Marx’s economic determinism (non-economic factors have a ected social development) - Focuses on the impact of science and bureaucracy The Protestant Ethic - Capitalism developed in the West because of religion (Asceticism) - Asceticism: severe self-discipline and avoidance of indulgence - Puritan elements within Protestantism also arose in Christianity 6 fi fi ff Liberal Democracy Democracy: implies a system of rule by the people - Demos: people - Kratos: power Liberals, conservatives, socialists and anarchists are eager to proclaim the virtue of democracy to demonstrate their own democratic credentials Types of Democracy: a) Classical democracy (direct democracy i.e. self-government) b) Protective democracy (small government) c) Developmental democracy (broadening the scope of popular participation) d) People’s democracy (distribution of class power) e) Liberal democracy (representative democracy with 2 distinct features; liberalism and democratic rule Liberalism: - Distinction between State and civil society - Citizens rights - Safeguarding the right of individuals + minorities Democratic rule: - Representative democracy - indirect democracy - Universal su rage (everyone votes) - Elector choice (with a wide range of contending beliefs) The History of Liberal Democracy - 19th/20th century - Before, monarch was believed to rule by divine right L’etat c’est moi - I am the state - Liberal democracy lies in the centre of the political spectrum - Fukuyama: the emergence of liberal democracy = the end of ideology The collapse of communism - Prior to Gorbachev era, any threat to hegemony of the USSR, was met by repression - Stalin’s dissent was met by repression - Gorbachev’s Perestroika led to the disintegration of the USSR - which led to the fall of the USSR Fukuyama: Universal History - History has not ended because it collapsed, but because it has arrived to its nal purpose - Universal history: an attempt to nd a meaningful pattern in the overall development of human societies - Fukuyama traces the 1st universal histories to: (i) Christianity (concept of equality for all people and a shared nal destiny) (ii) German idealists (Kant’s idea of an endpoint) - Fukuyama argues that history can be understood as a sequence of stages of consciousness (for which the terminal point is self-consciousness) - Hegel’s end point: Liberalism - Marx’s end point: Communism Fukuyama’s theory is based on 2 arguments: (i) Economics (ii) ‘Struggle for recognition’ He admits to a weakness in his thesis: History cannot come to an end as long as science has no end. 7 ff fi fi fi Post-modernity (Foucalt, Baudrillard, Lyotard) Post modern societies: - Cultural and ideological con guration have replaced modernity - A new epoch in which we nd: Globalisation (economically, politically) Post-industrial (4th industrial revolution) Post-capitalist (technocratic power) Post enlightenment (relativist) Information societies Knowledge based economics (professionalism and occupational groups) Pre-modern societies: - Hunter gatherer, Feudal, ancient civilisations - The previous epoch in which we nd Non-industrial: handcrafts Non-capitalist: mercantilism only Non-urban, rural society Non-democratic: monarchs Slow social change Post modern societies depend less on manufacturing. Rise of new industries: production, consumption, leisure. Lee and Newby argued that societies were passing through a great transformation in the 18th and 19th century. They identi ed 4 main transformations: 1. Industrialism 2. Capitalism 3. Urbanism 4. Liberal democracy Modernisation The overall societal transformation from a premodern to a modern society - The Enlightenment - The Industrial Revolution - The French Revolution Concepts underlying modernity: Belief in human progress Believe if humans ability to share their own lives (not destiny) Belief in rationality (vs emotion) Belief in truth and science The 10 key elements of the Enlightenment: 1. Reason 2. Empiricism 3. Science 4. Universalism 5. Progress 6. Individualism 7. Toleration 8. Freedom 9. Uniformity of human nature 10. Secularism 8 fi fi fi fi  The French Revolution - More radical than the British revolution - More in uential than the American - Thus often called ‘The Revolution’ The ideals of the revolution were spread by Napoleon Goethe and Hegel supported Napoleon - They saw him as the soul of the world on horseback The French Revolution changed the way of doing politics, showed principles of Nationalism The 4th Industrial Revolution Klaus Schwab speaks of 4 industrial revolutions 1. Water and Steam power (for production + transport) 2. Electric power (mass production) 3. Electronics and information technology (the Digital revolution) 4. AI, robots, biotechnology The 4th industrial revolution will change what we do and who we are: Identity Ownership Consumption Work leisure balance (ex: cleaning robots) Health Relationships (ex: smartphones) It can bring about a lot of opportunities + threats: E ciency + productivity Economic growth Transportation and communication Quality of life + better healthcare Inequality (automation substitutes labour) Lack of privacy Terrorism Human augmentation The Communications Revolution - Mass media of communications - TV + internet - Bombardment of images The Enlightenment Project Postmodernists argue that the enlightenment has been abandoned. People no longer believe in: - Progress - Power of science - Rationalism - Optimism Criticism of Postmodernism - Trigg - Giddens - Bauman (Postmodernity exists due to capitalism, the poor su er and the rich bene t) - Beck 9 ffi fl ff fi  3. Business and Public Life Introduction Classifying sociological theories: - Classical theories: emerged late 19th century - Contemporary theories: contrast classical The 3 main sociological paradigms are: 1. Con ict Theory (Marx) 2. Functionalism (Durkheim) 3. Symbolic Interactionism (Weber) Con ict Theory - Class con ict theories - Race con ict theories - Gender con ict theories Marx was investigated the consequences of capitalism (the accumulation of capital) Work place can be seen as microcosms of the social con ict that characterises society. Functionalism - Durkheim conceived as a complex system - like organs working together to promote stability. - Social structures (family, education, religion, business) ful l their social function and contribute to society. - Emphasised the importance of the economy Symbolic interactionism - Society is the product of everyday social interaction - The actor interacts with his environment - Actions can be broken down into: (i) Rational action in relation to goal (ii) Rational action in relation to value (iii) Emotional action (iv) Traditional action Socialisation + Strati cation Socialisation: the process by which individuals acquire knowledge, language and skills to integrate into a community. - Primary socialisation (context of the family) - Secondary socialisation (other social institutions) Strati cation: the structures inequalities between individuals in di erent groups (race, gender, age, employment) - Society made up of ‘strata’ in a hierarchy - People in the same stratum share common characteristics There were 4 basic strati cations in history: 1) Slavery 2) Caste (people can do little or nothing to change their social standing) 3) Estates 4) Class 10 fl fl fi fl fl fl fi fi fl fi ff  Theorising Social Class Karl Marx - Capitalists vs proletariat Weber - Strati cation is a matter of not only class, but also status - Status: di erences between groups regarding prestige - Symbols of status: housing, dress, manners, occupation Types of class 1. Upper class (the elite, capitalists) 2. Middle class (secretaries, administrative occupations) 3. Working class (factory work, industrialisation) 4. The underclass (homelessness, long-term unemployment) Social mobility There are 4 types of mobility: a) Vertical mobility (moving up or down the socio-economic scale) b) Lateral mobility (migration) c) Intragenerational mobility (moving up/down the social scale in the course of their working lives) d) Intergenerational mobility (mobility across generations) 11 fi ff  4. Culture and Religion Culture: a set of beliefs, values, ideas and learned behaviours that human beings acquire as members of a particular society to adapt to their natural and social environment in which they live and also transform into it Cultural relativism (how we organise ourselves socially - clothes, food) Religion inspires culture, culture in uences religion Subjective interpretations of reality due to di erent cultures Religion: a complex social institution May be seen from 3 perspectives; con ict theory, functionalism, symbolic interactionism Con ict theory Religion perpetuates inequalities Opium of the people Accepting subordination Functionalism Social cohesion Social control A sense of purpose Symbolic interaction Religion is the result of the emergence of capitalism Calvinism encouraged hard work and discouraged indulgence Types of religions Theistic (the existence of one or more divinities) Ethical (living a good life free from evil - ex:buddhism) Magic: the belief in some form of supernatural powers Idolatry: the believe that something (not a supernatural) is the source of happiness of meaning of life Ex: money, glory, power - the richer I am, the happier I’ll be 12 fl fl fl ff 5. The State and Politics Planned economy: high state intervention Free market economy: minimal state intervention Political economic spectrums - USA left wing = liberals Favours government intervention Equal pay Equity - USA right wing = conservatives Laissez-faire approach Government regulations are harmful - Europe left wing Socialism/Communism Social democrats Green parties - Europe right wing Christian democrats Liberals Nationalism Political context and economic theories Keynesian economic theory - Dominant in Europe after WW2 - Used to stimulate national economies to restart again - State intervention Neoclassical economic theory - State does not interfere - Gave rise to neoliberalism Social and political movements Political parties (organisations whose main goal is to acquire power) Trade unions (association of workers to represent them) Associations of employers (association of employees) Social and political movements (organisation which aims to promote solutions) Interest groups (support candidates who are sympathetic to their goals) Liberal democracy -> Post democracy Parliamentary government: - Government is the executive of the parliament - Head of state is the president - Head of government is the prime minister Presidential government: - President is the government and head of state Post democracy: Colin Croch businesses try to in uence the political agenda by nancial political parties. 13 fl fi Gender Equality and the Labour Market Sex: physical characteristics Gender: social characteristics Some attribute quality to: - Having: access to material and immaterial goods - Doing: can do the same things as men - Being: values equally as men Types of Feminism - Liberal (campaigned against sexism and discrimination) - Marxist (capitalism is the root cause of gender inequality - Engels: capitalism intensi ed the patriarchy) - Radical (men bene t and are responsible for the exploration of women) Race and Ethnicity Race: based on physical traits Ethnicity: based on society and culture Prejudice: opinions and attitudes held by members of one group towards another Discrimination: the actual behaviour rooted in prejudice Institutional racism: racism pervades all institutions (police, healthcare) New form of racism: cultural racism Ethnocentrism: evaluation culture of others in terms of one’s own culture Group close: groups maintaining boundaries separating themselves from others Critical Race Theory CRT Theorists aim to transform unequal relationship between ethnic groups 14 fi fi  6. Work Identity, The family, work-life balance Work identity Bauman - Consumption emblem limitless reconstruction of self - Facilitates self-expression - Shift from the values of work ethic -> aesthetic consumption Ransome A uent societies enjoy complex consumption. - Simple consumption: ful ls basic needs - Complex consumption: ful ls non-essential needs and enables self expression Heelas - Work becomes more meaningful as it allows them to cultivate their identity The family Agrarian context - Numerous extended family - Producing household - Elder brothers/sisters took career of younger sisters Industrial context - Nuclear family - Usually composed of 2 members: 2 parents 2 children - Father bread winner, mother caregiver Post-industrial context - No typical family - Nuclear family is still common - Other types: single-parent, homosexual families - Children = economic burden Work-life balance High commitment - Men would accept long hours - Women had domestic responsibilities - Men ful lled the ideal requirements because women had unpaid work Finding the right balance - There is an increased preference for more symmetrical allocation - But women continue to remain primarily responsible for children (even in full-time employment) Overwork culture - Work is becoming invasive - Long hours - Emerging care de cit 15 ffl fi fi fi fi  6. Globalisation and Neoliberalism Globalisation - The increasing multidirectional ows of things, people, and information across the globe - Flow of information increasing our awareness of di erent cultures - We are more aware of what is happening around the world - Cultures in uence each other - Western culture, the dominant culture is advertised through social media, fashion, music, TV Neoliberalism - A type of liberalism which favours a global free market, no government regulation - Liberalism is a political philosophy - Neoliberalism is an economic philosophy - No state is purely neoliberal Transnational corporations - An organisation involved with the international production of goods or services or foreign trade Stage 1: Used to develop economic activities in the territory of the state Stage 2: Erected factories in clients’ territories, to avoid transportation costs Stage 3: Worldwide networks of labour Regional agreements Certain regions made trade agreements to liberalise their economies: - Europe: EU - America: North American Free Trade Agreements (NAFTA) - Asia: Asian Free Trade Agreement (AFTA) 16 fl fl ff 7. Economic Growth and Inequality Economic inequality is measured by the The Gini coe cient. Another indicator is in ation Categories of people to be at risk or economically deprived: - Children (Cannot work) - Women (Unpaid work) - Elderly (Pensions are less than salaries) - Minorities (Likely to have poor paying jobs) Poverty - Economic and material deprivation - Minimum level is called the poverty line - Each country uses di erent lines depending on appropriate levels of development - Primary needs (water, food, shelter), secondary needs (money to buy primary needs) Types of poverty: - Absolute poverty (lack of basic conditions to sustain a healthy existence) - lacking food, shelter clothing - Relative poverty (people living below the standards of living) - SOL varies between countries EU Statistics on income and living conditions (EU-SILC) A standardised compilation of statistics which measures 1. Income distribution 2. Relative poverty 3. Material deprivation (when a house cannot a ord 5 of the material deprivation items) 4. Social exclusion Some people may be responsive for their own poverty, and others may be due to unjust socioeconomic structures. Homeless people have no address no ID card, so they cannot open a bank account. Thus it is a dependency culture. 17 ff fl ff ffi  8. Migration and Multiculturalism Migration - Immigration: Italy to Malta - Emigration: Malta to Italy - Legal migration: movement to another country legally, - Illegal migration: not legal - Internal migration: movement of people within the same state Refugees and asylum seekers - Refugees: ee their homeland and seek refuge due to fear of persecution - Asylum seekers: has not been o cially recognised by the host country Multiculturalism Assimilation: - Immigrants abandon their customs and assimilate to those of locals - Thus we have a melting pot of culture Cultural pluralism - Ethnic groups are distinct but not equal 18 fl ffi